Yakhchal in Yazd, Iran

Yakhchal near Kerman, Iran

Yakhchāl (Persian: یخچال‎ ice pit; yakh meaning ice and chāl meaning pit) is an ancient type of evaporative cooler. Above ground, the structure had a domed shape, but had a subterranean storage space; it was often used to store ice, but sometimes was used to store food as well. The subterranean space coupled with the thick heat-resistant construction material insulated the storage space year round. These structures were mainly built and used in Persia. Many that were built hundreds of years ago remain standing.

History[link]

By 400 BCE, Persian engineers had mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains, but more commonly they had a wall made along an east-west direction close to the yakhchal. In winter, the qanat water was channelled to the north side of the wall. The shadow of the wall made the water freeze more quickly so more ice was produced per winter day. Ice was stored in a specially designed, passively cooled refrigerator. This was a large underground space (up to 5,000 m³ (180,000 cu ft)) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made out of a special mortar called sārooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a qanat, and often contained a system of windcatchers or wind towers that could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels in summer days. The ice was then used to chill treats for royalty during hot summer days and to make faloodeh, the traditional Persian frozen dessert.

Features[link]

The yakhchal in Kerman is located about a mile from the center of the city. This cone-shaped building is about sixty feet high. The massive insulation and the continuous cooling waters that spiral down its side keep the ice stored there in winter frozen throughout the summer. These ice houses used in desert towns from antiquity have a trench at the bottom to catch what water does melt from the ice and allow it to refreeze during the cold desert nights. The ice is broken up and moved to caverns deep in the ground.^[why?] As more water runs into the trench, the process is repeated. Often seen around the ice houses and many of the homes in the desert are towers called badgirs or wind traps. Built of mud or mud brick, these badgirs, mentioned by Marco Polo, are square or round, but the operating principle is the same: to catch the slightest breeze in the vents at the top and to funnel the cooling air down through internal, vertically-placed wooded slats to the water or dwelling below. Alternately, the badgir can function as a chimney, expelling warm air to pull cool air out of a qanat (an underground stream).

In present-day Iran, the term yakhchal is also used to refer to modern household (and commercial) refrigerators.

See also[link]

• Ab Anbar
• Windcatchers
• Soltaniyeh
• Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity

References[link]

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2012)

• Harry Rutstein and Joanne Kroll In the Footsteps of Marco Polo ISBN 0-670-39683-4

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Fernando Sor
A lithographed painting of Fernando Sor, c.1825
Born	Baptized 14 February 1778 (date of birth unknown) Barcelona, Spain
Died	10 July 1839(1839-07-10) (aged 61) Paris, France
Nationality	Spanish
Occupation	Composer, guitarist

Josep Ferran Sorts i Muntades (baptized 14 February 1778 – died 10 July 1839) was a Spanish classical guitarist and composer. While he is best known for his guitar compositions, he also composed music for a wide range of genres, including opera, orchestra, string quartet, piano, voice, and ballet. His ballet score Cendrillon (Cinderella) received over one hundred performances. Sor’s works for guitar range from pieces for beginning players to advanced players such as Variations on a Theme of Mozart.

Sor gave concerts throughout Europe, including in England, Paris, Berlin, and Warsaw. Before the early 19th century, the guitar was little-known in England. Sor seems to have created a market for himself there and then met the demand.^[1] Sor’s contemporaries considered him to be the best guitarist in the world,^[2] and his works for guitar have been widely played and reprinted since his death.^[1]

As Sor's works were published in various countries, his name was translated, leading to variations in the spelling. Variations have included Joseph Fernando Macari Sors, Fernando Sor, Ferran Sor, Ferdinand Sor, and Ferdinando Sor.^{[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]}

Biography[link]

Musician and his Family, French oil painting (Bibliothèque Marmottan, Boulogne-Billancourt, Paris)

Spain[link]

Born in Barcelona to a fairly well-off family, Sor was descended from a long line of career soldiers, and intended to continue that legacy, but was distracted from this when his father introduced him to Italian opera. He fell in love with music and abandoned his military career goals. Along with opera, Sor's father also introduced him to the guitar, which, at the time, was little more than an instrument played in taverns, thought to be inferior to orchestral instruments.^[9]

At a young age, Sor’s parents were wary of giving his musical abilities too much special attention, because his father was afraid that it would distract from his Latin studies. Therefore, the very young Sor (less than 11 years old) began to write songs to words in Latin to impress his parents. He even invented his own system for notating music, as he had not yet received formal training.

When he reached the age of 11 or 12, the leader of the Barcelona Cathedral took attention to him as a young talent. In a very unfortunate stroke of fate, however, not long after Sor was enrolled in the school his father died, leaving his mother without the funds to continue Sor’s education at the Cathedral. However, at around the same time, the new abbot of Montserrat, Joseph Arredondo, heard of his talent as well, and provided funds for him to attend the “Escolanía” (Choir School) at the famous monastery in Montserrat. Sor reveals in writings, mainly from the last ten years of his life, that he was greatly attached to this place, and had fond, nostalgic memories of his childhood there. Unfortunately, his mother began to see that Sor was becoming greatly distracted from his “chosen” path in the military or administration, and following the advice of friends took him out of the monastery and placed him in military school for four years. It was not a terrible turn of events, as he had much free time to play and compose music in the army as well.^[4][10]

In 1808, when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, Sor began to write nationalistic music for the guitar, often accompanied by patriotic lyrics. Sor was even part of traveling military bands that would play protest music on the streets. He was also promoted to captain in Córdoba and may have fought battles against the French at this time. After the defeat of the Spanish army, however, Sor accepted an administrative post in the occupying government. Here he was to be officially labeled an afrancesado along with the other Spaniards who abandoned their defense of Spain to embrace the French Revolutionary ideas. After the Spanish repelled the French in 1813, Sor and the other afrancesados left Spain for fear of retribution. He went to Paris, and never returned to his home country again.^[4]

Paris, London, and Moscow[link]

Having completely abandoned his family’s ideal of a military or administrative post, Sor could finally give music a serious try in France. He gained renown at first as a virtuosic guitarist and composer for the instrument. When he attempted composing for operas, however, he was rejected by the French as a composer. His Op. 7 was a large and strange piece, strangely notated in three clefs, and no guitarist at the time could play it. Since France was no longer supportive of his music, Sor decided to try his talents elsewhere.

In 1815, he went to London, England, to attempt to build a stronger music career there. Again, he started to gain considerable fame as a guitarist, and even gave guitar and voice lessons. Since ballet in London was a more popular genre than opera, Sor decided to try his hand at this new area of music. He began to have considerable success this time, especially with his ballet Cendrillon, the most successful of his works in its own day.^[4]

By 1823, once he had acquired a level of fame in London, Sor again wandered away, this time with the ballerina Fèlicitè Hullen to Moscow in her quest to become a prima ballerina. Not much is known about his time in Russia, however, though much has been exaggerated about his romantic and professional life there.^[11] After three years in Moscow, he traveled around Europe giving concerts, getting into music circles everywhere he went.^[4]

In 1827, due partly to his advancing age, he settled down and decided to live out the rest of his life in Paris. It was during this retirement that he composed the majority of his guitar works. He had to comply with the demands of the public, though, and most guitarists wanted simple, nice-sounding pieces to practice that didn't require any special technical ability. It was in these last ten or so years of his life that his writings reveal his bitterness towards his career for the instrument. For example, Op, 43 is entitled Mes Ennuis (“My Annoyances”), and six of his ballets are dedicated to “whoever wants them.” These and other caustic remarks did not help his sales in the least. The foreword to Op.45 goes even further than sarcasm: “Let’s see if that’s that. Six short and easy pieces in stages which aim to lead to what has generally been agreed are difficulties. Composed and dedicated to the person with the least patience, by Fernando Sor. Opus 45.”^[12]

His last work was a mass in honor of his daughter, who died in 1837. Her death sent the already sickly Sor into serious depression, and he died in 1839, of tongue and throat cancer.^[4][9]

Quotations[link]

François-Joseph Fétis has called him "le Beethoven de la guitare"^{[citation needed]}, though he has also remarked the Sor had failed to produce a good tone^{[citation needed]} on one occasion.^[13]

"The creative worth of Sor's guitar sonatas is high. The ideas, which grow out of the instrument yet stand up well enough apart from it, are fresh and distinctive. The harmony is skillful and surprisingly varied, with bold key changes and with rich modulations in the development sections. The texture is naturally of interest too, with the melody shifted from top to bottom, to middle, and frequent contrapuntal bits added. Among the extended forms, the first Allegro movements still show considerable flexibility in the application of 'sonata form', especially in the larger number of ideas introduced and recalled. For that matter, the style still goes back to that of Joseph Haydn and Mozart, especially in the first movement of Op. 22, which has all the neatness of syntax and accompaniment to be found in a classic symphony, and its third and fourth movements, which could nicely pass as a Minuet and Rondo by Haydn."

—The sonata in the classical era (published 1963) (p. 664) by William S. Newman

"How should one perform Sor's music? I believe the answer is with considerably more freedom, expression and passion than has, for the most part, been done in the recent past. Sor, in his method of 1830 has much to say about the use of tone color on the guitar and even discusses how to imitate the various orchestral instruments. This use of color is something that is very uncommon amongst modern guitarists. Ironically Sor says very little about other aspects of expression, but other guitar methods from the era do recommend much use of portamento, arpeggiation of chords, and other expressive devices which most people today consider anachronistic and completely out of style in the interpretation of the guitar music from this very era! (It never ceases to amaze me how so many modern guitarists and musicologists [...] don't even consider the wealth of material and instruction from Sor's era which cries out that this music is meant to be expressed with such devices as dynamics, tone color, portamento, chordal arpeggiation [...]. These same modern guitarists with the conspiratorial support of supposedly enlightened musicologists will often perform this music, sometimes on a "period" guitar, and use practically none of the above-mentioned expressive devices.)"

—Fernando Sor – Master Composer For Guitar?^[14]

Works[link]

The original cover of Sor's Variations on a Theme of Mozart, Op. 9, published in Paris in 1821

	Opus 31 No. 1 The first piece from Sor's Opus 31, c.1828
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

One of Sor's most popular compositions is his "Introduction and Variations on a Theme by Mozart", Op. 9. It is based on a melody "Das klinget so herrlich, das klinget so schön!"^[15] from The Magic Flute, which Mozart composed in 1791.^[16]

Méthode pour la Guitare[link]

Sor's Méthode pour la Guitare was first published in Paris in 1830 and translated into English by A Merrick in 1832 under the title Method for the Spanish Guitar .

The original cover of Sor's Méthode pour la Guitare, published in Paris in 1830.

Instructional material[link]

Sor was a prolific and, in his time, quite popular composer—and there was a great demand for him to compose material that was approachable by less accomplished players. The resulting body of instructional studies he produced is not only noteworthy for its value to students of the guitar, but for its inherent musicality. Much of this work is organized in several opuses (in increasing order of difficulty): Opus 60 (25 lessons), Opus 44 (24 lessons), Opus 35 (24 exercises), Opus 31 (24 lessons), Opus 6 (12 studies) and Opus 29 (12 studies).

Instruments used by Sor[link]

Sor undoubtably played guitars by Pierre René Lacôte, mentioning: "M. Lacote, a French maker, the only person who, besides his talents, has proved to me that he possesses the quality of not being inflexible to reasoning".^[17]

• Some guitars of Lacote show Sor's signature: Fernando Sor, the Catalan guitarist living in Paris has signed a number of guitars by René Lacôte – examples now survive in the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, Cat. No. 2521; and in private ownership (exhibited at the Londen Early Music Instrument Makers Exhibition, 1991). Sor also lent his name to the instruments of Louis Panormo of London. However, in neither case is the instrument known, then or now, as a "Sor model".^[18]

A guitar of Lacote that was signed by Sor is displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art: 1. In his method, Sor mentions: "[...] if I wanted an instrument, I would procure it from M. Joseph Martinez of Malaga, or from M. Lacote [...]
The guitars to which I have always given the preference are those of Alonzo of Madrid, Pagès and Benediz of Cadiz, Joseph and Manuel Martinez of Malaga, or Rada, successor and scholar of the latter, and those of M. Lacote of Paris. I do not say that others do not exist; but never having tried them, I cannot decide on that which I have no knowledge." In his method, he also mentions that "J. Panormo" of London and "Mr. Schroeder of Petersburgh", made some guitars under his direction; but it is curious that he mentions them only in regard to his own guitar design ideas, which are today partly critically viewed. Guitars made according to Sor's design have not yet been located.

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Fernando Sor, Composer and Guitarist by Brian Jeffery (London, Tecla, second edition, 1994). A critical view of the second edition, by Matanya Ophee
• Moser, Wolf. “Fernando Sor: the Life and Works of a Reluctant Guitarist, Part Two.” Classical Guitar Magazine 26 No. 4 December 2007: 20 – 25.
• Moser, Wolf. “Fernando Sor: the Life and Works of a Reluctant Guitarist, Part One.” Classical Guitar Magazine 26 No. 3 November 2007: 20 – 25.
• Ophee, Matanya. “Fernando Sor and the Russians.” Soundboard Magazine, Volume XXXI No. 3-4 2007: 13 – 29.
• Diccionario biográfico-bibliográfico de efemérides de músicos españoles by Baltasar Saldoni 1868
• historical source Revue de Paris; published by Demengeot & Goodman, e.a., 1851
• historical source Bentley's miscellany; by Charles Dickens, William Harrison Ainsworth, Albert Smith; published by Richard Bentley, 1844
• Recensionen: Guitarre-Schule von Ferdinand Sor Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung; published by Breitkopf und Härtel, 1832
• historical source Dictionnaire des artistes de l'école française, au XIXe siècle; by Charles Gabet; 1831
• historical source Seven years of the King's theatre; by John Ebers; published by Carey, Lea & Carey, 1828
• historical source Revue musicale; by F. J. Fétis; 1827
• historical source The Harmonicon, 1823

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fernando Sor

Sheet music[link]

• Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music 1 Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark
• Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden
• George C. Krick Collection of Guitar Music Washington University
• creativeguitar.org (sheetmusic largely compiled from the above primary sources)
• Complete Works for Guitar (sheetmusic largely compiled from the above primary sources)
• Free scores by Fernando Sor at the International Music Score Library Project
• Free scores by Fernando Sor in the Werner Icking Music Archive (WIMA)
• HOMAdream Complete guitar works by Fernando Sor (Engraved and edited by Jun Sugawara)

Biography and Articles[link]

• Fernando Sor UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography, (2003)
• Biography (www.musicweb-international.com)
• Biography (www.classicalguitar.net)
• (Spanish)Fernando Sor: Músicas En La Guitarra by Gerardo Arriaga Moreno

Publications[link]

• The Doctrine of Affections: short story collection including "The Studies of Fernando Sor"
• Information (Tecla Editions)
• Ich, Fernando Sor Versuch einer Autobiografie und gitarristische Schriften; by Wolf Moser (Edition Saint-Georges, ISBN 30001552741)

Photos[link]

• Images of Sor (Gallica)
• Image of Sor (enciclopedia.cat)
• Fernando Sor's grave at the Cimetière de Montmartre: paris.fr (Plan of the cemetery – Sor's grave is located at Division 24, number 1) (see also landrucimetieres.fr, findagrave.com)

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Carlo Domeniconi with a Luigi Mozzani guitar from 1938

Carlo Domeniconi (born 1947) is an Italian guitarist and composer known as a concert artist in both the classical and jazz idioms. Born in Cesena, Italy, he received his first instruction with Carmen Lenzi Mozzani at the age of 13. By age 17, he had received his diploma from the Rossini Conservatory in Pesaro.

In 1966, Domeniconi left Italy for West Berlin, where he studied composition at the University of Music (later The Berlin University of the Arts). He further worked at the university for 20 years as a professor.

Later, Domeniconi visited Turkey and became enamoured with its people and culture. He started the department for guitar studies at the conservatory in Istanbul and developed a compositional style that reflected the regional folk influence.

Domeniconi possibly is most well known for his 1985 piece Koyunbaba. The name is actually Turkish and literally translates as "sheep-father" (koyun-baba), or "shepherd", some sources also translate it to "the spirit of the sheep", but also refers to many other things, including a 13th century mystical saint-like figure whose grave is decorated with coloured bits of cloth by Turkish villagers seeking his help with family problems. "Koyunbaba" is also the family name of his descendants, who still reside in the area, and the name of a wild, dry region of Southwest Turkey. According to local legend, the area is seemingly cursed - numerous people who have attempted to rent or purchase the land from the Koyunbaba family have died or fallen ill. Domeniconi has referred to two specific examples: one was a German woman who wanted to keep the area in its natural and unspoiled state, but was soon stricken with cancer. The other was one of three sons of the Koyunbaba family who suddenly sold some of the land, but then hanged himself.

Recordings[link]

• Concerto di Berlinbul - Koyunbaba (1991) cover program
• Sindbad - Ein Märchen für Gitarre (kr 1001, Kreuzberg Records)
  mp3: Return to Baghdad
• To Play or not to play (kr 5004, Kreuzberg Records)
• Watermusic (Carlo Domeniconi & Silvia Ocougne) (kr 1002, Kreuzberg Records)
• Movement in Circles, Chamber Music 1989-1995 (kr 10019, Kreuzberg Records)
• El trino del Diablo (kr 1004, Kreuzberg Records)
• Selected Works I (met 1001, Co-production: edition ex tempore, Berlin & HOMA dream, Japan)
• Selected Works II (met 1002, Co-production: edition ex tempore, Berlin & HOMA dream, Japan)
• Selected Works I - solo guitar works, 2005 (met 1001)
• Selected Works II - solo guitar works, 2005 (met 1002)
• Selected Works III - Music for two guitars, 2006 (met 1003)
• Selected Works IV - Chamber music, 2009 (met 1004)
• Selected Works V - 25 years Koyunbaba, 2009 (met 1005)
• Concerto Mediterraneo (1993) op.67 (Hänssler CD 98.347, Hänssler CLASSIC)

Publications[link]

• Carlo Domeniconi - Berlinbul Concerto - Doppelkonzert für Saz, Gitarre und Orchester, op. 29 from edition ex tempore, Berlin
• Carlo Domeniconi - Suite Pittoresca - Für Bassklarinette, Gitarre und Streichorchester from edition ex tempore, Berlin

References[link]

External links[link]

• Carlo Domeniconi official website (English and German) with biography, photos, and complete list of compositions and current CDs
• Biography and Photos
• (German) Carlo Domeniconi
• Photos of Masterclass (Ligita 2005)
• Photos of Presentation (Ligita 2005)

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