Jan Hus

Other names	John Hus, John Huss, or Jan Huss
Born	c. 1369 Husinec, Kingdom of Bohemia
Died	executed 1415 Konstanz, Bishopric of Constance, Holy Roman Empire
Era	Renaissance philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Hussite
Main interests	Theology
Influenced by John Wycliffe
Influenced John Wesley, Jerome of Prague, Martin Luther

Jan Hus (Czech pronunciation: [ˈjan ˈɦus] ( listen); c. 1369 – 6 July 1415), often referred to in English as John Hus or John Huss, was a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, Hus is considered the first Church reformer (living prior to Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli).

He is famed for having been burned at the stake for heresy against the doctrines of the Catholic Church, including those on ecclesiology, the Eucharist, and other theological topics. Hus was a key predecessor to the Protestant movement of the sixteenth century, and his teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe, most immediately in the approval for the existence of a reformist Bohemian religious denomination, and, more than a century later, on Martin Luther himself.^[1]

Between 1420 and 1431, the Hussite forces defeated five consecutive papal crusades against followers of Hus. Their defence and rebellion against Roman Catholics became known as the Hussite Wars.^[2] A century later, as many as 90% of inhabitants of the Czech lands were non-Catholic and followed the teachings of Hus and his successors.^[3]

Early life[link]

Hus was born in Husinec, Kingdom of Bohemia in 1369. He traveled to Prague at an early age where he supported himself by singing and serving in churches. His conduct was positive and his commitment to his studies was remarkable.^[4]

In 1393, Hus earned a degree of Bachelor of Arts from the University of Prague and he earned his master's degree in 1396. In 1400, he was ordained as a priest and became rector of the university in 1402–03. He was appointed a preacher at the newly built Bethlehem chapel around the same time. Hus was a strong advocate for the Czechs, and therefore the Realists, and he was influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe. Although many works of Wycliffe were proscribed in 1403 by the church, Hus translated Trialogus into Czech and helped to distribute it.^[4]

Career[link]

Hus took an active role in the movement for reform in the church by attacking the morals of clergy, episcopate, and papacy from his pulpit. Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc was lenient with Hus and appointed him as preacher to the biennial synod. On 24 June 1405, Pope Innocent VII, however, directed the archbishop to counter the heretical teachings of Wycliffe, especially the doctrine of impanation in the Eucharist. The archbishop complied by issuing a synodal decree against Wycliffe as well as any further attacks on the clergy.^[4]

In 1406, a document was brought by two Bohemian students to Prague bearing the seal of the University of Oxford and eulogizing Wycliffe. Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit. Zbyněk received a letter from Pope Gregory XII, in 1408, stating that the church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffe's heretical words and King Wenceslaus's sympathies for non-conformists. This prompted the king and the university to clear themselves of heretical suspicion. All writings of Wycliffe were ordered surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction and Hus obeyed declaring that he condemned the errors in these writings.^[4]

Papal schism[link]

The University of Prague around 1408 was being torn apart by the ongoing papal schism, in which Pope Gregory XII and Avignon Pope Benedict XIII both laid claim to the papacy. King Wenceslaus felt Pope Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor; thus, he renounced Gregory and ordered his prelates to observe a strict neutrality toward both popes, and said he expected the same of the university. Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory. At the university, only the "Bohemian nation" (one of four voting blocs), with Hus as its leader and spokesman, avowed neutrality.^{[citation needed]}

Kutná Hora[link]

At the instigation of Hus and other Bohemian leaders, King Wenceslaus issued a decree (while in the city of Kutná Hora) that the Bohemian nation should now have three votes (instead of one) in all affairs of the university, while the foreign nations (Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish) should have only one vote. As a consequence, somewhere between five thousand and twenty thousand foreign doctors, masters, and students left the university in 1409. This exodus resulted in the founding of the University of Leipzig, among others. Thus, Prague university lost its international importance and became only a Czech school. The emigrants also spread news of the Bohemian "heresies" throughout the rest of Europe. Archbishop Zajíc became isolated and Hus was at the height of his fame. He became a rector of the Czech university, and enjoyed the favor of the court. At around this time, the doctrinal views of the English theologian, John Wycliffe were becoming increasingly influential.^{[citation needed]}

Alexander V becomes Antipope[link]

In 1409, in an attempt to end the papal schism, the Council of Pisa met to elect a new pope. This did not succeed, and the pope they elected, Alexander V, did not end loyalty to the other two popes. The Roman Catholic Church now considers Alexander V an antipope. Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from King Wenceslaus, Archbishop Zajíc did the same. Zajíc then brought his complaints before Alexander V's Papal See, accusing the Wycliffites of ecclesiastical disturbances.

Excommunication of Hus[link]

Alexander V issued his papal bull of 20 December 1409, which empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism. All books of Wycliffe were to be given up, his doctrines revoked, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed before Alexander V, but in vain. All books and valuable manuscripts of Wycliffe were burned, and Hus and his adherents were excommunicated by Alexander V. Riots ensued in parts of Bohemia. The government took the side of Hus, and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel. The churches of the city were put under the ban, and the interdict was pronounced against Prague, but without result.^{[citation needed]}

Indulgences[link]

Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411, and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase, where the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance.

Crusade against Naples[link]

Antipope John XXIII succeeded Pope Alexander V after his death in 1410. In 1411, John XXIII issued a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of Gregory XII. This crusade was preached in Prague as well, and preachers of indulgences urged people to crowd the churches and give their offerings. This developed a traffic in indulgences that to some were a sign of the corruption of the church.

Condemnation of indulgences and Crusade[link]

Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis. It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, De ecclesia, and his treatise, De absolutione a pena et culpa. The pamphlet stated that no pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those that curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward, some of Hus's followers, led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burnt the Papal bulls. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists.^{[citation needed]}

Response[link]

In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles, but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling, requesting that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation; papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls, and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties.^{[citation needed]}

Attempts at reconciliation[link]

The king made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. It did not take place there, but in the palace of the archbishops at Prague, in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church, with Hus requiring that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This is wholly the doctrine of Wycliffe (Sermones, iii. 519, etc.).

There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me", Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results, but the King ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded approval of their conception of the Church, according to which the Pope is the head, the Cardinals are the body of the Church from Hus and his followers. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound". Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others.

Writings of Hus and Wycliffe[link]

Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled De Ecclesia, were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized, and yet their first ten chapters are but an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title, and the following chapters are but an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works (De potentate papae) on the power of the pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted only of the clergy, and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek, and sent it to Prague, where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Páleč with treatises of the same title. After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wyclifism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria. In January 1413, a general council assembled in Rome which condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned.^{[citation needed]}

Council of Constance[link]

To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, a general council was convened for 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance). Sigismund of Hungary, brother of Wenceslaus, and heir to the Bohemian crown, was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the church; Hus likewise was willing to make an end of all dissensions and agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe passage.^{[citation needed]}

Imprisonment and preparations for trial[link]

Spiezer Chronik, 1485

Map of the area where Hus was burnt at the stake

Jan Hus at the stake

Jan Hus burning. Drawing after Ulrich von Richental's illustrated chronicle of the Council of Constance

It is unknown whether Hus knew what his fate would be, but he made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414; on 3 November 1414, he arrived at Constance, and on the following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty, living at the house of a widow, but, after a few weeks, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him, on the strength of a rumour — more than likely spread by themselves — that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then, on 8 December 1414, into the dungeon of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund was greatly angered, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, and threatened the prelates with dismissal; however, the prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic.^{[citation needed]}

On 4 December 1414, Antipope John XXIII had entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard, but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defence. His situation became worse after the downfall of the antipope, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends, but now he was delivered to the Archbishop of Constance and brought to his castle, Gottlieben on the Rhine. Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill.^{[citation needed]}

Trial[link]

On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time, and for that purpose was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. He declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe, and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Wenceslaus admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the Council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic.

At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, there were read to him thirty-nine sentences, twenty-six of which had been excerpted from his book on the Church, seven from his treatise against Páleč, and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma. The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to the emperor to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. He desired only a fair trial and more time to explain the reasons for his views. If his reasons and Bible texts did not suffice, he would be glad to be instructed. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess:

1. that he had erred in the theses which he had hitherto maintained;
2. that he renounced them for the future;
3. that he recanted them; and
4. that he declared the opposite of these sentences.

He asked to be exempted from recanting doctrines which he had never taught; others, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke; to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favourable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted.^{[citation needed]}

Condemnation[link]

The condemnation took place on 6 July 1415, in the presence of the assembly of the Council in the Cathedral. After the High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The Bishop of Lodi delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; then some theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were read.

Refusals to recant[link]

An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything, but to be convinced from Holy Scripture. He fell upon his knees and asked God with a low voice to forgive all his enemies. Then followed his degradation — he was enrobed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant; again he refused. With curses his ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed, and the sentence was pronounced that the Church had deprived him of all rights and delivered him to the secular powers. Then a high paper hat was put upon his head, with the inscription "Haeresiarcha" (meaning the leader of a heretical movement). Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men. At the place of execution he knelt down, spread out his hands, and prayed aloud. Some of the people asked that a confessor should be given to him, but one priest exclaimed that a heretic should neither be heard nor given a confessor.^{[citation needed]}

Execution[link]

The executioners undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes, and bound his neck with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, Von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked him to recant and thus save his own life, but Hus declined with the words "God is my witness that the things charged against me I never preached. In the same truth of the Gospel which I have written, taught, and preached, drawing upon the sayings and positions of the holy doctors, I am ready to die today."^[5] He was then burned at the stake, and his ashes thrown into the Rhine River.

Anecdotally, it has been claimed that the executioners had some problems scaling up the fire. An old woman came closer to the bonfire and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it. Hus, seeing it, then said, "Sancta Simplicitas!" (Holy Simplicity!) This sentence's Czech equivalent ("svatá prostota!", or, in vocative form "svatá prostoto!") is still used to comment upon a stupid action.^{[citation needed]}

Aftermath[link]

Hus's scholarship and teachings[link]

Equestrian statue of the Hussite leader Jan Žižka in Prague.

Hus left only a few reformatory writings in the proper sense of the word, most of his works being polemical treatises against Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč. He translated the Trialogus, and was very familiar with his works on the body of the Lord, on the Church, on the power of the pope, and especially with his sermons. There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them. It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it, although it is possible that he simply repeated it without advocating it. But the doctrine was seized eagerly by the radical party, the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system. According to their book, the Church is not that hierarchy which is generally designated as Church; the Church is the entire body of those who from eternity have been predestined for salvation. Christ, not the pope, is its head. It is no article of faith that one must obey the pope to be saved. Neither internal membership in the Church nor churchly offices and dignities are a surety that the persons in question are members of the true Church.^{[citation needed]}

To some, Hus's efforts were predominantly designed to rid the Church of its ethical abuses, rather than a campaign of sweeping theological change. To others, the seeds of the reformation are clear in Hus's and Wycliffe's writings. In explaining the plight of the average Christian in Bohemia, Hus wrote, "One pays for confession, for mass, for the sacrament, for indulgences, for churching a woman, for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and prayers. The very last penny which an old woman has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery will not be saved. The villainous priest will grab it." (Macek, 16) After Hus's death, his followers, then known as Hussites, split off into several groups including the Utraquists, Taborites and Orphans. Nearly six centuries later in 1999, Pope John Paul II expressed "deep regret for the cruel death inflicted" on Hus. Cardinal Miloslav Vlk of the Czech Republic was instrumental in crafting John Paul II's statement.^[6]

Veneration[link]

• 6 July is a public holiday in the Czech republic, commemorating the execution of Jan Hus.
• Hus is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 6 July.

Jan Hus Day[link]

Jan Hus Day (Den upálení mistra Jana Husa) on 6 July, the anniversary of the martyrdom of Jan Hus, is a public holiday in the Czech Republic. Hus is also commemorated as a martyr in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on that day.^[7]

Legacy[link]

Hus was a key contributor to Protestantism, whose teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe and on Martin Luther himself. The Hussite Wars resulted in the Basel Compacts which allowed for a reformed church in the Kingdom of Bohemia—almost a century before such developments would take place in the Lutheran Reformation. The Unitas Fratrum (or Moravian Church) considers itself a spiritual heir to many of Hus' followers.^[8] Hus' extensive writings earn him a prominent place in Czech literary history. He is also responsible for introducing the use of diacritics (especially the háček) into Czech spelling in order to represent each sound by a single symbol. Today, the Jan Hus Memorial can be seen at the Prague Old Town Square (Czech Staroměstské náměstí).

In New York City, a church in Brooklyn (located at 153 Ocean Avenue), and a church and a theatre in Manhattan (located at 351 East 74th Street) are named for Hus: respectively the John Hus Moravian Church, the Jan Hus Presbyterian Church and the Jan Hus Playhouse. Although the Manhattan's church and theatre share a single building and management, the Playhouse's productions are usually non-religious or non-denominational.

A statue to Jan Hus was erected in the Union Cemetery in Bohemia, New York (on Long Island) by Czech immigrants to the New York area in 1893. The statue was the first memorial in the United States to honour a foreign-born person.

Famous followers of Jan Hus[link]

• Jerome of Prague, Hus's friend and devoted follower shared his fate and on 30 May 1416 was also burned at Konstanz
• Jan Kardinál z Rejnštejna (1375–1428) (German: Johannes Cardinalis von Bergreichenstein)^[9]
• Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (c. 1360–1424), Czech general and Hussite leader
• Matěj z Knína (died 26 March 1410) (in German: Matthäus von Knin)
• Mikuláš Biskupec z Pelhřimova (1385 Poděbrady – 1460 Poděbrady) (in Latin: Nicolaus Pilgramensis, in German: Nikolaus von Pelgrims)

Gallery[link]

• 

  Painting of Jan Hus at the Council of Constance by Václav Brožík (1883).

• 

  Preparing the execution of Jan Hus.

• Jan Hus Preaching at the Bethlehem Chapel.JPG

  Alfons Mucha: Master Jan Hus Preaching at the Bethlehem Chapel: Truth prevails, 1916; part of the 20-painting work, The Slav Epic.

• 

  Ladislav Šaloun: Jan Hus Memorial on the Old Town Square in Prague, erected in 1915.

• 

  Bethlehem Chapel (exterior) in Prague

• 

  Bethlehem Chapel (interior) in Prague

Works[link]

De ecclesia. The church, Jan Hus; David S Schaff, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1915.

The letters of John Hus, Jan Hus; Herbert B Workman; R Martin Pope, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1904.

See also[link]

Saints portal

• Orthographia bohemica, a treatise thought to have been written by Jan Hus
• Jan Hus Presbyterian Church, a New York City church named after Jan Hus

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Spinka, Matthew (1972), The Letters of John Hus, Totowa, New Jersey: Manchester University Press, OCLC 590290 
• Spinka, Matthew (1968), John Hus: A Biography, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, OCLC 441706 
• Spinka, Matthew (1966), John Hus' Concept of the Church, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, OCLC 390635 
• Matthew Spinka: 'John Hus at the Council of Constance' Columbia University Press, 1965 (Includes the eye-witness account by Peter of Mladonovice)
• Count Lützow: Life & Times of Master John Hus, E.P. Dutton & Co. London, 1909
• Josef Macek: The Hussite Movement in Bohemia, Orbis, Prague, 1958
• Philip Schaff-Herzog: Encyclopedia of Religion
• Richard Friedenthal: Jan Hus. Der Ketzer und das Jahrhundert der Revolutionskriege. 2. Auflage 1987, ISBN 3-492-10331-6
• Fudge, Thomas A. The Magnificent Ride: The First Reformation in Hussite Bohemia, St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History. Aldershot, Hampshire/Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate, 2008
• Wilhelm, J. (1910). Jan Hus. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 16 May 2011 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07584b.htm

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jan Hus

• Hussitism and the heritage of Jan Hus – Official Website of the Czech Republic
• Final Declaration written on 1 July 1415 – Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University
• Letters of John Huss Written During His Exile and Imprisonment, with a preface by Martin Luther, by Jan Hus, François Paul Émile Boisnormand de Bonnechose, tr. Campbell Mackenzie, Edinburgh, William Whyte & Co., 1846
• The life and times of John Huss "btm" format
• Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice – online translation of a Czech academic journal

Wikisource[link]

• Texts on Wikisource:
  • John Foxe, “Persecution of John Huss” in The Book of Martyrs, Chapter VIII.
  • "Huss, John". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. 
  • "Huss, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. 
  •  J. Wilhelm (1913). "Jan Hus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009)

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Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha
Equestrian statue of Jan Žižka by Bohumil Kafka on Vítkov Hill in Prague
Nickname	John the One-Eyed Žižka of the Chalice
Born	Trocnov
Died	Přibyslav
Place of burial	Unknown
Allegiance	Bohemia
Years of service	c. 1378–1424
Rank	Chamberlain to Queen Sofia of Bavaria
Battles/wars	Battle of Grunwald Hussite Wars Battle of Nekmer Battle of Sudoměř Battle of Vítkov Hill Battle of Vyšehrad Battle of Kutná Hora Battle of Nebovidy Battle of Deutschbrod Battle of Hořice
Awards	A castle near Litoměřice. He gave the biblical name of Chalice (Kalich in Czech) to this new possession

Jan Žižka z Trocnova a Kalicha (German: Johann Ziska or Johann Schischka; English: John Zizka of Trocnov and the Chalice) (c. 1360–1424), Czech general and Hussite leader, follower of Jan Hus, was born at small village Trocnov (now a part of Borovany) in Bohemia, into a gentried family. He was nicknamed "One-eyed Žižka". From his youth, he was attached to the royal court and held the office of Chamberlain to Queen Sophia.

He fought in the Battle of Grunwald (July 15, 1410), where he defended Radzyń against the Teutonic Order. Later he played a prominent role in the civil wars in Bohemia during the reign of Wenceslas IV. Žižka's tactics were unorthodox and innovative. In addition to training and equipping his army according to their abilities, he used armored wagons armed with small cannons and muskets, presaging the tank of five hundred years later. He was also a master at using geography to full advantage as well as managing the discipline of his troops. Žižka is considered to be among the greatest military leaders and innovators of all time and is one of six commanders in history who never lost a battle (alongside Alexander the Great, Scipio Africanus, Genghis Khan, Alexander Suvorov, and Khalid ibn al-Walid).^{[citation needed]}

Grunwald[link]

Žižka was on the winning side of the Battle of Grunwald, also called the 1st Battle of Tannenberg, one of the largest battles in Medieval Europe. It was fought on July 15, 1410, during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The alliance of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led respectively by King Jogaila (Władysław Jagiełło) and Grand Duke Vytautas (Witold), decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights, led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Most of the Teutonic Knights' leadership were killed or taken prisoner. The Knights never recovered their former power and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in their lands. The battle shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe.

Rise to prominence[link]

Žižka's name first became prominent during the Hussite Wars. The Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague, Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415). On November 13, 1419 a temporary armistice was concluded between the partisans of King Sigismund, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg and the citizens of Prague. Žižka disapproved of this compromise and left Prague for Plzeň, one of the richest cities of the kingdom with his followers, but soon left that city. On March 25, 1420 he defeated the partisans of Sigismund at Sudoměř, the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars. He later arrived at Tábor, the then-recently established stronghold of the Hussite movement. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanical character with a very strict military discipline being instituted though the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Žižka took a large part in the organization of the new military community and became one of the four captains of the people (hejtman) who were at its head.

Wagenburg tactics[link]

Jan Žižka z Trocnova, fictional portrait by Jan Vilímek

Žižka helped develop tactics of using tabors, called vozová hradba in Czech or Wagenburg by the Germans, as mobile fortifications. When the Hussite army faced a numerically superior opponent they prepared carts for the battle by forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a ditch was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16-22 soldiers: 4-8 crossbowmen, 2 handgunners, 6-8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails (the flail was the Hussite "national weapon"), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers.

The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range.

In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell.

As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy - mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shelled from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives.

Gunpowder weapons[link]

The Hussite wars also marked the earliest successful use of pistols on the battlefield and Žižka was an inovator in the use of gunpowder. He was the first European commander to maneuver on the field with cannon of medium caliber mounted on carts in between the wagons.^[1] The Czechs called the handgun a píštala, and anti-infantry field guns houfnice, from which the English words "pistol" and "howitzer" have been derived. The Germans had just started corning gunpowder, making it suitable for use in smaller, tactical weapons. A gunman on an open field armed with only a single-shot weapon was no match for a charging knight on a horseback; however, from behind a castle wall, or from within the enclosure of the wagenburg, massed and disciplined gunmen could use the handgun to its greatest potential. From his experiences at the Battle of Grunwald, Žižka knew exactly how his enemies would attack, and he found new ways to defeat forces numerically superior to his own.

Hussite Crusades[link]

The Hussite Wars became one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation and though predominantly religious movement it was also propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. The Catholic Church deemed Hus' teachings heretical. He was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake in 1415. The wars proper began in July 1419, with the First Defenestration of Prague, when protesting Hussites threw the town councillors from the windows of the New Town Hall. It has been reputed that King Wenceslaus IV was so stunned by the defenestration that he died from the shock shortly after on 16 August 1419. This led to the armed conflict in which Žižka would earn his fame.

The first anti-Hussite crusade[link]

A painting by Mikoláš Aleš showing Jan Žizka as hussite general

King Sigismund was king of Hungary but only the titular king of Bohemia. Sigismund had acquired a claim on the Bohemian crown, though it was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was an hereditary or an elective monarchy. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund was successful in obtaining aid from Pope Martin V, who issued a bill on 17 March 1420 which proclaimed a crusade “for the destruction of the John Wycliffe, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia". Sigismund and many German princes arrived before the walls of Prague on June 30 at the head of a vast army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the possibility of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city and Žižka was compelled to defend the Kingdom. He was a pragmatist in developing his military strategy. His army consisted of farmers and peasants, lacking both the funds and equipment to be classic soldiers with sword, horse and armor, Žižka used their farmers' skills to boost their military efficiancy. He adapted the tools of agriculture into the tools of war. The agricultural flail was transformed into the flail.

Menaced by Sigismund, the citizens of Prague entreated the Taborites for assistance. Led by Žižka and their other captains, the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital. At Prague, Žižka and his men took up a strong position on the hill just outside the city known as the Vítkov, now in Žižkov, a district of Prague named after the battle in his honour. On July 14 the armies of Sigismund made a general attack. A strong German Crusader-led force assaulted the position on the Vítkov, the stronghold that secured the Hussite communications with the open country. Thanks to Žižka's personal leadership, the attack was thrown back and the forces of Sigismund abandoned the siege. A monument was erected on the top of this hill to honor Jan Žižka (The statue has Žižka sitting on the largest horse statue in the world. It is 9 meters or greater than 27 feet tall.) On August 22 the Taborites left Prague and returned to Tábor. Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, the castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany remained in possession of his troops. The citizens of Prague laid siege to the Vyšehrad (see Battle of Vyšehrad), and towards the end of October the garrison was on the point of capitulating through famine. Sigismund attempted to relieve the fortress, but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on November 1 near the village of Pankrác. The castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites.

Žižka now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Oldřich II of Rožmberk. Through this struggle, the Hussites obtained possession of the greater part of Bohemia from Sigismund. It was proposed to elect the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas to the throne. However, the estates of Bohemia and Moravia met at Čáslav on June 1, 1421 and decided to appoint a provisional government, consisting of twenty members chosen from all the political and religious parties of the country. Žižka, who took part in the deliberations at Čáslav, was elected as one of the two representatives of Tábor.

Žižka summarily suppressed some disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites.

He continued his campaigns against the Romanists and the adherents of Sigismund, and having captured and rebuilt a small castle near Litoměřice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of it, the only reward for his great services that he ever received or claimed. According to the Hussite custom he gave the biblical name of Chalice (Kalich in Czech) to this new possession, and henceforth adopted the signature of Žižka of the Chalice. Jan Žižka didn't capture more estates during hussite wars. This fact wasn't usual at this time and made huge difference between Žižka and his contemporaries.

Later that year he was severely wounded while besieging the castle of Rábí, and lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tábor.

The second anti-Hussite crusade[link]

At the end of 1421, Sigismund, again attempted to subdue Bohemia and gained possession of the important town of Kutná Hora. The mainly German citizens of the city killed a few of the Hussites in the town and closed the city to Žižka, whose armies were camped outside the city walls. Žižka was at the head of the united armies of Tábor and Prague and though trapped managed to execute what some historians call the first mobile artillery manoeuver in history. Žižka broke through the enemy lines and retreated to Kolín, but having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated Sigismund's unsuspecting army at the village of Nebovidy between Kolín and Kutná Hora on January 6, 1422. Sigismund lost 12,000 men and only escaped himself by rapid flight. Sigismund's forces made a last stand at Německý Brod (Deutschbrod) on 10 January, but the city was stormed by the Czechs, and contrary to Žižka's orders, its defenders were put to the sword.

Civil war[link]

Statue of Žižka in Tábor's town square (Žižka Square), J. Stachovsky, 1884.

Early in 1423, internal dissent among the Hussites led to civil war. Žižka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at Hořice on April 20. Shortly afterwards came news that a new crusade against Bohemia was being prepared. This induced the Hussites to conclude an armistice at Konopiště on June 24. As soon as the crusaders had dispersed, internal dissent broke out anew. During his temporary rule over Bohemia, Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania had appointed Bořek, the lord of Miletínek, governor of the city of Hradec Králové. Bořek belonged to a moderate Hussite faction, the Utraquist party. After the departure of Sigismund Korybut, the city of Hradec Králové refused to recognize Bořek as its ruler, due to the democratic party gaining the upper hand. They called Žižka to its aid. He acceded to the demand and defeated the Utraquists under Bořek at the farm of Strachov, near the city of Hradec Králové on August 4, 1423.

Žižka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits of Žižka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In 1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Žižka decisively defeated the "Praguers" and Utraquist nobles at Skalice on January 6, and at Malešov on June 7. In September, he marched on Prague. On the 14th of that month, peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through the influence of John of Rokycan, afterwards Utraquist archbishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites should attack Moravia, part of which was still held by Sigismund's partisans, and that Žižka should be the leader in this campaign. However, he died of the plague at Přibyslav on October 11, 1424 on the Moravian frontier. According to chronicler Piccolomini, Žižka's dying wish was to have his skin used to make drums so that he might continue to lead his troops even after death. Žižka was so well regarded that when he died, his soldiers called themselves the Orphans (sirotci) because they felt like they had lost their father. His enemies said that "The one whom no mortal hand could destroy was extinguished by the finger of God".

He was succeeded by Prokop the Great.

Recent criticism and defence[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Jan Žižka in a detail of Jan Matejko's Battle of Grunwald

Recently there have been several speculations on the actual role of Jan Žižka in the development of Czech culture and religion among some historians studying this topic. They argue that Žižka mustn’t be considered only as a brilliant commander fighting for the aim of self-defense and returning the Church nearer to God; we may see him also as a man who – in the name of God – was responsible for killing many people and destroying significant part of a culture by massacring and burning down churches and villages, often sparing only women and children.

This opinion is considered to be very radical, though. The general view is that in response to many official crusades launched at Bohemia from every direction, Žižka had little choice but to stand up and defend his nation and the faith of his countrymen. At a time when mercy from an opponent was not expected, Žižka often offered mercy and enforced it. After the disobedience of his troops at Německý Brod, he ordered his entire army to pray to God for forgiveness for their sins. Thereafter, Žižka authored a document that enforced a strict code of conduct on everyone in his armies, himself included.

Jan Žižka, the man of the sword, may be considered the opposite side of the coin of Jan Hus, the man of God. In Otakar Vávra's film trilogy on the Hussite Revolution shot in the 1950s, Zdeněk Štěpánek played both Hus and Žižka, reflecting the two sides of the Hussite movement. The two men are permanently linked in the Czech national consciousness.

Pioneering a type of armored warfare not to be seen again till the 20th century, Žižka must be considered one of history's great captains.

Sources[link]

• Count Lutzow, The Hussite Wars, J. M. Dent & Sons London, E. P. Dutton & Co. New York (1909).
• Höfler, Konstantin, Geschichtsquellen Böhmens.
• Heymann, Frederick G. (1969), John Zizka & the Hussite Revolution, Russell & Russell New York (1955).
• Turnbull, Stephen, The Hussite Wars (1419-36), Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-665-8.
• Dr. Fudge, The Crusade Against Heretics in Bohemia, 1418-1437: Sources and Documents for the Hussite Crusades (Crusade Texts in Translation S.).
• Šmahel, František, Die Hussitische Revolution I-III, MGH-Schriften. 43/I-III, Hannover (2002).
• Verney, Victor (2009), Warrior of God: Jan Žižka and the Hussite Revolution, Frontline Books London. ISBN 978-1-84832-516-6.
• Bílek, Jiří (2007), Hádanky naší minulosti 7. Čtyři Janové a bratr Prokop, Euromedia Group Praha. p. 172-173. ISBN 978-80-242-1952-3.

References[link]

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

External links[link]

Media related to Jan Žižka at Wikimedia Commons

David Rath
David Rath attacked with eggs at a European parliament election rally in 2009
10th Minister of Health
In office 4 November 2005 – 4 September 2006
Prime Minister	Jiří Paroubek
Preceded by	Milada Emmerová
Succeeded by	Tomáš Julínek
2nd Governor of the Central Bohemian Region
In office 24 November 2008 – 16 May 2012
Preceded by	Petr Bendl
Succeeded by	Zuzana Moravčíková (Acting)
Personal details
Born	(1965-12-25) December 25, 1965 (age 46) Prague, Czechoslovakia
Political party	ČSSD (2006–2012) SD–LSNS (1996–1997) ODS (1991–1994)
Spouse(s)	Eva Rathová
Residence	Hostivice, Czech Republic
Alma mater	Charles University in Prague
Occupation	politician, doctor
Website	www.rathdavid.cz

David Rath (born 25 December 1965 in Prague) is a doctor, a politician and former Minister of Health for the Czech Republic. He was a member of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) until May 16th when he resigned^[1] after being charged with bribery ^[2]. He is currently in custody awaiting his trial.

Medical career[link]

Rath completed his medical degree at Charles University in Prague in 1990. He practiced internal medicine at General Teaching Hospital in Prague (Všeobecná fakultní nemocnice), and then at the Faculty Hospital at Motol (Fakultní nemocnice v Motole). Then in Kralupy nad Vltavou he worked for the Samaritan Association. He returned to Prague and joined the internal medicine faculty at Charles University in 1995. From 1998 to 2005 Rath served as the president of the Czech Doctors' Chamber (Česká Lékařská Komora, or ČLK), an umbrella organisation for all Czech doctors.^[3]

Political career[link]

In 1994 Rath joined the Civic Democratic Party (ODS). In 1995 he formed the Medical Action Group (or Physician's Union Club) within the party, which brought in significant monetary support during the 1998 elections. As director of the Physician's Union Club Rath initiated the November 1996 doctor's strike. In 1996 he was vice-chairman of the Free Democrats - Liberal National Socialist Party coalition (SD-LSNS).

In November 2005, the prime minister at the time, Jiří Paroubek, appointed him health minister. He was directed to fix the finances of the troubled Czech health system, and he proceeded to institute a number of radical reforms.^[4]

In May 2006 Rath made international news when he traded blows with former Deputy Prime Minister Miroslav Macek at a dentists' conference after reportedly implying that Macek had married his wife for her money.^[5] Macek was later fined for having initiated the violence by slapping Rath on the back of the head prior to delivering a speech at the conference.^[6]

In September 2006, Rath was succeeded by Tomáš Julínek as Minister of Health for the Czech Republic.^[7] Rath was then elected chairman of the Health Committee of the Czech Chamber of Deputies (lower house).^[8]

In May 2012, he was arrested and charged with receiving bribes.^[9] At that time, he served both as a Member of Parliament of the Czech Republic and Governor of the Central Bohemian Region.^[10]

References[link]

v t e Ministers of Health of the Czech Republic Lom · Rubáš · Stráský · Roithová · David · Fišer · Součková · Kubinyi · Emmerová · Rath · Julínek · Filipiová · Jurásková · Heger