Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or Viridiplantae in Latin. They obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis using chlorophyll contained in chloroplasts, which gives them their green color.

Precise numbers are difficult to determine, but as of 2010, there are thought to be 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, some 260–290 thousand, are seed plants (see the table below).

The scientific study of plants is known as botany.

Definition

Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things are traditionally divided; the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) who distinguished between plants which generally do not move, and animals which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, these two groups became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (also called Metazoa). Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts.

Outside of formal scientific contexts, the term "plant" implies an association with certain traits, such as being multicellular, possessing cellulose, and having the ability to carry out photosynthesis.

Current definitions of Plantae

When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific group of organisms or taxon, it usually refers to one of three concepts. From least to most inclusive, these three groupings are:

! Name(s)	! Scope	! Description
		This group includes the liverworts, hornworts, mosses, and vascular plants, as well as fossil plants similar to these surviving groups.
Green plants - also known as Viridiplantae, Viridiphyta or Chlorobionta		This group includes the land plants plus various groups of green algae, including stoneworts. The names given to these groups vary considerably . Viridiplantae encompass a group of organisms that possess chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'', have plastids that are bound by only two membranes, are capable of storing starch, and have cellulose in their cell walls. It is this clade which is mainly the subject of this article.
Archaeplastida, Plastida or Primoplantae		This group comprises the green plants above plus Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta (glaucophyte algae). This clade includes the organisms that eons ago acquired their chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria.

Another way of looking at the relationships between the different groups which have been called "plants" is through a cladogram, which shows their evolutionary relationships. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet completely settled, but one accepted relationship between the three groups described above is shown below. Those which have been called "plants" are in bold. {{barlabel |size=6 |at=3|label=groups traditionally called "algae" |cladogram= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} As is discussed further below, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. See also the section Evolution.

Many of the classification controversies involve organisms that are rarely encountered and are of minimal apparent economic significance, but are crucial in developing an understanding of the evolution of modern flora.

Algae

Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis and for that reason have been included in the plant kingdom in the past. Most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these algal groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms. There is good evidence that some of these algal groups arose independently from separate non-photosynthetic ancestors, with the result that many groups of algae are no longer classified within the plant kingdom as it is defined here.

The Viridiplantae, the green plants – green algae and land plants – form a clade, a group consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. With a few exceptions among the green algae, all green plants have many features in common, including cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''b'', and food stores in the form of starch. They undergo closed mitosis without centrioles, and typically have mitochondria with flat cristae. The chloroplasts of green plants are surrounded by two membranes, suggesting they originated directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria.

Two additional groups, the Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta (glaucophyte algae), also have chloroplasts which appear to be derived directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, although they differ in the pigments which are used in photosynthesis and so are different in colour. All three groups together are generally believed to have a single common origin, and so are classified together in the taxon Archaeplastida, whose name implies that the chloroplasts or plastids of all the members of the taxon were derived from a single ancient endosymbiotic event. This is the broadest modern definition of the plants.

In contrast, most other algae (e.g. heterokonts, haptophytes, dinoflagellates, and euglenids) not only have different pigments but also have chloroplasts with three or four surrounding membranes. They are not close relatives of the Archaeplastida, presumably having acquired chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae. They are thus not included in even the broadest modern definition of the plant kingdom, although they were in the past.

The green plants or Viridiplantae were traditionally divided into the green algae (including the stoneworts) and the land plants. However, it is now known that the land plants evolved from within a group of green algae, so that the green algae by themselves are a paraphyletic group, i.e. a group which excludes some of the descendants of a common ancestor. Paraphyletic groups are generally avoided in modern classifications, so that in recent treatments the Viridiplantae have been divided into two clades, the Chlorophyta and the Streptophyta (or Charophyta).

The Chlorophyta (a name that has also been used for ''all'' green algae) are the sister group to the group from which the land plants evolved. There are about 4,300 species of mainly marine organisms, both unicellular and multicellular. The latter include the sea lettuce, ''Ulva''.

The other group within the Viridiplantae are the mainly freshwater or terrestrial Streptophyta (or Charophyta), which consist of several groups of green algae plus the stoneworts and land plants. (The names have been used differently, e.g. Streptophyta to mean the group which excludes the land plants and Charophyta for the stoneworts alone or the stoneworts plus the land plants.) Streptophyte algae are either unicellular or form multicellular filaments, branched or unbranched. The genus ''Spirogyra'' is a filamentous streptophyte alga familiar to many, as it is often used in teaching and is one of the organisms responsible for the algal "scum" which pond-owners so dislike. The freshwater stoneworts strongly resemble land plants and are believed to be their closest relatives. Growing underwater, they consist of a central stalk with whorls of branchlets, giving them a superficial resemblance to horsetails, species of the genus ''Equisetum'', which are true land plants.

Fungi

The classification of fungi has been controversial until quite recently in the history of biology. Linnaeus' original classification placed the fungi within the Plantae, since they were unquestionably not animals and this was the only other alternative. With later developments in microbiology, in the 19th century Ernst Haeckel felt that a third kingdom was required to classify newly discovered micro-organisms. The introduction of the new kingdom Protista in addition to Plantae and Animalia, led to uncertainty as to whether fungi truly were best placed in the Plantae or whether they ought to be reclassified as protists. Haeckel himself found it difficult to decide and it was not until 1969 that a solution was found whereby Robert Whittaker proposed the creation of the kingdom Fungi. Molecular evidence has since shown that the last common ancestor (concestor) of the Fungi was probably more similar to that of the Animalia than of any other kingdom, including the Plantae.

Whittaker's original reclassification was based on the fundamental difference in nutrition between the Fungi and the Plantae. Unlike plants, which generally gain carbon through photosynthesis, and so are called autotrophic phototrophs, fungi generally obtain carbon by breaking down and absorbing surrounding materials, and so are called heterotrophic saprotrophs. In addition, the substructure of multicellular fungi is different from that of plants, taking the form of many chitinous microscopic strands called hyphae, which may be further subdivided into cells or may form a syncytium containing many eukaryotic nuclei. Fruiting bodies, of which mushrooms are most familiar example, are the reproductive structures of fungi, and are unlike any structures produced by plants.

Diversity

The table below shows some estimates for the numbers of species of different groups of green plants; note as these are from different sources and are of different dates, they are not necessarily comparable, and like all species counts, are subject to a degree of uncertainty in some cases. The table suggests that there are at least 300,000 species of green plants, of which 85-90% are flowering plants. The next largest group are the "bryophytes", liverworts, mosses and hornworts, with 18,000–20,000 species.

+Diversity of living plant divisions
Informal group	Division name	Common name	No. of living species
	Chlorophyta
Charophyta
	Marchantiophyta
Anthocerotophyta
	Lycopodiophyta
Pteridophyta
	Cycadophyta
Ginkgophyta
Pinophyta
Gnetophyta

The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (see cultivated plant taxonomy).

Evolution

The evolution of plants has resulted in increasing levels of complexity, from the earliest algal mats, through bryophytes, lycopods, ferns to the complex gymnosperms and angiosperms of today. While the groups which appeared earlier continue to thrive, especially in the environments in which they evolved, each new grade of organisation has eventually become more "successful" than its predecessors by most measures.

Evidence suggests that an algal scum formed on the land , but it was not until the Ordovician Period, around , that land plants appeared. However, new evidence from the study of carbon isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks has suggested that complex photosynthetic plants developed on the earth over 1000 m.y.a. These began to diversify in the late Silurian Period, around , and the fruits of their diversification are displayed in remarkable detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert. This chert preserved early plants in cellular detail, petrified in volcanic springs. By the middle of the Devonian Period most of the features recognised in plants today are present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood, and by late Devonian times seeds had evolved. Late Devonian plants had thereby reached a degree of sophistication that allowed them to form forests of tall trees. Evolutionary innovation continued after the Devonian period. Most plant groups were relatively unscathed by the Permo-Triassic extinction event, although the structures of communities changed. This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (~), which exploded in the Cretaceous and Tertiary. The latest major group of plants to evolve were the grasses, which became important in the mid Tertiary, from around . The grasses, as well as many other groups, evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to survive the low and warm, dry conditions of the tropics over the last .

A proposed phylogenetic tree of Plantae, after Kenrick and Crane, is as follows, with modification to the Pteridophyta from Smith et al. The Prasinophyceae may be a paraphyletic basal group to all green plants.

|label2=Pteridophyta |2= }} }} |label2=Lycophytina |2= }} |2=Rhyniophyta † }} }} |2=''Aglaophyton'' † |3=Horneophytopsida † }} }} |2=Bryophyta (mosses) |3=Anthocerotophyta (hornworts) }} }} |2=Marchantiophyta (liverworts) }} }} |2=Charophyta }} }} |3= |2=Ulvophyceae }} }} }} }}

Embryophytes

The plants that are likely most familiar to us are the multicellular land plants, called embryophytes. They include the vascular plants, plants with full systems of leaves, stems, and roots. They also include a few of their close relatives, often called ''bryophytes'', of which mosses and liverworts are the most common.

All of these plants have eukaryotic cells with cell walls composed of cellulose, and most obtain their energy through photosynthesis, using light and carbon dioxide to synthesize food. About three hundred plant species do not photosynthesize but are parasites on other species of photosynthetic plants. Plants are distinguished from green algae, which represent a mode of photosynthetic life similar to the kind modern plants are believed to have evolved from, by having specialized reproductive organs protected by non-reproductive tissues.

Bryophytes first appeared during the early Paleozoic. They can only survive where moisture is available for significant periods, although some species are desiccation tolerant. Most species of bryophyte remain small throughout their life-cycle. This involves an alternation between two generations: a haploid stage, called the gametophyte, and a diploid stage, called the sporophyte. The sporophyte is short-lived and remains dependent on its parent gametophyte.

Vascular plants first appeared during the Silurian period, and by the Devonian had diversified and spread into many different land environments. They have a number of adaptations that allowed them to overcome the limitations of the bryophytes. These include a cuticle resistant to desiccation, and vascular tissues which transport water throughout the organism. In most the sporophyte acts as a separate individual, while the gametophyte remains small.

The first primitive seed plants, Pteridosperms (seed ferns) and Cordaites, both groups now extinct, appeared in the late Devonian and diversified through the Carboniferous, with further evolution through the Permian and Triassic periods. In these the gametophyte stage is completely reduced, and the sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops while on the parent plant, and with fertilisation by means of pollen grains. Whereas other vascular plants, such as ferns, reproduce by means of spores and so need moisture to develop, some seed plants can survive and reproduce in extremely arid conditions.

Early seed plants are referred to as gymnosperms (naked seeds), as the seed embryo is not enclosed in a protective structure at pollination, with the pollen landing directly on the embryo. Four surviving groups remain widespread now, particularly the conifers, which are dominant trees in several biomes. The angiosperms, comprising the flowering plants, were the last major group of plants to appear, emerging from within the gymnosperms during the Jurassic and diversifying rapidly during the Cretaceous. These differ in that the seed embryo (angiosperm) is enclosed, so the pollen has to grow a tube to penetrate the protective seed coat; they are the predominant group of flora in most biomes today.

Fossils

Plant fossils include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, pollen, spores, phytoliths, and amber (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. Pollen, spores and algae (dinoflagellates and acritarchs) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide.

The earliest fossils clearly assignable to Kingdom Plantae are fossil green algae from the Cambrian. These fossils resemble calcified multicellular members of the Dasycladales. Earlier Precambrian fossils are known which resemble single-cell green algae, but definitive identity with that group of algae is uncertain.

The oldest known fossils of embryophytes date from the Ordovician, though such fossils are fragmentary. By the Silurian, fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the lycophyte ''Baragwanathia longifolia''. From the Devonian, detailed fossils of rhyniophytes have been found. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The Devonian period also saw the evolution of what many believe to be the first modern tree, ''Archaeopteris''. This fern-like tree combined a woody trunk with the fronds of a fern, but produced no seeds.

The Coal measures are a major source of Paleozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow, Scotland, the stumps of ''Lepidodendron'' trees are found in their original growth positions.

The fossilized remains of conifer and angiosperm roots, stems and branches may be locally abundant in lake and inshore sedimentary rocks from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. Sequoia and its allies, magnolia, oak, and palms are often found.

Petrified wood is common in some parts of the world, and is most frequently found in arid or desert areas where it is more readily exposed by erosion. Petrified wood is often heavily silicified (the organic material replaced by silicon dioxide), and the impregnated tissue is often preserved in fine detail. Such specimens may be cut and polished using lapidary equipment. Fossil forests of petrified wood have been found in all continents.

Fossils of seed ferns such as ''Glossopteris'' are widely distributed throughout several continents of the Southern Hemisphere, a fact that gave support to Alfred Wegener's early ideas regarding Continental drift theory.

Structure, growth, and development

Most of the solid material in a plant is taken from the atmosphere. Through a process known as photosynthesis, most plants use the energy in sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, plus water, into simple sugars. Parasitic plants, on the other hand, use the resources of its host to grow. These sugars are then used as building blocks and form the main structural component of the plant. Chlorophyll, a green-colored, magnesium-containing pigment is essential to this process; it is generally present in plant leaves, and often in other plant parts as well.

Plants usually rely on soil primarily for support and water (in quantitative terms), but also obtain compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other crucial elemental nutrients. Epiphytic and lithophytic plants often depend on rainwater or other sources for nutrients and carnivorous plants supplement their nutrient requirements with insect prey that they capture. For the majority of plants to grow successfully they also require oxygen in the atmosphere and around their roots for respiration. However, some plants grow as submerged aquatics, using oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water, and a few specialized vascular plants, such as mangroves, can grow with their roots in anoxic conditions.

Factors affecting growth

The genotype of a plant affects its growth. For example, selected varieties of wheat grow rapidly, maturing within 110 days, whereas others, in the same environmental conditions, grow more slowly and mature within 155 days.

Growth is also determined by environmental factors, such as temperature, available water, available light, and available nutrients in the soil. Any change in the availability of these external conditions will be reflected in the plants growth.

Biotic factors are also capable of affecting plant growth. Plants compete with other plants for space, water, light and nutrients. Plants can be so crowded that no single individual produces normal growth, causing etiolation and chlorosis. Optimal plant growth can be hampered by grazing animals, suboptimal soil composition, lack of mycorrhizal fungi, and attacks by insects or plant diseases, including those caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes.

Simple plants like algae may have short life spans as individuals, but their populations are commonly seasonal. Other plants may be organized according to their seasonal growth pattern: annual plants live and reproduce within one growing season, biennial plants live for two growing seasons and usually reproduce in second year, and perennial plants live for many growing seasons and continue to reproduce once they are mature. These designations often depend on climate and other environmental factors; plants that are annual in alpine or temperate regions can be biennial or perennial in warmer climates. Among the vascular plants, perennials include both evergreens that keep their leaves the entire year, and deciduous plants which lose their leaves for some part of it. In temperate and boreal climates, they generally lose their leaves during the winter; many tropical plants lose their leaves during the dry season.

The growth rate of plants is extremely variable. Some mosses grow less than 0.001 millimeters per hour (mm/h), while most trees grow 0.025-0.250 mm/h. Some climbing species, such as kudzu, which do not need to produce thick supportive tissue, may grow up to 12.5 mm/h.

Plants protect themselves from frost and dehydration stress with antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars (sucrose is common). LEA (Late Embryogenesis Abundant) protein expression is induced by stresses and protects other proteins from aggregation as a result of desiccation and freezing.

Plant cell

Plant cells are typically distinguished by their large water-filled central vacuole, chloroplasts, and rigid cell walls that are made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. Cell division is also characterized by the development of a phragmoplast for the construction of a cell plate in the late stages of cytokinesis. Just as in animals, plant cells differentiate and develop into multiple cell types. Totipotent meristematic cells can differentiate into vascular, storage, protective (e.g. epidermal layer), or reproductive tissues, with more primitive plants lacking some tissue types.

Physiology

Photosynthesis

Plants are photosynthetic, which means that they manufacture their own food molecules using energy obtained from light. The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the pigment chlorophyll. All green plants contain two forms of chlorophyll, chlorophyll ''a'' and chlorophyll ''b''. The latter of these pigments is not found in red or brown algae.

Immune system

By means of cells that behave like nerves, plants receive and distribute within their systems information about incident light intensity and quality. Incident light which stimulates a chemical reaction in one leaf, will cause a chain reaction of signals to the entire plant via a type of cell termed a ''"bundle sheath cell".'' Researchers from the Warsaw University of Life Sciences in Poland, found that plants have a specific memory for varying light conditions which prepares their immune systems against seasonal pathogens.

Internal distribution

Vascular plants differ from other plants in that they transport nutrients between different parts through specialized structures, called xylem and phloem. They also have roots for taking up water and minerals. The xylem moves water and minerals from the root to the rest of the plant, and the phloem provides the roots with sugars and other nutrient produced by the leaves.

Ecology

The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis radically changed the composition of the early Earth's atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food.

Land plants are key components of the water cycle and several other biogeochemical cycles. Some plants have coevolved with nitrogen fixing bacteria, making plants an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Plant roots play an essential role in soil development and prevention of soil erosion.

Distribution

Plants are distributed worldwide in varying numbers. While they inhabit a multitude of biomes and ecoregions, few can be found beyond the tundras at the northernmost regions of continental shelves. At the southern extremes, plants have adapted tenaciously to the prevailing conditions. (See Antarctic flora.)

Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grasslands and forests.

Ecological relationships

Numerous animals have coevolved with plants. Many animals pollinate flowers in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar. Many animals disperse seeds, often by eating fruit and passing the seeds in their feces. Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes provide organic fertilizer.

The majority of plant species have various kinds of fungi associated with their root systems in a kind of mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis. Some plants serve as homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte, ''Neotyphodium coenophialum'', in tall fescue (''Festuca arundinacea'') does tremendous economic damage to the cattle industry in the U.S.

Various forms of parasitism are also fairly common among plants, from the semi-parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no chlorophyll. Some plants, known as myco-heterotrophs, parasitize mycorrhizal fungi, and hence act as epiparasites on other plants.

Many plants are epiphytes, meaning they grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them. Epiphytes may indirectly harm their host plant by intercepting mineral nutrients and light that the host would otherwise receive. The weight of large numbers of epiphytes may break tree limbs. Hemiepiphytes like the strangler fig begin as epiphytes but eventually set their own roots and overpower and kill their host. Many orchids, bromeliads, ferns and mosses often grow as epiphytes. Bromeliad epiphytes accumulate water in leaf axils to form phytotelmata, complex aquatic food webs.

Approximately 630 plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus Flytrap (''Dionaea muscipula'') and sundew (''Drosera'' species). They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.

Importance

The study of plant uses by people is termed economic botany or ethnobotany; some consider economic botany to focus on modern cultivated plants, while ethnobotany focuses on indigenous plants cultivated and used by native peoples. Human cultivation of plants is part of agriculture, which is the basis of human civilization. Plant agriculture is subdivided into agronomy, horticulture and forestry.

Food

Much of human nutrition depends on land plants, either directly or indirectly. Human nutrition depends to a large extent on cereals, especially maize (or corn), wheat and rice. Other staple crops include potato, cassava, and legumes. Human food also includes vegetables, spices, and certain fruits, nuts, herbs, and edible flowers. Beverages produced from plants include coffee, tea, wine, beer and alcohol. Sugar is obtained mainly from sugar cane and sugar beet. Cooking oils and margarine come from maize, soybean, rapeseed, safflower, sunflower, olive and others. Food additives include gum arabic, guar gum, locust bean gum, starch and pectin. Livestock animals including cows, pigs, sheep, and goats are all herbivores; and feed primarily or entirely on cereal plants, particularly grasses.

Nonfood products

Wood is used for buildings, furniture, paper, cardboard, musical instruments and sports equipment. Cloth is often made from cotton, flax or synthetic fibers derived from cellulose, such as rayon and acetate. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and many other biofuels. Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels derived from plants. Medicines derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. There are hundreds of herbal supplements such as ginkgo, Echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John's wort. Pesticides derived from plants include nicotine, rotenone, strychnine and pyrethrins. Drugs obtained from plants include opium, cocaine and marijuana. Poisons from plants include ricin, hemlock and curare. Plants are the source of many natural products such as fibers, essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, tannins, latex, gums, resins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, paints, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, turpentine, rubber, varnish, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, chewing gum and hemp rope. Plants are also a primary source of basic chemicals for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals. These chemicals are used in a vast variety of studies and experiments.

Aesthetic uses

Thousands of plant species are cultivated for aesthetic purposes as well as to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce wind, abate noise, provide privacy, and prevent soil erosion. People use cut flowers, dried flowers and houseplants indoors or in greenhouses. In outdoor gardens, lawn grasses, shade trees, ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, herbaceous perennials and bedding plants are used. Images of plants are often used in art, architecture, humor, language, and photography and on textiles, money, stamps, flags and coats of arms. Living plant art forms include topiary, bonsai, ikebana and espalier. Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history, as in tulipomania. Plants are the basis of a multi-billion dollar per year tourism industry which includes travel to arboretums, botanical gardens, historic gardens, national parks, tulip festivals, rainforests, forests with colorful autumn leaves and the National Cherry Blossom Festival. Venus Flytrap, sensitive plant and resurrection plant are examples of plants sold as novelties.

Scientific and cultural uses

Tree rings are an important method of dating in archeology and serve as a record of past climates. Basic biological research has often been done with plants, such as the pea plants used to derive Gregor Mendel's laws of genetics. Space stations or space colonies may one day rely on plants for life support. Plants are used as national and state emblems, including state trees and state flowers. Ancient trees are revered and many are famous. Numerous world records are held by plants. Plants are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Plants figure prominently in mythology, religion and literature. The field of ethnobotany studies plant use by indigenous cultures which helps to conserve endangered species as well as discover new medicinal plants. Gardening is the most popular leisure activity in the U.S. Working with plants or horticulture therapy is beneficial for rehabilitating people with disabilities. Certain plants contain psychotropic chemicals which are extracted and ingested, including tobacco, cannabis (marijuana), and opium.

Negative effects

Weeds are plants that grow where people do not want them. People have spread plants beyond their native ranges and some of these introduced plants become invasive, damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species. Invasive plants cause billions of dollars in crop losses annually by displacing crop plants, they increase the cost of production and the use of chemical means to control them affects the environment.

Plants may cause harm to animals, including people. Plants that produce windblown pollen invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever. A wide variety of plants are poisonous. Toxalbumins are plant poisons fatal to most mammals and act as a serious deterrent to consumption. Several plants cause skin irritations when touched, such as poison ivy. Certain plants contain psychotropic chemicals, which are extracted and ingested or smoked, including tobacco, cannabis (marijuana), cocaine and opium. Smoking causes damage to health or even death, while some drugs may also be harmful or fatal to people. Both illegal and legal drugs derived from plants may have negative effects on the economy, affecting worker productivity and law enforcement costs. Some plants cause allergic reactions when ingested, while other plants cause food intolerances that negatively affect health.

See also

The Plant List

Biosphere

Leaf sensor

Plant defense against herbivory

Plant perception (paranormal)

Plant perception (physiology)

Plant identification

Rapid plant movement

Biological exponential growth

Germination

References

Further reading

;General:

Evans, L. T. (1998). ''Feeding the Ten Billion - Plants and Population Growth''. Cambridge University Press. Paperback, 247 pages. ISBN 0-521-64685-5.

Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). ''The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study''. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8.

Raven, Peter H., Evert, Ray F., & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). ''Biology of Plants'' (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.

Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). ''The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

Trewavas, A. (2003). Aspects of Plant Intelligence, ''Annals of Botany'' 92: 1-20.

;Species estimates and counts:

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN Red List .

Prance, G. T. (2001). Discovering the Plant World. ''Taxon'' 50: 345-359.

External links

Index Nominum Algarum

Interactive Cronquist classification

Plant Photo Gallery of Japan - Flavon's Wild herb and Alpine plants

Plant Picture Gallery

Plant Resources of Tropical Africa

www.prota.org - PROTA’s mission

Tree of Life

;Botanical and vegetation databases

African Plants Initiative database

Australia

Chilean plants at ''Chilebosque''

Dave's garden plenty of information mostly about garden plants

e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others)

Flora Europaea

Flora of Central Europe

Flora of North America

List of Japanese Wild Plants Online

Meet the Plants-National Tropical Botanical Garden

Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - Native Plant Information Network at University of Texas, Austin

The Plant List

United States Department of Agriculture not limited to continental US species

Category:Plant taxonomy

af:Plant als:Pflanzen ar:نبات an:Plantae roa-rup:Amirãriljea-a Iarbilor frp:Planta as:গছ-গছনি ast:Plantae gn:Ka'avo ay:Ali az:Bitkilər bn:উদ্ভিদ bjn:Tumbuhan zh-min-nan:Si̍t-bu̍t map-bms:Tanduran be:Расліны be-x-old:Расьліны bs:Biljke br:Plant bg:Растения bxr:Ургамал ca:Planta cv:Ӳсентăран cs:Rostliny ny:Zomera tum:Vyakumela cy:Planhigyn da:Plante de:Pflanzen dv:ގަސް dsb:Rostliny et:Taimed el:Φυτό myv:Касыкс es:Plantae eo:Planto ext:Plantae eu:Landare fa:گیاه fo:Plantur fr:Plante fur:Plantis ga:Planda gv:Lus gl:Planta gan:植物 ko:식물 ha:Shuka hy:Բույս hi:पादप hsb:Rostliny hr:Biljke io:Planto ig:Osisi id:Tumbuhan ia:Planta iu:ᐱᕈᖅᑐᖅ/piruqtuq os:Зайæгойтæ is:Jurt it:Plantæ he:צומח jv:Tetanduran kl:Naasut kn:ಸಸ್ಯ pam:Tanaman ka:მცენარეები csb:Roscënë kk:Өсімдіктер kw:Plans rw:Ikimera ky:Өсүмдүктөр sw:Mmea ht:Plant ku:Riwek mrj:Кушкыш lbe:Ххяххия ltg:Auguoji la:Plantae lv:Augi lb:Planzeräich lt:Augalai lij:Plantae ln:Etɔɛlɛ lg:Ebimera lmo:Plantae hu:Növények mk:Растенија mg:Zavamaniry ml:സസ്യം mr:वनस्पती arz:نبات ms:Tumbuhan mwl:Planta mn:Ургамал my:အပင် nah:Quilitl nl:Planten nds-nl:Plaanten cr:ᐅᐲᑭᒋᑳᓇ ne:वनस्पति new:मा (बोट्यानी) ja:植物 frr:Plaanten no:Planter nn:Plantar nrm:Pliante oc:Plantae mhr:Кушкыл uz:O'simliklar pa:ਪੌਦਾ pnb:پودا koi:Быдмас tpi:Sayor nds:Planten pl:Rośliny pt:Plantae kbd:КъэкӀыгъэхэр kaa:O'simlikler ro:Plantă qu:Yura rue:Ростлины ru:Растения sah:Үүнээйилэр sa:ओषधिः sco:Plant stq:Plonten st:Dimela sq:Bimët scn:Plantae si:ශාක simple:Plant sk:Rastliny sl:Rastline szl:Źeliny so:Beer sr:Биљке sh:Biljka su:Tutuwuhan fi:Kasvi sv:Växt tl:Halaman ta:தாவரம் roa-tara:Regnum Plantae tt:Үсемлекләр te:మొక్క th:พืช to:ʻakau ve:Tshimela tr:Bitki udm:Будос uk:Рослини ur:نباتات za:Doenghgo vec:Piante vi:Thực vật fiu-vro:Kasv wa:Plante zh-classical:植物 vls:Plantn war:Tanaman wo:Gàncax yi:פלאנץ yo:Ọ̀gbìn zh-yue:植物 diq:Nebat zea:Plant'n bat-smg:Augalā zh:植物

Coordinates	52°18′31″N6°31′5 }}″N
name	Natasha Bedingfield
background	solo_singer
birth name	Natasha Anne Bedingfield
born	November 26, 1981Sussex, England, UK
genre	Dance pop, R&B;, Pop rock
occupation	Singer-songwriter
years active	2004–present
label	Phonogenic, Epic (US)
website	www.natashabedingfield.com }}

Natasha Anne Bedingfield (born 26 November 1981) is a British pop singer and songwriter.

Based in Book St., London, Bedingfield debuted in the 1990s as a member of the Christian dance/electronic group ''The DNA Algorithm'' with her siblings Daniel Bedingfield and Nikola Rachelle. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Bedingfield recorded rock and gospel songs for the Hillsong London Church, while Daniel went on to enjoy success with hits "Gotta Get Thru This" and "If You're Not the One".

Bedingfield released her first album, ''Unwritten'', in 2004. The album contained primarily uptempo pop songs and was influenced by R&B; music; it enjoyed international success with over 2.3 million copies sold worldwide and she received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" for the title track "Unwritten". Bedingfield's second album, ''N.B.'' (2007), was less successful but yielded the UK top 10 singles "I Wanna Have Your Babies" and "Soulmate". ''N.B.'' was not released in North America, but six tracks from it were included with seven new ones and released in 2008 as ''Pocketful of Sunshine'', with the singles "Love Like This" and "Pocketful of Sunshine" earning success on the charts. In December 2010, Bedingfield released her third album in North America named ''Strip Me''. Bedingfield has also made a guest appearence in ''Degrassi: The Next Generation''.

Early life

Bedingfield was born in Sussex (later moving to the Lewisham district of London) to New Zealand-born Molly and John Bedingfield who worked in the international charity sector focused on inner-city projects in education, reconciliation, addiction rehab, and long term community development, alongside local government initiatives and faith based communities in Europe, Asia and Latin America. Natasha has three siblings: brothers Daniel, Joshua and a younger sister Nikola. Her interest in music was encouraged by her parents and she took guitar and piano lessons when she was younger. When Bedingfield was a teenager, she and her siblings, Daniel and Nikola, formed the dance/electronic group, The DNA Algorithm. The group provided Bedingfield with the opportunity to explore different musical genres and expand her songwriting abilities. She provided vocals for the group which primarily performed dance-pop music about independence and empowerment, themes that would later be found in her own solo compositions. At age 14, Natasha sang vocals on Origins ''Refined Intricacy'' (Steelyard Records).

Bedingfield attended a year at the University of Greenwich, where she studied psychology, then left to concentrate on singing and songwriting. At first she recorded demos in the garages of friends who had recording studios, which she presented to record companies. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Bedingfield composed and recorded songs for the Hillsong London Church. In 2004, her recordings appeared on the church's live album ''Shout God's Fame'' and the children's album ''Jesus Is My Superhero'' by Hillsong Music Australia.

Music career

2003–06: Signing to Phonogenic and ''Unwritten''

thumb|upright|Bedingfield performing in 2006 Bedingfield was introduced to Phonogenic founder and A&R; Paul Lisberg by the artist's manager Gary Wilson. Lisberg was not convinced by the demo songs presented, which had so far failed to attract any label interest, later telling HitQuarters: "[They] were good but weren’t right for us ... They were a bit like Holly Valance and Shakira, which we felt was too lightweight. She would probably have had hits with them, but I don’t know if she ever would have established herself as a true artist." Instead, it was when, at a meeting together, Lisberg heard her singing ability and creative vocal ad-libbing first-hand that he became excited by Bedingfield's potential. Label interest was later confirmed when a trial studio session together with writers Steve Kipner and Andrew Frampton produced songs that were in keeping with Lisberg's vision for Phonogenic. Bedingfield signed a recording contract with BMG UK & Ireland, through its imprint Phonogenic Records, in July 2003.

Her first album ''Unwritten'' was released in September 2004 and features collaborations with Steve Kipner, Danielle Brisebois, Nick Lachey, James Reilly, Andrew Frampton, Wayne Wilkins, Kara DioGuardi, Guy Chambers, Patrick Leonard and the rapper Bizarre. The album contained uptempo pop rock songs and influences from R&B; music. Bedingfield's lyrics focused on independence, opportunism and female empowerment. Reviews of the album were generally positive and it was described as a "well-made pop album for the new millennium" by Allmusic. The album debuted on the UK Albums Chart at number one and reached the top thirty in the United States. It sold well, reaching multi-platinum status in the United Kingdom and Gold status in the US The first single released from the album was "Single", which reached number three on the UK Singles Chart. The song's lyrics, and its accompanying music video, depict Bedingfield's single lifestyle. "These Words" was released as the album's second single. The song became Bedingfield's first UK number one and U.S. top twenty single. "Unwritten" was released as the album's third single in 2004, the song reached number six on the UK Singles Chart and it also became the most played song on U.S. radio in 2006. "I Bruise Easily" was released as the album's fourth single, it did not perform as well as its predecessors but was still a moderate success, reaching number twelve on the UK Singles Chart.

At the 2005 Brit Awards, Bedingfield was nominated for four awards, though did not win any of her nominated categories. She was also nominated for an award at the 2006 Brit Awards, and in 2007 she was nominated for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" at the 2007 Grammy Awards, though was again unsuccessful in winning in any of her nominated categories. Her Song Unwritten is the theme tune of MTV's the hills

2007–08: ''N.B.'' and ''Pocketful of Sunshine''

Bedingfield's second album ''N.B.'' was released in Europe in April 2007. In North America (the U.S. and Canada), the album was released under the title "Pocketful of Sunshine" in January 2008. The album received mixed reviews by critics and peaked at number nine in the UK. "I Wanna Have Your Babies", the album's lead single, was about finding the right man to father her children and was criticised by fans and critics alike. The song was moderately successful, reaching number seven in the UK, number eight in Ireland and the top fifty in various other markets. "Soulmate" was released as the album's second single on 2 July 2007 and also peaked at number seven in the UK. To promote ''N.B.'', Bedingfield embarked on the FutureSex/LoveShow tour in May 2007, supporting Justin Timberlake.

The North American version of her second album featured six songs from ''N.B.''. The album was released on 22 January 2008, after the lead single, "Love like This", was released in September 2007 and charted at #11 on the Billboard hot 100. The title track was released as the second single in February 2008. The single peaked at #5 on the Billboard hot 100. On 18 January 2008, Bedingfield's UK tour was cancelled for the second time, one month before it was supposed to start, so she could spend more time promoting her album in the U.S. In August 2008, Bedingfield and other singers including Beyoncé, Rihanna, Melissa Etheridge, Carrie Underwood, Miley Cyrus, Leona Lewis, and Mariah Carey recorded the charity single, "Just Stand Up" produced by Babyface and L. A. Reid, to support "Stand Up to Cancer". On 5 September, the singers performed it live on TV.

2009–present: ''Strip Me'' and ''Strip Me Away''

Bedingfield stated on her blog that she would start work on her new album in early 2009. She was confirmed to be writing for the new album while on holiday in New Zealand; she said "I'm here for a couple of weeks to do a bit of writing. It is such an inspiring place to write music. I love coming here as often as I can, usually once a year to fuel up on ideas for my next album". She also confirmed she was working with Brian Kennedy, who produced/co wrote Rihanna's hit single "Disturbia" and was writing songs with him while on tour with a view to having the album released by the end of 2009. Bedingfield also stated that Wyclef Jean, Sam Sparro and Mike Elizondo would be working on the record.

Bedingfield confirmed that the album would be ready for fall 2010. In an interview with IN:DEMAND Producer, Ryan Tedder said "I'm gonna try and bring Natasha Bedingfield back here in the UK with some quirky, kinda weird stuff". On 18 March Natasha stated on her official site that she was in L.A. and she was putting the finishing touches on her album. "Touch", the lead single from the album, was made available as a digital download 18 May 2010. Bedingfield performed the song on the ''The Ellen Degeneres Show'' on 24 May 2010. "Touch" was officially sent to U.S. radio stations on 29 June 2010. On 15 July Bedingfield announced via Twitter that the title of her new album would be ''Strip Me''. The album was originally scheduled for release on 9 November 2010, but was released on 7 December. The second single, also titled "Strip Me", was sent to U.S. radio on 30 August 2010 and it became available as a digital download on 21 September 2010. It was written by Bedingfield, Ryan Tedder and Wayne Wilkins. Bedingfield appeared on rapper Nicki Minaj's debut album ''Pink Friday'' on a track called "Last Chance", and on Rascal Flatts' new album ''Nothing Like This'' on a track called "Easy", released as the album's third single. On 31 December 2010 / 1 January 2011, Natasha appeared on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve.

In 2010, Natasha joined forces with Avon as a celebrity judge for Avon Voices, Avon’s first ever global, online singing talent search for women and songwriting competition for men and women.

On 6 April 2011, Natasha visited Radio Hamburg and confirmed that the song "Pocketful of Sunshine" (originally the second single from her US album "Pocketful of Sunshine") will be the first European single from the forthcoming European release of ''Strip Me''. The European version of ''Strip Me'' will be called ''Strip Me Away''. The lead single "Pocketful of Sunshine" was released on 13 May in Germany. The album "Strip Me Away" will be released in June.

Bedingfield was featured on Simple Plan's new single from their new album ''Get Your Heart On!'', released on 21 June 2011. The song, "Jet Lag" was released on 26 April 2011 as the band's first single off their fourth album.

On 5 July, Bedingfield performed her song "Weightless" from her "Strip Me" album on ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno''. Filipina singer Charice confirmed that Bedingfield had written a song for her entitled "Lighthouse" which was included on her upcoming second studio album ''Infinity''.

Non-musical projects

Bedingfield is a philanthropist who has donated time and money to organisations such as the Global Angels, an international children's charity founded by her mother, Molly Bedingfield. She became associated with the organisation in 2006 because of her celebrity status, which she could use to help "people around the world, particularly children, who live in conditions that would horrify us".

Bedingfield is now an ambassador for Global Angels and in November 2006 she visited India for three weeks in support of the charity. She visited an orphanage in Kolkata and a refugee camp for former child prostitutes in Mumbai to learn more about the situation and the conditions in these areas. Bedingfield later expressed her shock at what she had witnessed. Video diaries filmed during her trip were posted on her official website in early 2007. She is also an advocate for Stop the Traffik, a global coalition which works to end human trafficking and a member of the (RED) campaign. In a 2008 rockumentary, Call+Response, headed by Justin Dillon, Bedingfield performed acoustic versions of "Unwritten" and "Soulmate" in support of the film's cause: a movement against current slavery and human trafficking.

In 2004, Bedingfield showed interest in acting and made her debut in the James Bond video game ''From Russia with Love'' in November 2005. She lent her voice to the character Elizabeth Stark, the British Prime Minister's daughter who is kidnapped in the opening sequence. Bedingfield commented that she would like to do more acting, but only if the film "was good enough, and it was a role that [would] fit me." Bedingfield is not set to appear in any forthcoming films in the near future.

She has made an appearance in the seventh season finale of the hit Canadian television series ''Degrassi: The Next Generation''. Bedingfield also guest starred on Nickelodeon's mockumentary series ''The Naked Brothers Band'''s ''Christmas Special,'' alongside Whoopi Goldberg and Leon Thomas III. She has made guest appearances on the NBC series ''Lipstick Jungle''. More recently, she guest starred on Nickelodeon's True Jackson, VP in November 2009. She sang the song "These Words".

Personal life

In 2006, the media incorrectly reported that Bedingfield was dating Nick Lachey and Maroon 5 lead singer, Adam Levine. Referring to the media reports, Bedingfield commented that "Adam is lovely but I didn't date him or Nick. As soon as you talk to a famous guy, you're immediately linked with him." Bedingfield is married to Matt Robinson, a businessman from California. The couple wed in Malibu on 21 March 2009.

She lists Audrey Hepburn, Debbie Harry and Brigitte Bardot as her "celebrity style icons".

Discography

''Unwritten'' (2004)

''N.B.'' (2007)

''Pocketful of Sunshine'' (2008)

''Strip Me'' (2010)

''Strip Me Away'' (2011)

Awards and nominations

awards	5
nominations	11
britn	4
award1	BT Digital Music Awards
award1w	1
award1n	1
award2	Capital FM Awards
award2w	2
award2n	2
award3	Glamour Awards
award3w	1
award3n	1
grammyn	1
mtveuropen	1
tmfw	1
tmfn	1 }}

Bedingfield's debut album ''Unwritten'' contains primarily uptempo pop songs and was influenced by R&B; music. It enjoyed international success with over three million copies sold worldwide. In 2007, she received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Female Pop Vocal Performance" for the song "Unwritten", the third single from the album of the same name. Bedingfield's second album ''N.B.'' yielded the singles "Soulmate"; "Say It Again"; and "I Wanna Have Your Babies", written and produced by Natasha Bedingfield, Wayne Wilkins, Andrew Frampton, and Steve Kipner. Bedingfield has received four nominations from the BRIT Awards but has won none. As of July 2008, she has won five awards from eleven nominations.

BRIT Awards

The BRIT Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's annual pop music awards. Bedingfield has received four nominations.

|- |rowspan="4"| ||rowspan="3"| Natasha Bedingfield || Best British Female Solo Artist || |- | British Breakthrough Artist || |- | Best Pop Act || |- | "These Words" || Best British Single ||

BT Digital Music Awards

The BT Digital Music Awards honour music distributed digitally by methods such as mobile devices, online downloads, and blogging. Bedingfield has won one award.

|- | 2007 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best Pop Artist ||

Capital FM Awards

The Capital FM Awards is an annual awards ceremony created by Capital 95.8, a London radio station owned by GCap Media. Bedingfield has won two awards from two nominations.

|- |rowspan="2"| 2005 || "These Words" || Best Single || |- | Natasha Bedingfield || Best Newcomer ||

Glamour Awards

The Glamour Awards is an annual awards ceremony hosted by ''Glamour'', a women's magazine. Bedingfield has won one award.

|- | 2005 || Natasha Bedingfield || UK Solo Artist of the Year ||

Grammy Awards

The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Bedingfield has received one nomination.

|- | || "Unwritten" || Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ||

MTV Europe Music Awards

The MTV Europe Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1994 by MTV Europe. Bedingfield has received one nomination.

|- | 2004 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best UK and Ireland act ||

TMF Awards

The TMF Awards is an annual television awards show broadcast live on The Music Factory. Bedingfield has received one award.

|- | 2005 || Natasha Bedingfield || Best International New Artist ||

References

External links

NatashaBedingfield.com – Natasha Bedingfield official website

Category:1981 births Category:Alumni of the University of Greenwich Category:Blue-eyed soul singers Category:British people of New Zealand descent Category:British rhythm and blues singers Category:British dance musicians Category:British female singers Category:British pop singers Category:British songwriters Category:British singer-songwriters Category:English-language singers Category:English Pentecostals Category:English Christians Category:Hillsong musicians Category:Living people Category:People from Surrey

ar:ناتاشا بدنجفيلد az:Nataşa Bedinqfild cs:Natasha Bedingfield da:Natasha Bedingfield de:Natasha Bedingfield et:Natasha Bedingfield es:Natasha Bedingfield eo:Natasha Bedingfield fr:Natasha Bedingfield hr:Natasha Bedingfield id:Natasha Bedingfield it:Natasha Bedingfield he:נטשה בדינגפילד jv:Natasha Bedingfield ka:ნატაშა ბედინგფილდი lv:Nataša Bedingfīlda lt:Natasha Bedingfield hu:Natasha Bedingfield nl:Natasha Bedingfield ja:ナターシャ・ベディングフィールド no:Natasha Bedingfield pl:Natasha Bedingfield pt:Natasha Bedingfield ro:Natasha Bedingfield ru:Бедингфилд, Наташа simple:Natasha Bedingfield sk:Natasha Bedingfieldová fi:Natasha Bedingfield sv:Natasha Bedingfield th:นาตาชา เบดิงฟิลด์ tr:Natasha Bedingfield vi:Natasha Bedingfield zh-classical:娜塔莎·北鼎斐 zh:娜塔莎·貝汀菲兒

Coordinates	52°18′31″N6°31′5 }}″N
name	Rivers Cuomo
background	solo_singer
birth name	Rivers Cuomo
born	New York City, New York, United States
origin	Pomfret, Connecticut,United States
instrument	Vocals, guitar, drums, bass, piano, harmonica, clarinet
genre	Alternative rock, power pop, pop punk, indie rockProgressive metal (Prior to Weezer)
occupation	Singer, songwriter, guitarist
years active	1986–present
associated acts	Weezer, Avant Garde, Zoom, Homie, Goat Punishment, Sixty Wrong Sausages, Miranda Cosgrove, B.o.B, Simple Plan, All Time Low
website	Official website
notable instruments	Warmoth Fat StratGibson SGFender StratocasterGibson Explorer }}

Rivers Cuomo (; born June 13, 1970) is an American musician, best known as the lead singer, lead guitarist, and principal songwriter of the alternative rock band Weezer. Raised in an ashram in Connecticut, Cuomo became interested in music at a young age. He moved to Los Angeles at age 19, where he participated in a number of rock bands before founding Weezer in 1992. With Weezer, he has released eight studio albums.

In addition to fronting Weezer, Cuomo has also worked as a solo artist. In December 2007, he released his debut album, ''Alone: The Home Recordings of Rivers Cuomo'', which featured home demos that Cuomo recorded from 1992 to 2007. He released his second solo artist album, ''Alone II: The Home Recordings of Rivers Cuomo'', in November 2008. ''Alone III: The Pinkerton Years'' is scheduled for release in 2011.

Childhood and youth

Cuomo was born in a Manhattan hospital to parents of Italian and German/English descent, and raised on an ashram - run by the late yoga master Sri Swami Satchidananda in Pomfret, Connecticut. His mother, Beverly, was inspired to name her son "Rivers" because he was born between the East and Hudson rivers in Manhattan. Her appreciation of the sound of running water further reinforced her desire for this name. His father, Frank Cuomo, was a musician who played drums on the album ''Odyssey of Iska'' by jazz saxophonist Wayne Shorter.

During his early childhood Cuomo attended a private school on an ashram farm where his parents raised him and his brother Leaves. Cuomo's parents moved to nearby Storrs, Connecticut when the ashram (known as Yogaville) was relocated to a plot of land along the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia. Cuomo attended E.O. Smith High School in Storrs, Connecticut under the name Peter Kitts, but reverted back to his original name once he began attending Santa Monica College. Cuomo went on to attend Berklee College of Music and Harvard University, where he graduated Phi Beta Kappa. In high school, Cuomo played the role of Johnny Casino in the stage production of ''Grease''.

Music career

Weezer

After a series of musical projects in Los Angeles, Cuomo formed Weezer on February 14, 1992, with members from Sixty Wrong Sausages, including drummer Patrick Wilson. The original Weezer line-up included Cuomo on vocals and guitar, Wilson on drums, Matt Sharp on bass, and Jason Cropper who at first played exclusively on acoustic guitar. Weezer signed with DGC, a subsidiary of Geffen Records, on June 25, 1993. They began recording ''Weezer'' (also known as ''The Blue Album'') in August 1993 at Electric Lady Studios in New York with producer Ric Ocasek. "Weezer" was Rivers' childhood nickname, given to him by his father when he was a toddler, although it wasn't because he had asthma.

Throughout 2002 Cuomo frequently posted on Weezer message boards as 'Ace' to discuss music with fans. He once had a website called the 'Catalog of Riffs' ('COR') in which he shared old demos of songs as well as scans of many personal items (letters, schedules, records). Since 2003 he has kept a MySpace page in which he has posted many blog entries including his original admission essay and two subsequent readmission essays to Harvard. Additionally he uses his MySpace blog as a clearinghouse for clarifications, corrections, and addenda to interviews and press reports about him. (This has included responding to misinformation on his Wikipedia entry.)

Starting on the Foozer tour in late 2005, Cuomo would invite fans onto the stage to play "Undone – The Sweater Song" on acoustic guitar. After the performance, fans were allowed to keep the guitars they played. In 2008, coinciding with the release of Weezer's new album, ''The Red Album'', Weezer announced a "Hootenanny Tour" in which radio stations would audition fans to play songs live with Weezer. This "hootenanny" style performance was replicated for the band's "Troublemaker" video and on their 2008 Troublemaker Tour. On November 25, 2008, Cuomo invited a small group of guests to a jam session at Fingerprints Records in Long Beach, CA. This marked the release of ''Alone II: The Home Recordings of Rivers Cuomo''. Fans chose the songs and played the instruments while Cuomo sang.

Other projects

One of Cuomo's earliest music projects was a progressive metal band known as Avant Garde. Cuomo played under the name Peter Kitts, Kitts being the surname of his stepfather. The band played several shows in Connecticut. He moved with the band to Los Angeles in March 1989. In late 1989 Avant Garde changed its name to Zoom though the band dissolved in the late spring of 1990. Before Weezer, Cuomo worked as a roadie for King Size on their Guatemala tour. During a Weezer hiatus, Cuomo formed a musical project called Homie, consisting of what he called "goofball songs" or his "country band". An album was planned, but only one studio recording, a song titled "American Girls", has been released. Cuomo has contributed to recordings by various other musicians (Crazy Town, Cold, Mark Ronson). He also briefly managed the band AM Radio in 2002 and 2003.

In early 2004 he made a surprise appearance onstage with ex-Weezer bassist Matt Sharp at his California State University, Fullerton show to play two old Weezer favorites ("Say It Ain't So" and "Undone"), a rare Weezer demo that they worked on together ("Mrs. Young"), and a new song they wrote together, "Time Song." Also, Sharp announced that they might work on a collaborative record together. But later that year, Sharp announced on his website that although they had come up with "15 or 16 new song ideas, some good, some not so good" for their new album, their "special brand of dysfunctionality" may keep them from finishing the project.

Cuomo is a big fan of soccer. He can be seen playing in the "Photograph" video, and even planned his band's 2002 "World Cup Tour" around World Cup games. In 2006 he wrote a song titled "My Day Is Coming" in tribute to the U.S. men's soccer team, and followed it up for 2010 by writing "Represent", which he considers to be an "unofficial" anthem for the U.S. team. The latter song was released as a Weezer single on June 11, the day before Team USA's World Cup opener against England.

In March 2008, Cuomo started a video series on YouTube called "Let's Write a Sawng." Cuomo plans to write a song in collaboration with YouTube users' suggestions. Additionally, Cuomo has had cameos in a number of music videos. These include Crystal Method's "Murder" and the video for The Warlocks' "Cocaine Blues." Cuomo also makes a guest appearance on Sugar Ray's "Boardwalk", the first single on their latest album, ''Music for Cougars''. Cuomo featured on the song "Magic", on B.o.B's debut album ''B.o.B Presents: The Adventures of Bobby Ray'' which was released in April 2010. In a May interview with HitQuarters, producer-songwriter Lucas Secon confirmed that he had recently worked with Cuomo on both a Steve Aoki single and "some Weezer stuff."

Cuomo is currently in the process of recording a Japanese album with Scott Murphy of Allister. He also collaborated with Japanese singer Hitomi for her first indie album ''Spirit'', even making a duet with her. Cuomo is featured on the new Simple Plan song "Can't Keep My Hands Off You" and Miranda Cosgrove's song, "High Maintenance".

Personal life

On June 18, 2006, Cuomo married Kyoko Ito, whom he had known since March 1997. He proposed to her in Tokyo shortly before Christmas of 2005. The wedding was held at a secluded beach on Paradise Cove in Malibu and was attended by over a hundred people, including six of the seven members who played in Weezer (Mikey Welsh being the only no show) as well as notables Justin Fisher, Kevin Ridel and Rick Rubin. The couple have a daughter, Mia, who was born in May 2007.

Cuomo was born with his left leg 44 mm (1 in) shorter than his right leg. After the success of ''The Blue Album'', Cuomo underwent a procedure to correct the condition. This involved the surgical breaking of the bone in his leg, followed by several months of wearing a steel brace which required self-administered "stretching" of the leg four times daily; Cuomo likened the ordeal to "crucifying [his] leg." An x-ray of the leg is part of the album art for "The Good Life" single, and the experience inspired him to write the song. Cuomo can be seen wearing the brace on an episode of ''The Late Show with David Letterman'', which can be found on their DVD ''Video Capture Device''.

On December 6, 2009, Cuomo was in his tour bus driving to Boston from Toronto with his family and assistants when the bus hit an icy road in Glen, New York and crashed. He suffered cracked ribs and internal bleeding. Due to this accident, Weezer canceled the rest of the 2009 tour dates, planning to reschedule them the following year. The band made their return to the stage on January 20, 2010, performing at Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida.

Cuomo is a vegetarian.

Other interests

Cuomo practices Vipassana meditation and is a student of S.N. Goenka. As of mid-2009 he also teaches children's meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka. Cuomo recently helped acquire music rights and provided financial support to a documentary titled ''The Dhamma Brothers'' about Vipassana meditation being instituted in an Alabama state prison.

His favorite soccer player is Landon Donovan. He supports the U.S. Men's National team, Los Angeles Galaxy and English side Sheffield Wednesday. In early 2008 he played in the Mia & Nomar Celebrity Soccer Challenge and scored a goal in the game. His video for "Lover in the Snow" off of his ''Alone'' album dealt with this game and his love of soccer. In August 2009, Cuomo also participated in the Athletes for Africa 5v5 Charity Soccer Tournament in Toronto, Canada alongside actor Michael Cera. During Weezer's performance at Leeds Festival 2010, Rivers would go to the side of the stage and play football (kicking the ball against a goal and/or a wall), at the beginning and end of the band's set.

In a 2001 ''Rolling Stone'' interview, he was asked of what kind of characters he played in ''Dungeons & Dragons''; he said he preferred elven or half-elven split-class fighter-thieves.

Image

Some of Cuomo's fashion trademarks include his horn-rimmed glasses and his lightning bolt guitar strap. He has sported a bowl cut, most notably in the music video for "Undone - The Sweater Song". Other notable fashion trends include sporting a life preserver-styled vest in early 2001, growing a thick beard in mid-2002 and a brief suit-and-tie phase in summer 2002. Cuomo has also been seen with a short moustache in the video for "Pork and Beans" and on the ''Red Album'' cover. Cuomo has said that he grew the moustache in honor of his daughter and that his father wore one just like his when Cuomo was born. During Weezer's hiatus between the albums ''Pinkerton'' and ''Weezer (Green Album)'', Cuomo had braces on his teeth. They were evidently removed before the release of the ''Green Album.''

Artistry

Cuomo has cited a wide variety of musical influences throughout the years, from artists as diverse as Kiss, Nirvana, Lou Barlow, Pixies, Sonic Youth, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Brian Wilson and Giacomo Puccini. He took it upon himself to become a student of rock and pop music when in the late 90s, Cuomo created "The Encyclopedia of Pop" for himself, a three-ring binder which broke down the mechanics of pop and rock songs featuring songs by Nirvana, Green Day and Oasis.

Cuomo has written and recorded over 800 tracks in his lifetime, either with Weezer, with earlier bands, or as self-recorded demos. Despite the large amount of unreleased material that has been made available by Cuomo on the internet, large chunks of his work remain unheard by fans. These include certain demos for ''The Blue Album'', various songs from the scrapped ''Songs from the Black Hole'' project, over a hundred songs he composed and demoed throughout 1999 (songs which he has described as ranging from "drone-y Romantic," "abrasive dissonance" and "riffy pop-rock") and well over a hundred songs that didn't make the cut for ''Make Believe''. Recently on Cuomo's MySpace he began satisfying fans' need to hear these unreleased demos "in the most legal way" he could by posting sheet music and lyrics for the ''Songs From the Black Hole'' tracks "She's Had A Girl", "Oh Jonas" and "Who You Callin' Bitch?" as well as the Blue Album-era demo "Getting Up and Leaving."

He almost never swears in any of his songs and often uses minced oaths such as "bee-yotch" instead of "bitch". He attributes this to The Beach Boys, saying "Weezer came up at a time when Jane's Addiction released ''Nothing's Shocking''—everyone was trying to be controversial. We looked back to rock & roll's pre-drug days—to the clean images of the Beach Boys—that felt, ironically, rebellious." The word "fucking" does appear on ''Raditude'''s "Can't Stop Partying", but it is used by guest rapper Lil Wayne, not by Cuomo. He also uses the word "Goddamn" in the first verse of "The Sweater Song", the third verse of "Across the Sea", the opening of "El Scorcho", and the bridge in "Falling for You".

He has been known to use experimentation to inspire his writing, for example, fasting for a day and then writing a song, as he did on "Hold Me." Cuomo has familiarity with a wide array of musical instruments: besides the guitar, he is also skilled at the piano, and bass guitar (he frequently demoed songs on his own, a la the 1995 Fort Apache Studios ''Pinkerton'' demos, and can be seen playing the bass in the Weezer DVD ''Video Capture Device''). Cuomo also plays clarinet (as heard on ''Alone'' and ''SFTBH'' track "Longtime Sunshine" and the .com-released demo "Clarinet Waltz"), drums (as heard on ''Alone'', in concerts during "Photograph", two songs on the red album and some tracks on ''Hurley''), trumpet (as heard on "Victory on the Hill" from "Alone II") and harmonica.

Instruments

He is known to perform with customised Warmoth Stratocasters. Throughout his career he has frequently played Warmoth stratocasters that are covered in stickers. Cuomo also notably played Gibson V's and Explorers onstage in late 2001 and throughout parts of 2002. He could also briefly be seen using an Explorer in the music video for "Beverly Hills". His guitar is adorned with a sticker of the Thai word Farang, meaning "a white foreigner." The sticker is found on the SG that he keeps in E flat tuning; a second SG, usually tuned to E, does not have this sticker. Some of his guitars have been known to be adorned with many stickers given to him by fans.

Discography

;With Weezer

''Weezer (The Blue Album)'' (1994)

''Pinkerton'' (1996)

''Weezer (The Green Album)'' (2001)

''Maladroit'' (2002)

''Make Believe'' (2005)

''Weezer (The Red Album)'' (2008)

''Raditude'' (2009)

''Hurley'' (2010)

;Solo albums

''Alone: The Home Recordings of Rivers Cuomo'' (2007)

''Alone II: The Home Recordings of Rivers Cuomo'' (2008)

''Not Alone – Rivers Cuomo and Friends: Live at Fingerprints'' (2009)

''Alone III: The Pinkerton Years (2011)

''ザ クマモトキッド'' (''The Kumamoto Kid'') (2011)

;Guest contributions Homie – "American Girls," from the ''Meet the Deedles'' soundtrack (1998): vocals, guitar, songwriting and melody The Rentals – "My Head is in the Sun," from ''Seven More Minutes'' (1999): co-written with Matt Sharp, but does not appear on the track itself Crazy Town – "Hurt You So Bad," from ''Darkhorse'' (2002): guitar solo Cold – "Stupid Girl," from ''Year of the Spider'' (2003): vocals, songwriting Mark Ronson – "I Suck," from ''Here Comes the Fuzz'' (2003): vocals, guitar, production The Relationship – "Hand to Hold" (2007): co-written with Brian Bell, a reworked version of the early ''Make Believe'' era outtake "Private Message"

Sugar Ray – "Love is the Answer" (2009): written by and featuring Cuomo

Adam Lambert - "Pick U Up" (2009): Co-Wrote

B.o.B - "Magic" from ''The Adventures of Bobby Ray'' (2010): vocals, Co-Wrote

Kevin Rudolf - "Must Be Dreamin'" from ''To the Sky'' (2010): vocals, Co-Wrote

Katy Perry - "Work It" (unreleased track) from ''Teenage Dream'' (2010): Co-Wrote

Miranda Cosgrove - "Hig Maintenance" from ''High Maintenance'' (2011): vocals, Co-Wrote

Simple Plan - "Can't Keep My Hands Off You" from ''Get Your Heart On!'' (2011): vocals

All Time Low - "I Feel Like Dancin'" from ''Dirty Work'' (2011): Co-Wrote

Hitomi - "Rollin' Wit Da Homies" from ''Spirit'' (2011): vocals, Co-Wrote

References

External links

Interview with The Harvard Crimson about his Harvard years

Rivers Cuomo Archived MySpace Postings

Rivers Cuomo on his creative career

Biographical article in Shambhala Sun Magazine

Category:Living people Category:1970 births Category:Weezer members Category:American vegetarians Category:American musicians of Italian descent Category:American musicians of German descent Category:American musicians of English descent Category:American male singers Category:American rock guitarists Category:American rock singers Category:American singer-songwriters Category:Berklee College of Music alumni Category:Musicians from Connecticut Category:Harvard University alumni

ca:Rivers Cuomo de:Rivers Cuomo es:Rivers Cuomo eo:Rivers Cuomo fr:Rivers Cuomo gl:Rivers Cuomo it:Rivers Cuomo nl:Rivers Cuomo ja:リヴァース・クオモ no:Rivers Cuomo nn:Rivers Cuomo pl:Rivers Cuomo pt:Rivers Cuomo simple:Rivers Cuomo sv:Rivers Cuomo zh:瑞弗斯·柯摩

Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as PhD, Ph.D., DPhil or D.Phil. (for the Latin ''philosophiae doctor'' or ''doctor philosophiae''), in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities. The academic level of degrees known as doctorates of philosophy varies considerably according to the country, institution and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates.

The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the modern field of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom". In most of Europe, all fields other than theology, law and medicine were traditionally known as philosophy.

The doctorate of philosophy as it exists today originated as a doctorate in the liberal arts at the Humboldt University, and was eventually adopted by American universities, becoming common in large parts of the world in the 20th century. In many countries, the doctorate of philosophy is still awarded only in the liberal arts (known as "philosophy" in continental Europe, hence the name of the degree).

History

In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties: the basic faculty of arts, and the three higher faculties of theology, (canonical and civil) law and medicine. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees (bachelor of arts, of theology, of laws, of medicine) and final degrees. Initially the titles of master and doctor were used interchangeably for the final degrees, but by the late middle ages the terms master of arts and doctor of theology/divinity, doctor of laws and doctor of medicine had largely become standard. The doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph.D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements and examinations .

This situation changed in the early nineteenth century through the educational reforms in Germany, most strongly embodied in the model of the Humboldt University. The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.). Whereas in the middle ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium, by the nineteenth century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commently referred to as sciences and humanities..

These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notable from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a Ph.D. after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where in 1861 Yale University started granting the Ph.D. degree to younger students who, after having obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis/dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.. The current triple structure of bachelor-master-doctor degrees in one discipline was therefore created on American soil by fusing two different European traditions - the medieval B.A. and M.A. degrees, awarded after a course of study and inherited from the British Universities, and the research based Ph.D. taken over from the early nineteenth century German educational reforms.

From the United States, the degree spread to Canada in 1900, and then to the United Kingdom in 1917. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some universities; for instance, the DPhil (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D., (research doctorate). Oxford retained the DPhil abbreviation for their research degrees. Some newer UK universities, for example Buckingham (est. 1976), Sussex (est. 1961), and, until a few years ago, York (est. 1963), chose to adopt the DPhil, as did some universities in New Zealand.

Requirements

The detailed requirements for award of a Ph.D. degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. In some schools in the US, Canada and Denmark, for example, many universities require coursework in addition to research for Ph.D. degrees. In other countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition. It is not uncommon, however, for individual universities or departments to specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a bachelor's degree or equivalent or higher.

In schools requiring coursework there is sometimes a prescribed minimum amount of study — typically two to three years full time, or a set number of credit hours — which must take place before submission of a thesis. This requirement is sometimes waived for those submitting a portfolio of peer-reviewed published work. The candidate may also be required to successfully complete a certain number of additional, advanced courses relevant to his or her area of specialization.

A candidate must submit a project or thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-refereed context. In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and the issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed.

Some universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the Anglophone PhD degree for their research doctorates (see the Bologna process).

A Ph.D. student or candidate (abbreviated to Ph.D.c) is conventionally required to study on campus under close supervision. With the popularity of distance education and e-learning technologies, some universities now accept students enrolled into a distance education part-time mode.

Value and criticism

PhD students are often motivated to pursue the PhD by the desire for further education beyond the undergraduate level, scientific and humanistic curiosity, the desire to contribute to the academic community, service to others, or personal development. The motivation may include increased salary, but in many cases this is not the result. Research by Casey suggests that, over all subjects, PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26%, but notes that masters degrees provide a premium of 23% already. Whilst this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when lost earnings during training are accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training.. Some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs. These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students do not often have to take on debt to undertake their degree .

The Economist published an article citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. Richard B. Freeman explains that, based on pre-2000 data, at most only 20% of life science PhD students end up getting jobs specifically in research. In Canada, where the overflow of PhD degree holders is not as severe, 80% of postdoctoral research fellows end up earning less than or equal to the average construction worker (roughly $38,000 a year). Only in the fastest developing countries (e.g. China or Brazil) is there a shortage of PhDs. Higher education systems often offer little incentive to move students through PhD programs quickly (and may even provide incentive to slow them down). Germany is one of the few nations engaging these issues, and it has been doing so by reconceptualizing PhD programs to be training for careers, outside of academia, but still at high-level positions. To a lesser extent, the UK research councils have tackled the issue by introducing, since 1992, the EngD. Mark C. Taylor opines that total reform of PhD programs in almost every field is necessary in the U.S., and that pressure to make the necessary changes will need to come from many sources (students, administrators, public and private sectors, etc.). These issues and others are discussed in an April 2011 issue of the journal ''Nature''..

Doctor of Philosophy degrees across the globe

Argentina

Admission

In Argentina, the admission to a PhD program at an Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate's degree. Non-Argentinian Master's titles are generally accepted into a PhD program when the degree comes from a recognized university.

Funding

While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fullbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.

Requirements for completion

Upon completion of at least two years' research and course work as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to his or her specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners that are external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor, respective to the correspondent field of science that the candidate has contributed with original and rigorous research, is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.

Australia

Admission

Admission to a PhD program within Australia requires a Masters degree or a Bachelors honours degree (first or second class, upper division), or equivalent, and demonstrated capacity to undertake significant research in the proposed doctoral field.

Framework for Best Practice in Doctoral Research Education in Australia

Scholarships

PhD students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their PhD degree. The most common of these in Australia is the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately A$ 22,500 a year (tax free). APAs are paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6 month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student. Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly hard to obtain. However, APAs have become less competitive as the number of scholarships were to be doubled by 2012. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many PhD students are forced to live under the poverty line. In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding, with options listed on the JASON Postgraduate Scholarship Database.

Fees

Australian citizens and other eligible PhD and Research Masters students in Australia are generally not charged course fees as these are paid for by the Australian Government under the Research Training Scheme International students and Coursework Masters students must pay course fees, unless they receive a scholarship to cover them.

Requirements for completion

Completion requirements vary. Most Australian PhD programs do not have a required coursework component. The 72 credit points attached to the degree are all in the product of the research, which has to make a significant new contribution to the field. The PhD research product is sent to external examiners, experts in the field of research, who have not been involved in the work. In Australia a formal oral defense is generally not part of the doctoral examination (largely because of the distances that would need to be traveled by the overseas examiners). Examiners are nominated by the candidate's University (often by the Head of Department or Research Office), and their identities are often not officially revealed to the candidate until the examination is complete. Many New Zealand Universities have retained the oral examination requirement, but often external examiner's report is presented by one of the internal examiners. The Australasian Digital Theses Program provided access to PhDs produced recently, as there are generally automatically digitalised and added to this database available from http://adt.caul.edu.au/. As of March 2011, the site is being decommissioned.

Canada

Admission

Admission to a PhD program at a Canadian university usually requires completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a PhD program; other programs allow a student to fast-track to a doctoral program after one year of outstanding work in a Master's program (without having to complete the Master's).

An application package typically includes a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a writing sample or GRE scores. A common criterion for prospective PhD students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below) or both.

At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (e.g., Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability.

Funding

While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (e.g., employment) outside of their studies, particularly if they have been given funding. For large and prestigious scholarships, such as those from NSERC, this is an absolute requirement.

At some Canadian universities, most PhD students receive an award equivalent to the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver). Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships; experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all PhD candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty. Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC.

Requirements for completion

In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations. At this stage, the student is known as a "PhD student" or "doctoral student". It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams.

Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "PhD candidate". From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to his or her own research, culminating in the completion of a PhD thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public in some, but not all, universities. At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a PhD degree typically ranges from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor and/or department chair. Alternate arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form. The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a PhD student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing.

Denmark and Norway

Denmark and Norway were some of the first countries to introduce the Doctor of Philosophy degree, inspired by the German university system, in 1824. The degree was written as ''Doctor Philosophiae'', abbreviated ''dr. Phil.'' or ''dr. philos.'' The two countries' systems of higher education were more or less identical at that time; following the dissolution of Denmark-Norway in 1814, the only university of Norway (the Royal Frederick University) nonetheless followed the regulations of the only university of Denmark (and for centuries the only university of both countries), the University of Copenhagen, for several years.

The dr. phil. degree was used for all other fields than theology, law and medicine, which had separate degrees: ''doctor theologiae'', ''doctor juris'' and ''doctor medicinae''. In the 20th century new degrees were created in the fields of natural sciences, humanities and social sciences, but it was still possible to obtain the dr. phil. degree in any field. Most people who started at a doctoral degree had already studied for six or seven years and obtained a Candidate degree (six years) or a Magister degree (seven years), sometimes a Licentiate (a "smaller doctorate"). The former were considered entry-level degrees required before finding permanent employment as a researcher, while the dr. phil. degree was often obtained by people who were already well established academics, sometimes even full professors.

Following reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, both countries introduced a new Doctor of Philosophy degree, based upon the American PhD and written as Philosophiae Doctor (PhD). In Norway the PhD replaced all other doctoral degrees except dr. philos., while in Denmark, the traditional doctorates are still awarded. In Norway the new PhD and the dr. philos. are equivalent. In Denmark, the original dr. phil. degree is today considered a higher doctorate, as opposed to the PhD, which is considered a "smaller doctorate" at the same level as the former Licentiate. Unlike the PhD, the dr. phil. degree is not a supervised degree, does not include any coursework and requires a much larger degree of independent research in both countries.

France

Admission

Students pursuing the PhD degree must first complete a Master's degree program, which takes two years after graduation with a Bachelor's degree (five years in total). The candidate must find funding and a formal doctoral advisor (Directeur de thèse) with an habilitation throughout the doctoral program.

In France, the Masters program is divided into two branches: "master professionnel", which orientates the students towards the working world, and Master of Research (Master-recherche), which is oriented towards research. The PhD admission is granted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale"). A PhD Student has to follow some courses offered by the graduate school while continuing his/her research at laboratory. His/her research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a company. In the last case, the company hires the student as an engineer and the student is supervised by both the company's tutor and a labs' professor. The validation of the PhD degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the Master degree. Consequently, the PhD degree is considered in France as a "Bac +8" diploma. "Bac" stands for Baccalauréat which is the French High-school diploma.

Funding

The financing of PhD studies comes mainly from funds for research of the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The most common procedure is a short-term employment contract called doctoral contract : the institution of higher education is the employer and the PhD candidate the employee. However, the student can apply for funds from a company who can host him/her at its premise (as in the case where PhD students do their research in a company). Many other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc.

India

Admission

In India, a Masters degree is required to gain admission to a doctoral program. In some subjects, doing a Masters in Philosophy (M.Phil) is a prerequisite to start PhD. For some prestigious universities it is required to qualify the all India level examination such as ‘National Eligibility Test for Lectureship (NET) conducted by ‘University Grants Commission' .

In last few years, there have been many changes in the rules related to PhD in India. According to the new rules, most universities conduct entrance exams in general ability and the selected subject. After clearing these tests, the short-listed candidates need to appear for interview by the available supervisor / guide. The students are required to give presentations of the proposal at the beginning, need to submit progress reports, give pre-submission presentation and finally defend the thesis in an open defence viva voce.

Germany

Admission

In Germany an advanced degree (Master, Diploma, Magister or Staatsexamen) and above-average grades are often required to gain admission to a doctoral program. The degree should usually be in a related field. The candidate must also find a tenured professor or Privatdozent to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (''Betreuer'') of the dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This supervisor is informally referred to as ''Doktorvater/Doktormutter'' (literally 'doctor's father/mother').

Doctoral programs in Germany generally take one to four years – usually three, up to five in engineering – to complete, strongly depending on the subject. There are usually no formal classes or lectures to attend, and the doctoral candidate (''Doktorand/-in'') mainly conducts independent research under the tutelage of a single professor or advisory committee.

Many doctoral candidates work as teaching or research assistants and are thus actually doing most of the research and teaching activities at their home institutions, but are not paid a reasonably competitive salary for that (in most cases, only a half position is granted). However, external funding by research organisations and foundations is also common. Furthermore, many universities have established research-intensive ''Graduiertenkollegs'', which are graduate schools that provide funding for doctoral theses.

Other countries

In German-speaking countries, most Eastern European countries, the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries the corresponding degree is simply called "doctor" (''Doktor''), and is distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. "Dr. med." for , "Dr. rer. nat." for — Doctor of Natural Science, "Dr. phil." for , "Dr. iur." for , etc.).

In the former Soviet Union, the Doctor of Sciences is the higher of two sequential post-graduate degrees, with Candidate of Sciences (Russian – кандидат наук) being universally accepted as the equivalent of the PhD, while the Doctorate is a (Full) Professors' or Academicians' separate and subsequent degree, indicating that the holder is a distinguished, honoured, and outstanding member of the scientific community. It is rarely awarded to those younger than late middle age or lacking in achievement and is a symbol of success in an academic career.

Italy

The Dottorato di ricerca (research doctorate), abbreviated to "Dott. Ric." or "Ph.D.", is an academic title awarded at the end of a course of not less than three years, admission to which is based on entrance examinations. In case of MD/PhD the Ph.D. programme may last only two years.

Doctorate courses are open, without age or citizenship limits, to all those who already hold a "laurea magistrale" (master degree) or similar academic title awarded abroad which has been recognised as equivalent to an Italian degree by the Committee responsible for the entrance examinations.

The number of places on offer each year and details of the entrance examinations are set out in the examination announcement.

Poland

A doctor's degree (pl. Doktor), abbreviated to Phd (pl. dr) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences, regulated by the Polish parliament acts and the government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. Commonly, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to a doctoral entrance exam. The title of Phd is awarded to a scientist who 1) completed a minimum of 3 years of Phd studies (pl. studia doktoranckie), 2) finished his/her theoretical and/or laboratory’s scientific work, 3) passed all Phd examinations, 4) submitted his/her dissertation- a document presenting the author's research and findings, 5) successfully defended his/her doctoral thesis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, by his/her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.

Scandinavia

The doctorate was introduced in Denmark-Norway in 1479 and awarded in theology, law and medicine, while the Magister's degree was the highest degree at the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to the doctorate.

Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a modern style doctorate of philosophy, based upon the German model. Denmark and Norway both introduced the dr. phil(os). degree in 1824, replacing the Magister's degree as the highest degree, while Uppsala University of Sweden renamed its Magister's degree ''Filosofie Doktor'' (Fil.Dr.) in 1863. These degrees, however, became comparable to the German Habilitation rather than the doctorate, as Scandinavian countries did not have a separate Habilitation. The degrees were uncommon and not a prerequisite for employment as a professor; rather, they were seen as distinctions similar to the British (higher) doctorates (D.Litt., D.Sc.). Denmark introduced an American-style PhD in 1989; it formally replaced the Licentiate degree, and is considered a lower degree than the dr. phil. degree; officially, the PhD is not considered a doctorate, but unofficially, it is referred to as "the smaller doctorate", as opposed to the dr. phil., "the grand doctorate". Currently Denmark and Norway are both awarding the traditional (higher) dr. phil(os). degree, and American-style PhDs. Sweden is only awarding the Fil.Dr. degree.

Spain

Doctor Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998), ''Real Decreto'' (in Spanish). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO.

All doctoral programs are of a research nature. A minimum of 4 years of study are required, divided into 2 stages:

# A 2-year-long period of studies, which concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor, ''Literally: Diploma of Advanced Studies''). # A 2-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for up to 10 years. The student must write his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his "thesis director", the study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted (Unsatisfactory, Pass, "Cum laude", and "Summa cum laude"). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" are allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award".

A Doctor Degree is required to apply to a teaching position at the University.

The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only PhD holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King. All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").

United Kingdom

Further information: Doctorate#United Kingdom

The top ten UK universities ranked by research quality according to the Times Good University Guide with their designatory letters:

PhD PhD PhD PhD

University !! Letters !! University !! Letters
University of Oxford	Oxford	DPhil	Durham University>Durham
University of Cambridge	Cambridge	|	University of St Andrews>St Andrews	PhD
London School of Economics	LSE	|	University of Warwick>Warwick	PhD
Imperial College London	Imperial	|	Lancaster University>Lancaster	PhD
University College London	UCL	|	University of Exeter>Exeter	PhD

Admission

Universities admit applicants to PhD programmes on a case-by-case basis; depending on the university, admission is typically conditional on the prospective student having successfully completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours, or a postgraduate master's degree, but requirements can vary.

In the case of the University of Oxford, for example, "The one essential condition of being accepted...is evidence of previous academic excellence, and of future potential." Commonly, students are first accepted on to an MPhil programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory progress and is referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate) status. This is typically done after one or two years, and the research work done may count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, he or she may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree.

In addition, PhD students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering and material sciences. This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation.

Funding

In the United Kingdom, funding for PhD students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend of around £13,000 per year for three years (higher in London), whether or not the degree continues for longer. Scientific studentships are usually paid at a higher rate, for example, in London, Cancer Research UK, the ICR and the Wellcome Trust stipend rates start at around £19,000 and progress annually to around £23,000 a year; an amount that is tax and national insurance free. Research Council funding is sometimes 'earmarked' for a particular department or research group, who then allocate it to a chosen student, although in doing so they are generally expected to abide by the usual minimum entry requirements (typically a first degree with upper second class honours, although successful completion of a postgraduate master's degree is usually counted as raising the class of the first degree by one division for these purposes). However, the availability of funding in many disciplines (especially humanities, social studies, and pure science subjects) means that in practice only those with the best research proposals, references and backgrounds are likely to be awarded a studentship. The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council) explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or 2.2 plus additional masters degree) is required – no additional marks are given for students with a first class honours or a distinction at masters level.

Since 2002, there has been a move by research councils to fund interdisciplinary doctoral training centres such as MOAC which concentrate on communication between traditional disciplines and an emphasis on transferable skills in addition to research training.

Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part time, thus reducing the tuition fees, as well as creating free time in which to earn money for subsistence.

Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £25–30 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding.

Completion

There is usually a preliminary assessment to remain in the programme and the thesis is submitted at the end of a 3- to 4-year program. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but this is rare. Since the early 1990s, the UK funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years after achieving PhD-student status (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.

There has recently been an increase in the number of Integrated PhD programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These courses include a Masters of Research (MRes) in the first year, which consists of a taught component as well as laboratory rotation projects. The PhD must then be completed within the next 3 years. As this includes the MRes all deadlines and timeframes are brought forward to encourage completion of both MRes and PhD within 4 years from commencement. These programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a standard PhD.

Other doctorates

In the United Kingdom PhD degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as D.Litt. (Doctor of Letters) or D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), which may be granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of submitted (and usually published) research. However, most UK universities still maintain the option of submitting a thesis for the award of a higher doctorate.

Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, which are the same level as PhDs but more specific in their field. These tend not to be solely academic, but combine academic research, a taught component and a professional qualification. These are most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), occupational psychology (D.Occ Psych.) clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.), public administration (D.P.A.), business administration (D.B.A.), and music (D.M.A.). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000–60,000 word thesis component, which collectively is equivalent to that of a PhD degree.

United States

Overview

In the United States, the Ph.D. degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. American students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the Ph.D. degree. The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. The student is often later required to pass oral and written examinations in the field of specialization within the discipline, and here, depth is emphasized. Some Ph.D. programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e.g., clinical practice and predoctoral clinical internship in Ph.D. programs in clinical or counseling psychology).

Another two to four years are usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge in the form of a written dissertation, which in the social sciences and humanities typically ranges from 50 to 450 pages in length. In many cases, depending on the discipline, a dissertation consists of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.

As the Ph.D. degree is often a preliminary step toward a career as a professor, throughout the whole period of study and dissertation research the student, depending on the university and degree, may be required or offered the opportunity to teach undergraduate and occasionally graduate courses in relevant subjects.

Admission

There are 282 universities in the United States that award the PhD degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs. Typically, PhD programs require applicants to have a Bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in many cases in the humanities, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT). Specific admissions criteria differ substantially according to university admissions policies and fields of study. Some programs in well-regarded research universities may have very low acceptance rates and require excellent performances on the GRE and in undergraduate work, strong support in letters of recommendation, substantial research experience, and academically sophisticated samples of their writing.

Master's degree "en route"

As applicants to many Ph.D. programs are not required to have master's degrees, many programs award a Master of Arts or Master of Science degree "en route", "in passing", or "in course" based on the graduate work done in the course of achieving the Ph.D. Students who receive such master's degrees are usually required to complete a certain amount of coursework and a master's thesis or field examination. Not all Ph.D. programs require additional work to obtain a master's en route to the Ph.D. (e.g., a master's thesis). Depending on the specific program, masters-in-passing degrees can be either mandatory or optional. Not all Ph.D. students choose to complete the additional requirements necessary for the MA or MS if such requirements are not mandated by their programs. Those students will simply obtain the Ph.D. degree at the end of their graduate study.

Time

Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a PhD program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a PhD program with a master's degree may complete their PhD degree a year or two sooner. As PhD programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Many U.S. universities have set a ten-year limit for students in PhD programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a PhD degree. Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years after submitting it to their self-chosen dissertation advisors. Overall, 57% of students who begin a PhD program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years.

Funding

PhD students are usually discouraged from engaging in external employment during the course of their graduate training. As a result, PhD students at U.S. universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. The source and amount of funding varies from field to field and university to university. Many U.S. PhD students work as teaching assistants or research assistants. Graduate schools increasingly encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it.

PhD candidacy

A PhD program candidate, or PhDc (sometimes called Candidate of Philosophy), is a postgraduate student at the doctoral level who has successfully satisfied the requirements for doctoral studies, except for the final thesis or dissertation. As such, a PhDc is sometimes called an "ABD" (All But Dissertation or All But Defended). Although a minor distinction in postgraduate study, achieving PhD Candidacy is not without benefit. For example, PhDc status may coincide with an increase in the student's monthly stipend and may make the student eligible for additional employment opportunities.

Some programs also include a Master of Philosophy degree as part of the PhD program. The MPhil, in those universities that offer it, is usually awarded after the appropriate MA or MS (as above) is awarded, and the degree candidate has completed all further requirements for the PhD degree (which may include additional language requirements, course credits, teaching experiences, and comprehensive exams) aside from the writing and defense of the dissertation itself. This formalizes the "all but dissertation" (ABD) status used informally by some students, and represents that the student has achieved a higher level of scholarship than the MA/MS would indicate – as such, the MPhil is sometimes a helpful credential for those applying for teaching or research posts while completing their dissertation work for the PhD degree itself.

PhDc is not to be confused with Candidate of Sciences, an academic degree that has been used in certain countries in place of PhD.

Models of supervision

At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise PhD studies. There is now a lot of literature published for academics who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson and Parry (1997). Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits that a PhDc may gain if he or she publishes work, and note that PhD students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from their supervisors.

Wisker (2005) has noticed how research into this field has distinguished between two models of supervision: The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique; The negotiated order model, being less mechanistic and emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the PhD process. These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005). Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips & Pugh, 1987; Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of PhD supervision. Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005).

International PhD equivalent degrees

Belgium (Dutch-speaking): Doctor

Belgium (French-speaking): Doctorat

Brazil: Doutorado

Bulgaria: Доктор

China: 博士

Colombia: Doctorado

Croatia: Doktor

Czech Republic: CSc. was used till 1998, since 1998 PhD written as Ph.D. is used

Ecuador: Doctorado

Egypt: Doctorat

Estonia: Doktor

Finland: Tohtori

France: Doctorat

Germany: Doktor

Greece: Διδακτορικό

Hong Kong: 博士Doctor

Indonesia: Doktor

Iran: دکترا(Doktora)

Iraq: دكتوراه (Duktorah)

Israel: דוקטורט ("doctorat")

Italy: Dottorato di ricerca

Japan: 博士

Korea: 박사

Latin America: Doctorado/Doctorate

Latvia: Zinātņu doktors

Lithuania: Daktaras

Macau: 博士Doutoramento

Malaysia: Doktor Falsafah

Mexico: Doctorado

Mongolia: Эрдэмтэн

Netherlands: Doctor

Norway: :no: Doktorgrad

Peru: Doctorado

Philippines: Doktor

Poland: Doktor

Portugal: Doutoramento

Romania: Doctorat

Russia: Кандидат наук (Candidate of Sciences)

Singapore: Doctor

Serbia: Доктор

Spain: Doctorado

Syria: دكتوراه (doktorah)

Taiwan： 博士

Thailand: ดุษฎีบัณฑิต

Turkey: Doktor

Ukraine: Кандидат наук

Vietnam: Tiến sĩ

See also

Related terminology:

Doctor of Education – Preparation for academic, administrative, clinical or research positions in education.

PhD in Management – A program designed for students interested in becoming professors in Business.

Doctorate – A general term describing a set of degrees analogous to the PhD.

Terminal degree – The highest degree awarded in a field, usually a PhD.

Graduate student – A student pursuing education past the bachelor's degree, such as Masters Degree or a PhD.

C.Phil. (also ABD) – Term, usually used unofficially, for a graduate student who has completed all PhD coursework but has yet to defend his or her dissertation.

Доктор наук – Degree awarded by USSR and post-Soviet states (for example Russia, Ukraine).

Licentiate – Degree awarded in various countries, including Portugal, Belgium, the UK, Argentina, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico and Poland.

Sandwich PhD Programme

PhD in popular culture:

Piled Higher and Deeper – Life (or the lack thereof) in Academia, a comic strip by Jorge Cham

Notes

References

Delamont, S., Atkinson, P. & Parry, O. (1997). Supervising the Ph.D.: A guide to success. Buckingham: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-19516-4

Dinham, S. & Scott, C. (2001). The experience of the results of disseminating the results of doctoral research. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 25 (1) 45–55. ISSN: 1469-9486

Drury, V., Francis, K., & Chapman, Y. (2006). Walking the void – being a rural PhD student. Australian Journal of Rural Health, 14, p233.

MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. ''Secrets of Their Success'' (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002).

Phillips, E. & Pugh, D.S. (1987). How to get a PhD : managing the peaks and troughs of research / Estelle M. Phillips and D.S. Pugh. Milton Keynes: Open University Press ISBN 0-335-15537-5

Simpson, Renate. ''How the PhD came to Britain: A century of struggle for postgraduate education'', Society for Research into Higher Education, Guildford (1983).

Wellington, J. Bathmaker, A._M., Hunt, C., McCullough, G. & Sikes, P. (2005). Succeeding with your doctorate. London: Sage. ISBN 1-4129-0116-2

Wilkinson, D. (2005) The essential guide to postgraduate study. London : SAGE ISBN 1-4129-0062-X (hbk.)

Wisker, G. (2005) The Good Supervisor: Supervising Postgraduate and Undergraduate Research for Doctoral Theses and Dissertations. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-0395-6.

Philosophy, Doctor of

bn:পিএইচডি cs:Ph.D. da:Ph.d. de:Ph.D. eo:Doktoro de filozofio fa:پی‌اچ‌دی fr:Philosophiæ doctor hi:पीएचडी is:Philosophiae Doctor it:Doctor of Philosophy nl:Doctor of Philosophy ja:Ph.D. no:Filosofisk doktorgrad ru:Доктор философии si:දර්ශන ආචාර්ය fi:Filosofian tohtori sv:Filosofie doktor uk:Доктор філософії ur:علامۂِ فلسفہ yi:דאקטאר (פילאסאפיע) zh:哲學博士

''Perfect World'' (, commonly abbreviated as PW and W2), is a 3D adventure and fantasy MMORPG with traditional Chinese settings. Players can take on various roles depending on choice of race and choice of class within that race.

Characters develop skills over time with experience and level up via questing rewards and can use and upgrade physical and magical weapons, and team up with other players to fight against monsters in instances, bosses on the open world as well as other players.

Each player can join a guild (if accepted) and thereby be part of a 200 maximum player base with common goals to achieve. The PW map is broken into a large number of territories which gives guilds an option to conquer and govern such territories via Territory War for reward of ownership usually in the form of coins which are used back to benefit the guild and it's players.

Territory War is an 80 player VS 80 player strategic battle which has a 3 hour maximum time cap with each class belonging to a race having unique roles to perform and team work and strategy is key to sustain victory.

''Perfect World'' is heavily based on Chinese mythology and are set in the mythical world of Pangu. It was launched in January 2006.

Perfect World Boutique/Item Mall

While Perfect World is free to play, the game relies on items sold in an in-game cash shop to make profit. Use of the cash shop is optional, but some items purchased there can improve a player's gameplay, while other items have purely cosmetic functions.

Currency used in the cash shop can be bought from the respective websites of each company running a version of the game. Alternatively, cash shop currency can be bought in the auction house from other players in exchange for in-game currency.

Perfect World International offers pre-charged cards that can be bought from 7-11, Target, and GameStop locations. The Malaysian version allows a player to "Top Up" via CubiCards. Players may also use other payment forms such as Ultimate Game Cards to purchase cash shop currency by using the PayByCash option.

Phone Lock System

As a prevention system against account hackers, Perfect World has a Phone Lock feature for those who wish to use it. The Phone Lock, when activated, will freeze an account until the player of that account dials in using the registered phone number. Once the number is recognized, the account is temporarily activated for login. The player must login within 10 minutes of activation before the account login is frozen again. The player may continue to play despite the freeze. If the player logs out after the 10 minutes are up, that player must once again dial in to temporarily deactivate the Phone Lock. The phone lock feature is exclusive to the Chinese Malaysian version of the game.

See also

List of free MMOGs

References

External links

Perfect World 2012 - Genesis

Category:2005 video games Category:Angel video games Category:Massively multiplayer online role-playing games Category:Video games developed in the People's Republic of China Category:Windows games

ca:Perfect World de:Perfect World (Computerspiel) es:Perfect World (MMORPG) fr:Perfect World id:Perfect World it:Perfect World hu:Perfect World ja:パーフェクト ワールド -完美世界- pl:Perfect World pt:Perfect World (MMORPG) ru:Perfect World fi:Perfect World (tietokonepeli) uk:Ідеальний світ (онлайн гра) vi:Thế giới Hoàn mỹ zh:完美世界