Part of a series on
Jews and Judaism
Etymology Who is a Jew? Jewish peoplehood Jewish identity
Religion God in Judaism Names Principles of faith Mitzvot 613 Halakha Shabbat Holidays Prayer Tzedakah Land of Israel Brit Bar and Bat Mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Philosophy Ethics Kabbalah Customs Synagogue Rabbi
Texts Tanakh Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim Targum Talmud Mishnah Gemara Rabbinic Midrash Tosefta Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Zohar
Communities Ashkenazi Sephardi Mizrahi Bukharan Kurdish Mountain Romaniotes Related groups: Lemba Khazars Karaim Krymchaks Samaritans Crypto-Jews Mosaic Arabs
Population Land of Israel Israeli Jews Palestinian Jews Europe Russia Poland Germany Netherlands Austria Hungary Romania United Kingdom France Portugal Spain Italy Greece Bulgaria Asia Iraq Yemen Syria Lebanon Iran Turkey Georgia India Pakistan China Africa Morocco Algeria Tunisia Libya Egypt Ethiopia South Africa North America United States Canada Latin America Argentina Brazil Mexico Oceania Australia New Zealand Judaism by country Lists of Jews Rabbis Historical population comparisons
Denominations Alternative Conservative Humanistic Karaite Liberal Orthodox Haymanot Reconstructionist Reform Renewal Traditional
Culture Minyan Wedding Niddah Pidyon haben Music Cuisine Hiloni Shidduch Zeved habat Conversion to Judaism
Languages Hebrew Biblical Yiddish Juhuri Judæo-Iranian Ladino Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Arabic
History Timeline Leaders Ancient Kingdom of Judah Temple in Jerusalem Babylonian captivity Yehud Medinata Jerusalem in Judaism Timeline Hasmonean dynasty Sanhedrin Schisms Pharisees Jewish–Roman wars Christianity and Judaism Islamic–Jewish relations Diaspora Middle Ages Sabbateans Hasidism Haskalah Emancipation The Holocaust Aliyah Israel history Arab–Israeli conflict Land of Israel Baal teshuva Persecution Antisemitism history
Politics Zionism Labor Revisionist Religious Green General Bundism World Agudath Israel Feminism Politics of Israel Left Right
Category Portal WikiProject
v t e

A synagogue (from Greek: συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, meaning "assembly") is a Jewish or Samaritan house of prayer.^[1] This use of the Greek term synagogue originates in the Septuagint where it sometimes translates the Hebrew word for assembly, קהל kahal. In modern Hebrew a synagogue is called either a בית כנסת beyt knesset, meaning "house of assembly"; בית תפילה or beyt t'fila, meaning "house of prayer", in Yiddish שול shul, from the German for "school," and in Ladino אסנוגה esnoga.

Synagogues have a large hall for prayer (the main sanctuary), and can also have smaller rooms for study and sometimes a social hall and offices. Some have a separate room for Torah study, called the beit midrash (Sfard) "beis midrash (Ashkenaz)—בית מדרש ("House of Study").

Synagogues are consecrated spaces that can be used only for the purpose of prayer^{[citation needed]}; however, a synagogue is not necessary for worship. Communal Jewish worship can be carried out wherever ten Jews (a minyan) assemble. Worship can also be carried out alone or with fewer than ten people assembled together. However, there are certain prayers that are communal prayers and therefore can be recited only by a minyan. Except in Reform Judaism, a synagogue is not viewed as replacing the long-since destroyed Temple in Jerusalem.

Israelis use the Hebrew term bet knesset (assembly house). Jews of Ashkenazi descent have traditionally used the Yiddish term "shul" (cognate with the German Schule, school) in everyday speech. Spanish and Portuguese Jews call the synagogue an esnoga. Persian Jews and Karaite Jews use the term kenesa, which is derived from Aramaic, and some Arabic-speaking Jews use knis. Some Reform and Conservative Jews use temple. ^{[2] [3]} The Greek word synagogue is a good all-around term, used in English (and German and French), to cover the preceding possibilities.^[4]

Synagogues often take on a broader role in modern Jewish communities and may include additional facilities such as a catering hall, kosher kitchen, religious school, library, day care center and a smaller chapel for daily services.

Origins[link]

Mosaic in the Tzippori Synagogue

Ruins of the ancient synagogue of Kfar Bar'am

Although synagogues existed a long time before the destruction of the 2nd Temple in 70 CE, communal worship in the time while the Temple still stood centered around the korbanot ("sacrificial offerings") brought by the kohanim ("priests") in the Holy Temple. The all-day Yom Kippur service, in fact, was an event in which the congregation both observed the movements of the kohen gadol ("the high priest") as he offered the day's sacrifices and prayed for his success.

During the Babylonian captivity (586–537 BCE) the Men of the Great Assembly formalized and standardized the language of the Jewish prayers. Prior to that people prayed as they saw fit, with each individual praying in their own way, and there were no standard prayers that were recited. Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, one of the leaders at the end of the Second Temple era, promulgated the idea of creating individual houses of worship in whatever locale Jews found themselves. This contributed to the continuity of the Jewish people by maintaining a unique identity and a portable way of worship despite the destruction of the Temple, according to many historians.

Synagogues in the sense of purpose-built spaces for worship, or rooms originally constructed for some other purpose but reserved for formal, communal prayer, however, existed long before the destruction of the Second Temple.^[5] The earliest archaeological evidence for the existence of very early synagogues comes from the Palestinian synagogues, which date from the 1st-century CE. A synagogue dating from between 75 and 50 BCE has been uncovered at a Hasmonean-era winter palace near Jericho.^[6][7] More than a dozen Second Temple era synagogues have been identified by archaeologists.^[5]

Architectural design[link]

Although there are some standard laws which govern the layout of a synagogue, there is no set architectural design and therefore exteriors and interiors of synagogues vary greatly. Historically, synagogues were built in the prevailing architectural style of their time and place. Thus, the synagogue in Kaifeng, China looked very like Chinese temples of that region and era, with its outer wall and open garden in which several buildings were arranged. The styles of the earliest synagogues resembled the temples of other sects of the eastern Roman Empire. The surviving synagogues of medieval Spain are embellished with mudéjar plasterwork. The surviving medieval synagogues in Budapest and Prague are typical Gothic structures.

The emancipation of Jews in European countries not only enabled Jews to enter fields of enterprise from which they were formerly barred, but gave them the right to build synagogues without needing special permissions, so synagogue architecture blossomed. Large Jewish communities wished to show not only their wealth but also their newly acquired status as citizens by constructing magnificent synagogues. These were built across Europe and in the United States in all of the historicist or revival styles then in fashion. Thus there were Neoclassical, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival. There are Egyptian Revival synagogues and even one Mayan Revival synagogue. In the 19th century and early 20th century heyday of historicist architecture, however, most historicist synagogues, even the most magnificent ones, did not attempt a pure style, or even any particular style, and are best described as eclectic. In the post World War II era, synagogue architecture abandoned historicist styles for modernism.

Interior elements[link]

Bimah at the Bialystoker Synagogue with Torah Ark in background.

Bimah of the Łańcut Synagogue

All synagogues contain a bimah, a table from which the Torah is read, and a desk for the prayer leader.

The Torah ark, (Hebrew: Aron Kodesh—ארון קודש) (called the heikhal—היכל [temple] by Sephardim) is a cabinet in which the Torah scrolls are kept.

The ark in a synagogue is positioned in almost always such a way that those who face it, face towards Jerusalem. Thus, sanctuary seating plans in the Western world generally face east, while those east of Israel face west. Sanctuaries in Israel face towards Jerusalem. Occasionally synagogues face other directions for structural reasons; in such cases, some individuals might turn to face Jerusalem when standing for prayers, but the congregation as a whole does not.

The ark is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant which contained the tablets with Ten Commandments. This is the holiest spot in a synagogue, equivalent to the Holy of Holies. The ark is often closed with an ornate curtain, the parochet פרוכת, which hangs outside or inside the ark doors.

A large, raised, reader's platform called the bimah (בימה) by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim, where the Torah scroll is placed to be read. Is a feature of all synagogues. In Sephardi synagogues it is also used as the prayer leader's reading desk.

Other traditional features include a continually lit lamp or lantern, usually electric in contemporary synagogues, called the ner tamid (נר תמיד), the "Eternal Light", used as a reminder of the western lamp of the menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem, which remained miraculously lit always. Many have an elaborate chair named for the prophet Elijah and only sat upon during the ceremony of Brit milah. Many synagogues have a large seven-branched candelabrum commemorating the full Menorah. Most contemporary synagogues also feature a lectern for the rabbi.

A synagogue may be decorated with artwork, but in the Rabbinic and Orthodox tradition, three-dimensional sculptures and depictions of the human body are not allowed, as these are considered akin to idolatry.

Until the 19th century, an Ashkenazi synagogue, all seats most often faced the 'Torah Ark. In a Sephardi synagogue, seats were usually arranged around the perimeter of the sanctuary, but when the worshippers stood up to pray, everyone faced the Ark. In Ashkenazi synagogues The Torah was read on a reader's table located in the center of the room, while the leader of the prayer service, the Hazzan, stood at his own lectern or table, facing the Ark. In Sephardic synagogues, the table for reading the Torah was commonly placed at the opposite side of the room from the Torah Ark, leaving the center of the floor empty for the use of a ceremonial procession carrying the Torah between the Ark and the reading table.

Denominational differences[link]

New York's Reform Temple Emanu-El

Orthodox synagogues feature a partition (mechitzah) dividing the men's and women's seating areas, or a separate women's section located on a balcony.

The German Reform movement which arose in the early 19th century made many changes to the traditional look of the synagogue, keeping with its desire to simultaneously stay Jewish yet be accepted by the host culture.

The first Reform synagogue, which opened in Hamburg in 1811, introduced changes that made the synagogue look more like a church. These included an organ to accompany the prayers (even on Shabbat, when musical instruments are proscribed by halakha), a choir to accompany the Hazzan, and vestments for the synagogue rabbi to wear.^[8]

In following decades, the central reader's table, the bimah, was moved to the front of the Reform sanctuary—previously unheard-of^{[citation needed]} in Orthodox synagogues. The rabbi now delivered his sermon from the front, much as the Christian ministers delivered their sermons in a church. The synagogue was renamed a "temple", to emphasize that the movement no longer looked forward to the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem.^{[citation needed]}

Synagogue offshoots[link]

Since Orthodox Jews prefer to collect a minyan (a quorum of ten) rather than pray alone, they commonly assemble at pre-arranged times in offices, living rooms, or other spaces when these are more convenient than formal synagogue buildings. A room or building that is used this way can become a dedicated small synagogue or prayer room. Among Ashkenazi Jews they are traditionally called shtiebel (שטיבל, pl. shtiebelekh or shtiebels, Yiddish for "little house"), and are found in Orthodox communities worldwide.

Another type of communal prayer group, favored by some contemporary Jews, is the Chavurah (חבורה, pl. chavurot, חבורות), or prayer fellowship. These groups meet at a regular place and time, usually in a private home. In antiquity, the Pharisees lived near each other in chavurot and dined together to ensure that none of the food was unfit for consumption.^[9]

Great synagogues[link]

Interior view of the New Synagogue (Berlin)

During the 19th and early 20th century, it was fairly common for Jewish communities, particularly in Europe, to construct very large, showpiece synagogues. These edifices were intended not simply to accommodate worshipers, but to serve as emblems of Jewish participation in modern society. For this purpose, they were built to be not merely large, but architecturally impressive. Even small cities had elaborate synagogues of this type, albeit smaller than the synagogues of Vienna and New York. They are often designated as The Great Synagogue of..., or, in Russia, The Choral Synagogue. These notable synagogues include; the Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam), the Great Synagogue of Rome, the New Synagogue (Berlin), the Leopoldstädter Tempel, the Grand Choral Synagogue (St. Petersburg), the Great Synagogue (Sydney), the Moscow Choral Synagogue, the Great Synagogue of Florence, the Great Synagogue, Plzeň, the Great Synagogue (Warsaw), the Košice Orthodox Synagogue, the Novi Sad Synagogue, the Szeged Synagogue,^[10] the Sofia Synagogue and the Great Synagogue of Oran.

World's largest synagogues[link]

Interior of the Belz Great Synagogue in Jerusalem.

• The largest synagogue in the world is probably the Belz Great Synagogue, in Jerusalem, Israel, whose main Sanctuary seats 6,000. Construction on the edifice lasted for over 15 years.
• The next largest may be the Satmar synagogue in Kiryas Joel, New York, which is said to seat "several thousand".^[11]
• The largest synagogue in Europe is the newly constructed Bratzlav Center at the graveside of Rabbi Nahman of Bratzlav in Uman, Ukraine, which seats up to 6,000.^[12]
• The Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest, Hungary, seats 3,000, and has an area of 1200 m² and height of 26 m (apart from the towers which are 43 m).^{[citation needed]}
• Kehilas Yetev Lev D'Satmar (Williamsburg, Brooklyn) seats between 2,000 to 4,000 congregants.
• Temple Emanu-El of New York, a Reform Temple is located in New York City, with an area of 3,523 m², seating 2,500.
• Great Synagogue in Plzeň, Czech Republic is the second biggest synagogue in Europe, can seat more than 2000, area of 1680 m² and height of 45 m (apart from the towers which are 65 m).
• Temple Emanu-El (Miami Beach, Florida) located in Miami Beach, Florida seats approximately 1,400 people.
• Szeged Synagogue is located in Szeged, Hungary, seats 1,340 and has height of 48.5 m.
• The Sofia Synagogue is located in Sofia, Bulgaria, seating about 1,200.
• Congregation Shaare Zion, an Orthodox Sephardic synagogue located in Brooklyn, New York is the largest Syrian Jewish congregation in New York City. It is attended by over 1,000 worshipers on weekends.

World's oldest synagogues[link]

The Sardis Synagogue in Manisa, Turkey. The synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex, which was in use for 450–500 years.

Fresco at the Dura-Europos synagogue, illustrating a scene from the Book of Esther, 244 CE.

• The oldest Samaritan synagogue, the Delos Synagogue dates from between 150 and 128 BCE, or earlier and is located on the island of Delos.^[13]
• The Jericho Synagogue, the oldest, securely dated, mainstream Jewish synagogue in the world was built between 70 and 50 BCE at a royal winter palace near Jericho.^[14]
• The oldest synagogue fragments are stone synagogue dedication inscriptions stones found in middle and lower Egypt and dating from the 3rd century BCE.^[15]
• The 2nd and 3rd century CE Dura-Europos synagogue in Syria is better preserved than other, older synagogues that have emerged from archaeological digs.
• The Paradesi Synagogue is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations, located in Kochi, Kerala, in India. It was built in 1568 by the Malabar Yehudan people or Cochin Jewish community in the Kingdom of Cochin. Paradesi is a word used in several Indian languages, and the literal meaning of the term is "foreigners", applied to the synagogue because it was historically used by "White Jews", a mixture of Jews from Cranganore, the Middle East, and European exiles. It is also referred to as the Cochin Jewish Synagogue or the Mattancherry Synagogue. The synagogue is located in the quarter of Old Cochin known as Jew Town and is the only one of the seven synagogues in the area still in use.
• Old New Synagogue in Prague is the world's oldest active synagogue and therefore also the oldest synagogue still in use in Europe.
• Jew's Court, Steep Hill, Lincoln, England is arguably the second oldest synagogue in Europe in current use.
• Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, Recife, Brazil is the oldest synagogue in the Americas.

Oldest synagogues in the United States[link]

1636 - The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, located in Recife on the site of the oldest synagogue in the Americas.

Touro Synagogue, the oldest surviving synagogue building in the U.S.

• Congregation Shearith Israel, 1655, is the oldest congregation in the United States, its present building dates from 1897.
• The Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island, is the oldest Jewish house of worship in North America that is still standing. It was built in 1759 for the Jeshuat Israel congregation, which was established in 1658.

Other famous synagogues[link]

• The Rashi Shul, built in 1175 and razed on Kristallnacht in 1938, was painstakingly reconstructed using many of the original stones. It is still in use as a synagogue.
• The Synagogue of El Transito of Toledo, Spain, was built in 1356 by Samuel ha-Levi, treasurer of King Pedro I of Castile. This is one of the best examples of Mudéjar architecture in Spain. The design of the synagogue recalls the Nasrid style of architecture that was employed during the same period in the decorations of the Alhambra palace in Granada as well as the Great Mosque of Córdoba. Since 1964, this site has hosted a Sephardi museum.
• The Hurva Synagogue, located in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, was Jerusalem's main Ashkenazi synagogue from the 16th century until 1948, when it was destroyed by the Arab Legion several days after the conquest of the city. After the Six-Day War, an arch was built to mark the spot where the synagogue stood. A complete reconstruction, to plans drawn up by architect Nahum Meltzer, opened in March 2010.
• The Great Synagogue of Oran, Algeria, built in 1880, but converted into a mosque after Algerian independence when all Algerian Jews were driven into exile.
• The Barbados Nidhe Israel Synagogue ("Bridgetown Synagogue"), located in the capital city of Bridgetown, was first built in 1654. It was destroyed in the hurricane of 1831 and reconstructed in 1833.^[16]
• The Snoa in Willemstad, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles was built by Sephardic Portuguese Jews from Amsterdam and Recife, Brazil. It is modeled after the Esnoga in Amsterdam. Congregation Mikvé Israel built this synagogue in 1692; it was reconstructed in 1732.
• The Bialystoker Synagogue on New York's Lower East Side, is located in a landmark building dating from 1826 that was originally a Methodist Episcopal Church. The building is made of quarry stone mined locally on Pitt Street, Manhattan. It is an example of Federalist architecture. The ceilings and walls are hand-painted with zodiac frescos, and the sanctuary is illuminated by 40-foot (12 m) stained glass windows. The bimah and floor-to-ceiling ark are handcarved.
• The Great Synagogue of Florence, Tempio Maggiore, Florence, 1874–82, is an example of the magnificent, cathedral-like synagogues built in almost every major European city in the 19th century and early 20th century.
• Boston MA's 1920 Vilna Shul is a rare surviving intact Immigrant Era synagogue.^[17]
• The Cymbalista Synagogue is an example of modern architecture and new thinking in synagogue design - designed by Mario Botta, it accommodates Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform congregations in one structure and promotes dialogue and interaction^[18]

Gallery[link]

• 

  The New Synagogue in Berlin, Germany.

• 

  The Choral Synagogue in Moscow, Russia.

• 

  The Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam, Netherlands.

• 

  The Great Synagogue of Plzeň, Czech Republic.

• 

  The main synagogue of the city of Frankfurt am Main (Germany) before the Kristallnacht.

• 

  The Roonstrasse Synagogue in Cologne, Germany.

• 

  The Lesko Synagogue in Lesko, Poland.

• 

  The Baal Shem Tov's shul in Medzhybizh, Ukraine (c. 1915). The original was destroyed, but has now been rebuilt.

• 

  The Belzer synagogue of Belz, Ukraine. The synagogue no longer exists.

• 

  The Cymbalista Synagogue and Jewish Heritage Center at Tel Aviv University.

• 

  The synagogue of Kherson, Ukraine.

• 

  The Ashkenazi Synagogue of Istanbul, Turkey. The synagogue was founded in the year 1900.

• 

  The Central Synagogue on Lexington Avenue in Manhattan, New York City, United States of America.

• 

  The Grand Choral Synagogue of St. Petersburg, Russia

• 

  The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi , Kerala , India

• 

  The Synagogue in Podol district, Kiev, Ukraine

• 

  Great Synagogue of Rome, Italy

• 

  Abuhav synagogue, Israel

• 

  Sofia Synagogue, Bulgaria

• 

  The Erfurt Synagogue is the oldest synagogue in Europe

• 

  Knesset Eliyahoo, a 150 year old Jewish Synagogue in Fort, Mumbai, India

See also[link]

	Judaism portal
	Architecture portal

• Beth midrash
• Jewish services
• Shtiebel
• Siddur
• Synagogue architecture

References[link]

• Levine, Lee (October 24n 2005) [2000]. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years (2nd. ed.). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10628-9. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Synagogue

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Synagogue.

• Guide to synagogues and other Jewish heritage sites in Slovakia
• B'Nai Israel Synagogue on GuidepostUSA
• Joseph Tabory, A list of articles on Synagogues (in various languages), in Daat.col.il
• Eldridge Street Synagogue
• picture of Aron Kodesh in Rav Pealim Beit Knesset
• Webs.com
• MSN.com, Synagogue doubles as mosque during Ramadan

David Serero
Born	(1974-02-02) 2 February 1974 (age 38) Grenoble, France
Nationality	French
Awards	Rome Prize at the VILLA MEDICIS for the variable geometry acoustical domes (2004) NEXT GENERATION PRIZE for "Scale Orography", Open air Theater, by Metropolis Magazine, New York (2004) VII VENISE BIENNALE, Selected as part of the French pavilion exhibition (2002) YOUNG ARCHITECT AWARD, Architectural League de New York (2002) NOUVEAUX ALBUMS DES JEUNES ARCHITECTES (2002) FULBRIGHT SCHOLARSHIP, Franco-american Commission (1997)
Work
Buildings	Arcade Groupe Headquarters, Paris New York Center for the Art Studies, New York Hellenikon Metropolitan Park, Athens Variable geometry acoustical domes, Villa Médicis Rome Musée Archéologie de l’Oise, Vendeuil-Caply Business Center of the Bâle/Mulhouse Airport
Projects	Cultural Center In Épinay-Sous-Sénart Museum of the Fromelles Fight Job Center In Nantes Médiathèque de Saint Hilaire Saint Cyprien Auditorium and movie theater, Sud Roussillon Eiffel DNA, temporary plateform, Paris Art Arena , Rolland collection museum, London Technopole Innovia, Dole Place des Saisons, Tour First, la Défense

David Serero is a French architect.

Biography[link]

He was born in 1974 in Grenoble. He graduated with a Master in Architecture and Urban planning from Columbia University (New York) and with an Architecture Degree from Ecole d’architecture Paris-Villemin. He lives and works in Paris and in New York.
In 2002, he was listed by the magazine Surface as one of the top ten Avant Garde Designers. He also received in 2002 the “Nouveaux albums des jeunes architectes français” award by the French Ministry for Culture and, the same year, the New York Young Architects award, by the architectural league of New York. In 2004, David Serero received the prestigious Rome Prize by the French Academy in Rome (Villa Medicis).
His work is characterized by a personal and innovative approach of architectural form and building enveloppe geometries. The wide use of organic forms, inspired from his studies of natural processes evokes the work of the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright or the aesthetic of Japanese architect Toyo Ito. His project of the new auditorium of Saint Cyprien (France) illustrates well this approach. He created, with a generative computer models of branches, a spectacular atrium covered with steel and concrete branches that diffuses natural light trough out the whole building. These researches brought him to work on topics of performance and redundancy, an approach particularly remarkable in his project Eiffel DNA (a temporary extension of the third floor of the Eiffel Tower for its 120th anniversary), which initiated a strong controversy.
In 2010, he won the competition for a new Cultural Center of Meudon-la-Forêt (France) in a city originally designed by the French architect Fernand Pouillon. He also won the Auditorium of Amiens, the Bâle/Mulhouse euroairport. In 2011 he won three project : Maisons des arts urbains d'Épinay-Sous-Sénart, the Museum of the Fromelles Fight and a Job Center in Nantes.
David Serero is an adjunct professor at the Ecole d’Architecture Malaquais in Paris where his research focuses on matters of structural morphology and the performance of building envelopes. He also lectured at New York Pratt Institute and at Columbia University and on architectural design studios and workshops in the USA, in France, Italy and Austria.

His work has been widely published and exhibited in shows in Paris at Pavillon de l’Arsenal, at the Villa Medicis in Rome, at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) of New York, at the New York Architectural League, the Venice Biennale, and the Mori Museum in Tokyo.

SERERO Architects & Urban Planners (SAU)[link]

Serero Architects was founded in 2000 in New York by David Serero. The firm develops projects combining research and design in the fields of architecture, landscape design and urban planning. With a particular interest in generative design, environmental control, and structural efficiency, Serero Architects attempts to explore new paths for architectural design by weaving connections between these fields and architectural practice.
High level of sustainability is one of the main targets of Serero Architects projects. Processes found in natural environment are a strong source of inspiration of the office to design architectural components such as natural ventilation systems, intelligent building skins and optimized natural light shaft.

Key projects[link]

• 2011-2014 : MUSEUM OF THE FROMELLES FIGHT / FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner

• 2011-2013 : CULTURAL CENTER IN EPINAY-SOUS-SÉNART / FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner

• 2011-2013 : JOB CENTER IN NANTES / FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner

• 2010-2013: MEUDON CULTURAL CENTER, MEUDON/ FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner

• 2010-2012: SAINT-HILAIRE MEDIA CENTER, SAINT-HILAIRE-DU-HARCOUET/FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner

• 2009-2012: AUDITOTIUM AND LIBRARY FOR THE UNIVERSITY OFAMIENS, AMIENS/FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner. Under construction.

• 2009-2010: BUSINESS CENTER EUROAIRPORT, MULHOUSE/FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner. Under construction

• 2009-2011: PLACE DES SAISONS, TOUR FIRST, LA DEFENSE/FRANCE

Under construction.

• 2008-2011: TECHNOPOLE INNOVIA, DOLE/FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner. Under construction

• 2007-2010: ORCINES CULTURAL CENTER, ORCINES /FRANCE
• 2007-2011: SAINT CYPRIEN AUDITORIUM AND MOVIE THEATER, SUD ROUSSILLON/FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner. Not realized.

• 2006-2009: ARCHEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF OISE, VENDEUIL-CAPLY /FRANCE

Competition First Prize Winner. Under construction

• 2006-2007: EXHIBITION DESIGN OF THE « DIASPORA D’AFRIQUE » AND « ARTS DU BÉNIN », PARIS/FRANCE

BUILT

• 2005: ARCADE GROUPE HEADQUARTERS, PARIS/FRANCE

BUILT.

• 2004-2005: VARIABILITY GEOMETRY ACOUSTICAL DOMES, Villa Médicis, ROME/ ITALY

BUILT.

• 2004-2012: HELLENIKON METROPOLITAN PARK, ATHENS, GREECE

Competition Prize Winner. Under construction

• 2004-2005: NEW YORK CENTER FOR THE ART STUDIES, NYCAMS, NEW YORK/USA

BUILT.

• 2004-2005: GLASS LOFT, NEW YORK /USA

BUILT.

• 2004: PS1/MOMA URBAN BEACH COMPETITION, NEW YORK/USA

FINALIST

• 2003-2008: ART ARENA, ART MOVIE MUSEUM,

Competition Prize Winner. Under realization

• 

  Saint Cyprien Auditorium

• 

  Cultural Center in Meudon

• 

  Euroairport Bâle/Mulhouse

• 

  Museum of the Fromelles Fight

• 

  Job Center in Nantes

• 

  Cultural Center in Epinay-Sous-Sénart

References[link]

• Official website

External links[link]

• http://www.archdaily.com/66565/saint-hilaire-du-harcouet-media-center-serero-architects/ [EN]
• http://www.archi-europe.com/news-952-serero-architects-prize-winner-for-the-conception-.html[EN]
• http://www.bustler.net/index.php/article/serero_architects_designs_meudon_new_cultural_center/[EN]
• http://www.archtracker.com/serero-architects-designs-meudon-new-cultural-center/2010/06//[EN]
• http://www.architecturenewsplus.com/profiles/100[EN]
• http://www.archiportale.com/news/2010/07/risultati/legno-vetro-e-cemento-bianco-per-l-universit%C3%A0-di-amiens_19544_37.html[IT]
• http://www.designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/10834/serero-architects-university-of-amiens-auditorium-and-library.html [EN]

Pamela Geller
Pamela Geller
Born	(1958-06-14) June 14, 1958 (age 54)[1] Long Island, New York, U.S.[2]
Residence	Upper East Side, New York, New York, U.S.[1]
Other names	Pamela Oshry
Citizenship	United States
Alma mater	Hofstra University; left before completing degree[1]
Occupation	Blogger, author, political activist, commentator, former newspaper editor
Organization	Co-founder of Freedom Defense Initiative, and Stop Islamization of America
Known for	Opposition to Park51 community center and mosque
Notable work(s)	The Post-American Presidency: The Obama Administration's War on America, with Robert Spencer[3]
Influenced by	Ayn Rand, Bat Ye'or, and Ibn Warraq[1]
Home town	Hewlett Harbor, Long Island, New York[1]
Board member of	Executive Director of the Freedom Defense Initiative (FDI) and Stop Islamization of America (SIOA)[4]
Religion	Jewish
Spouse	Michael Oshry (divorced)[1]
Children	4
Parents	Reuben ("Ruby") and Lillian Geller[1]
Website
Atlas Shrugs

Pamela Geller (born June 14, 1958)^[5] is an American blogger, author, political activist, and commentator.^[1] She is known primarily for her criticisms of Islam and opposition to Muslim activities and causes, such as the proposed construction of an Islamic community center near the former site of the World Trade Center. She has described her blogging and campaigns in the United States as being against what she terms "creeping Sharia" in the country.

Geller and Robert Spencer co-founded the Freedom Defense Initiative and Stop Islamization of America,^[6] an organization which is labeled as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League^[7] and the Southern Poverty Law Center.^[8][9] Geller and Spencer also co-authored the book The Post-American Presidency: The Obama Administration's War on America.^[3]

Personal life[link]

Early life[link]

Geller, born to Jewish parents Reuben ("Ruby") and Lillian Geller, is the third of four sisters.^[1][10][11] Growing up in Hewlett Harbor, Long Island, New York, she assisted in her father's business, where she learned to speak fluent Spanish.^[1][10] Two of her sisters became doctors, and the third became a teacher.^[1]

Geller attended Lynbrook High School and Hofstra University, though she left before completing her degree.^[1]

Marriage[link]

She was married to Michael Oshry from 1990 until the couple divorced in 2007, and is the single mother of four children.^[1]

Career[link]

Geller spent most of the 1980s working at the New York Daily News, first as a financial analyst and then in the advertising and marketing areas.^[12] She then became the associate publisher and top-ranking business executive of The New York Observer for five years, from 1989 through 1994, when she quit to stay home with her four daughters.^[1][13][14]

In January 2010 she co-founded the Freedom Defense Initiative organization (FDI) with Robert Spencer.^[15][16][17] Spencer is a blogger and author of articles and books relating to Islam and Islamic terrorism, and the founder of Jihad Watch.^[1]

Geller denies accusations of being anti-Muslim, saying that it is "a slanderous slur and it's unfair".^[18][19][20] She said:

the ground zero mosque ... To me it was an outrage, to me it was deeply offensive, to me it was indicative that interfaith dialogue and mutual respect and mutual understanding is a one-way street with Islamic supremacists, not Muslims. I believe that Muslims are more victimized by Islamic supremacists than even non-Muslims.^[21]

In an interview, Geller said "I have no problem with Islam. I have a problem with political Islam."^[21]

Geller has also lent her support to a number of other political causes. She has strongly defended former Serbian president Slobodan Milošević,^[18] denied the existence of Serbian concentration camps in the 1990s,^[22] said that black South Africans are engaging in a "genocide" against whites,^[23] and expressed support for the far right English Defence League.^[18][24]

In 2008, Geller co-wrote an editorial for Arutz Sheva expressing her distaste for fellow Jews who are not politically conservative:

It galls me that the Jews I fight for are self-destructive, suicidal even. Here in America (and the world over), Israel's real friends are in the Republican Party and yet over 80% of American Jews are Democrats. I don't get it. The conventional wisdom on the Left is that Israel is an oppressor and her actions are worse than the world's most depraved and dangerous regimes. Chomsky, Finkelstein, Soros – these men are the killers.^[25]

She encouraged Israel to "stand loud and proud. Give up nothing. Turn over not a pebble. For every rocket fired, drop a MOAB. Take back Gaza. Secure Judea and Samaria. Stop buying Haaretz. Throw leftists bums out."^[25]

She was an official blogger at the Republican National Convention of 2008.^[26]

She co-authored a book with Spencer, The Post-American Presidency: The Obama Administration's War on America, with a foreword by former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations John R. Bolton, which was published in July 2010.^[3] The book criticizes the Obama administration's treatment of the free-market system, freedom of speech, and foreign policy.

She is also a contributor to the conservative magazine, Human Events.^[27]

Stop Islamization of America and Park51[link]

Geller and Robert Spencer co-founded Stop Islamization of America.^[6] In May 2010, they began a strong campaign against the proposed Park51 Islamic community center and mosque, which Geller has referred to as the "Ground Zero Mega Mosque".^[28][29] She says that Park51 is viewed by Muslims as a "triumphal" monument built on "conquered land". She also appeared on a number of cable news shows speaking out against the proposed Islamic community center and mosque.^[12]

Geller has also advocated against Islam elsewhere. She argued that the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, one of Islam's holiest sites, should be removed because it was built on the same site as Judaism's former First and Second Temples.^[30] Geller also published an article defending Radovan Karadžic, indicted for genocide and other war crimes against Bosnian Muslims and Croats during the Siege of Sarajevo and Srebrenica Massacre; the article argued that the Muslims were not murdered but committed suicide to embarrass their enemies.^[31] In addition, Stop Islamization of America has sponsored ads which carry messages such as "Fatwa on Your Head?" and "Leaving Islam?" in several cities including New York City and Miami, pointing readers to a website called RefugefromIslam.com.^[12][32] Geller said the ads were meant to provide resources for Muslims who were afraid to leave the religion.^[32]

Geller first blogged in Atlas Shrugs about the proposed New York mosque in reaction to coverage in The New York Times on December 8, 2009.^[33][34] On December 21, she again blogged on the subject, referring to it as "Mosque at Ground Zero" and calling it "a stab in the eye".^[35] Geller next blogged about the building on May 24, 2010, when she reported on a self-selected reader poll connected with a report in the New York Daily News, urging her readers to vote in it. This is when she first used the phrase "Mega Mosque at Ground Zero".^[36][37]

Commenting on the controversy, Geller said,

I'm not leading the charge against the Islamic center near Ground Zero. The majority of Americans – 70% – find this deeply insulting, offensive. To call it anti-Muslim is a gross misrepresentation and to say that I'm responsible for all this emotion, again a gross misrepresentation.^[18]

When asked in an August 17, 2010, interview on CNN whether she agreed "that the terrorists who attacked us on 9/11 were practicing a perverted form of Islam, and that is not what is going to be practiced at this mosque", she responded "I will say that the Muslim terrorists were practicing pure Islam, original Islam."^[38]