- published: 28 Nov 2011
- views: 3700
- author: JTS Vid
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Sephardic History: Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 23:49
- Updated: 14 May 2013
A 6 part introduction to Medieval Jewish History with JTS Professor Benjamin Gampel. Part 1: When the Jews Arrived in the Iberian Peninsula.
http://wn.com/Sephardic_History_Part_1
A 6 part introduction to Medieval Jewish History with JTS Professor Benjamin Gampel. Part 1: When the Jews Arrived in the Iberian Peninsula.
Israeli pop icon, Hedva Amrani, on Sephardic Jews' expulsion by Arabs to refuge in Israel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:09
- Updated: 16 Mar 2013
http://jootube.tv Songstress Hedva retells the Arab expulsion of Jews during the 1940s to '50s - and the Sephardic Jews experience of their absorption by Isr...
http://wn.com/Israeli_pop_icon,_Hedva_Amrani,_on_Sephardic_Jews'_expulsion_by_Arabs_to_refuge_in_Israel
http://jootube.tv Songstress Hedva retells the Arab expulsion of Jews during the 1940s to '50s - and the Sephardic Jews experience of their absorption by Isr...
- published: 18 Dec 2010
- views: 1680
- author: JooTubeTV
The Sephardic Experience
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:52
- Updated: 09 Apr 2013
This film was created with the intention of teaching others about the converse (Jews who where forced into conversion) culture and history.
http://wn.com/The_Sephardic_Experience
This film was created with the intention of teaching others about the converse (Jews who where forced into conversion) culture and history.
- published: 09 Nov 2011
- author: shoshanatyakov
Differences ashkenazim and sephardim jewu 343
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:40
- Updated: 26 Apr 2013
Award winning ONLINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM PROGRAM-Gold Medal in Adult Jewish Education/Supervised by Beit Din of Jewish Conversion Academy of Chicago and On...
http://wn.com/Differences_ashkenazim_and_sephardim_jewu_343
Award winning ONLINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM PROGRAM-Gold Medal in Adult Jewish Education/Supervised by Beit Din of Jewish Conversion Academy of Chicago and On...
- published: 16 Jan 2008
- author: rjhgins
Jewish NYC: Sephardic Festival
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:52
- Updated: 06 Mar 2013
DJ Diwon and hip hop artists DeScribe and Y-Love meet with "Jewish NYC" host Sivan Hadari at the Sephardic Music Festival, presented by Shemspeed. Original S...
http://wn.com/Jewish_NYC_Sephardic_Festival
DJ Diwon and hip hop artists DeScribe and Y-Love meet with "Jewish NYC" host Sivan Hadari at the Sephardic Music Festival, presented by Shemspeed. Original S...
- published: 29 Jun 2011
- author: ShalomTVcom
History of Sephardic Jews: Al Hambra Decree; Sephardic Conquistadors; Sephardic Piracy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:42
- Updated: 18 Apr 2013
Music by Adik Chezron; "Intro: Historia de Sefardim" from "Sefarad EP.
http://wn.com/History_of_Sephardic_Jews_Al_Hambra_Decree;_Sephardic_Conquistadors;_Sephardic_Piracy
Music by Adik Chezron; "Intro: Historia de Sefardim" from "Sefarad EP.
- published: 08 Aug 2010
- author: SephardicHistory
Frankfurt's Green Sauce Festival: Sephardic Jewish Cuisine Celebrated in Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:41
- Updated: 18 Jun 2012
The gruene sosse or green sauce festival marks the beginning of spring, and celebrates Frankfurt's most popular dish which in turn is a symbol of Frankfurt's...
http://wn.com/Frankfurt's_Green_Sauce_Festival_Sephardic_Jewish_Cuisine_Celebrated_in_Germany
The gruene sosse or green sauce festival marks the beginning of spring, and celebrates Frankfurt's most popular dish which in turn is a symbol of Frankfurt's...
- published: 16 May 2012
- views: 512
- author: JewishNewsOne
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel with Thousands of Sephardic Jews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel Night before Yom Kipur with Thousands of Sephardic Jews together with Rav Ovadia Yosef.
http://wn.com/Belz_Rebbe_Attending_Slichos_Prayers_at_Kosel_with_Thousands_of_Sephardic_Jews
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel Night before Yom Kipur with Thousands of Sephardic Jews together with Rav Ovadia Yosef.
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 642
- author: Yossi Weinberger
Latinos discovering their Jewish roots
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:01
- Updated: 30 Apr 2013
Over the years, many Latin Americans have begun discovering that they have Sephardic Jewish ancestry from Spain and Portugal through their family history and...
http://wn.com/Latinos_discovering_their_Jewish_roots
Over the years, many Latin Americans have begun discovering that they have Sephardic Jewish ancestry from Spain and Portugal through their family history and...
- published: 20 Apr 2012
- views: 4191
- author: YehudaMizrahi
Ending a 500-year exile: Sephardi Jews retrace their roots in order to become Spanish again
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:18
- Updated: 14 May 2013
One of the hottest topics from the international Jewish community in recent months has been the proposed legislation that will allow Jews who can prove their...
http://wn.com/Ending_a_500-year_exile_Sephardi_Jews_retrace_their_roots_in_order_to_become_Spanish_again
One of the hottest topics from the international Jewish community in recent months has been the proposed legislation that will allow Jews who can prove their...
- published: 28 Mar 2013
- views: 364
- author: JewishNewsOne
The Flying Rabbi Dovid Sandek - What Means to be Bukharian (Sephardic Jews)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:07
- Updated: 18 Apr 2013
What Means to be Bukharian (Sephardic Jews) and his own life observations on streets of Boro Park.
http://wn.com/The_Flying_Rabbi_Dovid_Sandek_What_Means_to_be_Bukharian_Sephardic_Jews
What Means to be Bukharian (Sephardic Jews) and his own life observations on streets of Boro Park.
- published: 18 Apr 2012
- views: 1042
- author: alexdj24
Berrebbi Berebi Alexandria Egypt 1950 Sephardic Jews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 30 Apr 2013
via YouTube Capture.
http://wn.com/Berrebbi_Berebi_Alexandria_Egypt_1950_Sephardic_Jews
Voice of the Turtle - " O madre mia " ( Sephardic Jewish Music from Turkey )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Updated: 06 Apr 2013
In this song Turkish Jews describe the Balkan Wars, when European armies were invading Edirne. Many Sephardic Jews served in the Ottoman Army. The song is in...
http://wn.com/Voice_of_the_Turtle_O_madre_mia_Sephardic_Jewish_Music_from_Turkey_
In this song Turkish Jews describe the Balkan Wars, when European armies were invading Edirne. Many Sephardic Jews served in the Ottoman Army. The song is in...
- published: 03 Nov 2011
- views: 1971
- author: prehistoricmusic
Deal Town Orthodox Sephardic Jews Kidney Sales Scandal Crime New Jersey by BK Bazhe.com
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Updated: 09 Apr 2013
Deal - http://www.BAZHE.com Monmouth County, New Jersey. Deal, a Borough in Monmouth County, New Jersey, boasts a significant population of Orthodox Sephardi...
http://wn.com/Deal_Town_Orthodox_Sephardic_Jews_Kidney_Sales_Scandal_Crime_New_Jersey_by_BK_Bazhecom
Deal - http://www.BAZHE.com Monmouth County, New Jersey. Deal, a Borough in Monmouth County, New Jersey, boasts a significant population of Orthodox Sephardi...
- published: 01 Aug 2010
- views: 2566
- author: BAZHE
Question - Sephardic Jews.mp4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:35
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
2 Nights 4 Israel Panel Question: Wat do you think is happening with the Sephardic Jews?
http://wn.com/Question_Sephardic_Jewsmp4
2 Nights 4 Israel Panel Question: Wat do you think is happening with the Sephardic Jews?
- published: 14 Dec 2011
- views: 408
- author: Abba World Wide Ministries
Rabbi Kahane on Sephardic Jews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:28
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Why Sephardic Jews Support(ed) Rabbi Meir Kahane Many have heard of Rabbi Kahane, But few have actualy heard Rabbi Kahane. HEAR RABBI MEIR KAHANE! Know what ...
http://wn.com/Rabbi_Kahane_on_Sephardic_Jews
Why Sephardic Jews Support(ed) Rabbi Meir Kahane Many have heard of Rabbi Kahane, But few have actualy heard Rabbi Kahane. HEAR RABBI MEIR KAHANE! Know what ...
- published: 15 Feb 2012
- views: 1194
- author: jewishpride4life
The tribe of JUDAH the Jamaican sephardic Jews new torah scroll celebration
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:51
- Updated: 25 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/The_tribe_of_JUDAH_the_Jamaican_sephardic_Jews_new_torah_scroll_celebration
Voice of the Turtle - "Por la tu puerta" - (Sephardic Jewish Music from Turkey)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Updated: 11 May 2013
Voice of the Turtle -" Por la Tu Puerta " - Sephardic Jewish Music from Turkey ----------------------------- The song is in Ladino, which is a version of old...
http://wn.com/Voice_of_the_Turtle_Por_la_tu_puerta_Sephardic_Jewish_Music_from_Turkey
Voice of the Turtle -" Por la Tu Puerta " - Sephardic Jewish Music from Turkey ----------------------------- The song is in Ladino, which is a version of old...
- published: 21 Nov 2011
- author: prehistoricmusic
Becoming Jewish Argentines
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 58:35
- Updated: 19 Mar 2013
In "Becoming Jewish Argentines: Sephardim, Marriage Choice, and the Construction of a Jewish Argentine Identity (1920-1960)," Adriana Brodsky explores the ma...
http://wn.com/Becoming_Jewish_Argentines
In "Becoming Jewish Argentines: Sephardim, Marriage Choice, and the Construction of a Jewish Argentine Identity (1920-1960)," Adriana Brodsky explores the ma...
- published: 10 Apr 2012
- views: 1166
- author: LibraryOfCongress
SEPHARDIC JEWISH SINGING
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:37
- Updated: 10 May 2012
החזן ר׳ יוסף דוויק והחזן ר׳ משה אליהו בקטעים מתוך תפילה של שבת בבית כנסת ל״עולי סוריה ולבנון״ בחיפה Rabbis Yosy Duvek and Moshe Eliyahu sing parts of the Sha...
http://wn.com/SEPHARDIC_JEWISH_SINGING
החזן ר׳ יוסף דוויק והחזן ר׳ משה אליהו בקטעים מתוך תפילה של שבת בבית כנסת ל״עולי סוריה ולבנון״ בחיפה Rabbis Yosy Duvek and Moshe Eliyahu sing parts of the Sha...
- published: 09 May 2012
- views: 356
- author: Ariel Ben Avraham
The Ringworm Children, Ashkenazi Jews Genocide Sephardic Jews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:23
- Updated: 02 Apr 2013
http://wn.com/The_Ringworm_Children,_Ashkenazi_Jews_Genocide_Sephardic_Jews
Interview with Yitzchak Kerem on "The Sephardic Jewish Experience in Israel"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:59
- Updated: 06 May 2013
Lowell interviews Dr. Yitchak Kerem on "The Sephardi Jewish Experience in Israel" Dr. Kerem is the C.E.O. of the Foundation for Jewish Diversity set up to es...
http://wn.com/Interview_with_Yitzchak_Kerem_on_The_Sephardic_Jewish_Experience_in_Israel
Lowell interviews Dr. Yitchak Kerem on "The Sephardi Jewish Experience in Israel" Dr. Kerem is the C.E.O. of the Foundation for Jewish Diversity set up to es...
- published: 04 Dec 2012
- author: Lowell Gallin
BBSOO Men's Club LECTURE RE SEPHARDIC JEWS 6207
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 02 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/BBSOO_Men's_Club_LECTURE_RE_SEPHARDIC_JEWS_6207
Send this Playlist by SMS
History of Sephardic Jews: Al Hambra Decree; Sephardic Conquistadors; Sephardic Piracy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:42
- Updated: 18 Apr 2013
Music by Adik Chezron; "Intro: Historia de Sefardim" from "Sefarad EP.
http://wn.com/History_of_Sephardic_Jews_Al_Hambra_Decree;_Sephardic_Conquistadors;_Sephardic_Piracy
Music by Adik Chezron; "Intro: Historia de Sefardim" from "Sefarad EP.
- published: 08 Aug 2010
- author: SephardicHistory
The Sephardic Experience
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:52
- Updated: 09 Apr 2013
This film was created with the intention of teaching others about the converse (Jews who where forced into conversion) culture and history.
http://wn.com/The_Sephardic_Experience
This film was created with the intention of teaching others about the converse (Jews who where forced into conversion) culture and history.
- published: 09 Nov 2011
- author: shoshanatyakov
Interview with Yitzchak Kerem on "The Sephardic Jewish Experience in Israel"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:59
- Updated: 06 May 2013
Lowell interviews Dr. Yitchak Kerem on "The Sephardi Jewish Experience in Israel" Dr. Kerem is the C.E.O. of the Foundation for Jewish Diversity set up to es...
http://wn.com/Interview_with_Yitzchak_Kerem_on_The_Sephardic_Jewish_Experience_in_Israel
Lowell interviews Dr. Yitchak Kerem on "The Sephardi Jewish Experience in Israel" Dr. Kerem is the C.E.O. of the Foundation for Jewish Diversity set up to es...
- published: 04 Dec 2012
- author: Lowell Gallin
Israeli pop icon, Hedva Amrani, on Sephardic Jews' expulsion by Arabs to refuge in Israel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:09
- Updated: 16 Mar 2013
http://jootube.tv Songstress Hedva retells the Arab expulsion of Jews during the 1940s to '50s - and the Sephardic Jews experience of their absorption by Isr...
http://wn.com/Israeli_pop_icon,_Hedva_Amrani,_on_Sephardic_Jews'_expulsion_by_Arabs_to_refuge_in_Israel
http://jootube.tv Songstress Hedva retells the Arab expulsion of Jews during the 1940s to '50s - and the Sephardic Jews experience of their absorption by Isr...
- published: 18 Dec 2010
- views: 1680
- author: JooTubeTV
Sephardic History: Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 23:49
- Updated: 14 May 2013
A 6 part introduction to Medieval Jewish History with JTS Professor Benjamin Gampel. Part 1: When the Jews Arrived in the Iberian Peninsula.
http://wn.com/Sephardic_History_Part_1
A 6 part introduction to Medieval Jewish History with JTS Professor Benjamin Gampel. Part 1: When the Jews Arrived in the Iberian Peninsula.
- published: 28 Nov 2011
- views: 3700
- author: JTS Vid
Differences ashkenazim and sephardim jewu 343
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:40
- Updated: 26 Apr 2013
Award winning ONLINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM PROGRAM-Gold Medal in Adult Jewish Education/Supervised by Beit Din of Jewish Conversion Academy of Chicago and On...
http://wn.com/Differences_ashkenazim_and_sephardim_jewu_343
Award winning ONLINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM PROGRAM-Gold Medal in Adult Jewish Education/Supervised by Beit Din of Jewish Conversion Academy of Chicago and On...
- published: 16 Jan 2008
- author: rjhgins
Latinos discovering their Jewish roots
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:01
- Updated: 30 Apr 2013
Over the years, many Latin Americans have begun discovering that they have Sephardic Jewish ancestry from Spain and Portugal through their family history and...
http://wn.com/Latinos_discovering_their_Jewish_roots
Over the years, many Latin Americans have begun discovering that they have Sephardic Jewish ancestry from Spain and Portugal through their family history and...
- published: 20 Apr 2012
- views: 4191
- author: YehudaMizrahi
המוסיקה היהודית האנדלוסית يهود الأندلس Jewish Sephardic music
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:39
- Updated: 05 May 2013
Mor Karbasi You wait 500 years for a Ladino singer to mix medieval Sephardic songs with a twist of flamenco, and then two come along at once. Following hard ...
http://wn.com/המוסיקה_היהודית_האנדלוסית_يهود_الأندلس_Jewish_Sephardic_music
Mor Karbasi You wait 500 years for a Ladino singer to mix medieval Sephardic songs with a twist of flamenco, and then two come along at once. Following hard ...
- published: 19 Nov 2010
- author: David Gardi
Sephardi Jews Spanish passport claims to be fast-tracked
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:43
- Updated: 10 May 2013
The Spanish government has said it will automatically give citizenship to Sephardi Jews who can prove their ancestry with an official written document, speed...
http://wn.com/Sephardi_Jews_Spanish_passport_claims_to_be_fast-tracked
The Spanish government has said it will automatically give citizenship to Sephardi Jews who can prove their ancestry with an official written document, speed...
- published: 26 Nov 2012
- author: JewishNewsOne
Ending a 500-year exile: Sephardi Jews retrace their roots in order to become Spanish again
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:18
- Updated: 14 May 2013
One of the hottest topics from the international Jewish community in recent months has been the proposed legislation that will allow Jews who can prove their...
http://wn.com/Ending_a_500-year_exile_Sephardi_Jews_retrace_their_roots_in_order_to_become_Spanish_again
One of the hottest topics from the international Jewish community in recent months has been the proposed legislation that will allow Jews who can prove their...
- published: 28 Mar 2013
- views: 364
- author: JewishNewsOne
Rabbi Kahane on Sephardic Jews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:28
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Why Sephardic Jews Support(ed) Rabbi Meir Kahane Many have heard of Rabbi Kahane, But few have actualy heard Rabbi Kahane. HEAR RABBI MEIR KAHANE! Know what ...
http://wn.com/Rabbi_Kahane_on_Sephardic_Jews
Why Sephardic Jews Support(ed) Rabbi Meir Kahane Many have heard of Rabbi Kahane, But few have actualy heard Rabbi Kahane. HEAR RABBI MEIR KAHANE! Know what ...
- published: 15 Feb 2012
- views: 1194
- author: jewishpride4life
Frankfurt's Green Sauce Festival: Sephardic Jewish Cuisine Celebrated in Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:41
- Updated: 18 Jun 2012
The gruene sosse or green sauce festival marks the beginning of spring, and celebrates Frankfurt's most popular dish which in turn is a symbol of Frankfurt's...
http://wn.com/Frankfurt's_Green_Sauce_Festival_Sephardic_Jewish_Cuisine_Celebrated_in_Germany
The gruene sosse or green sauce festival marks the beginning of spring, and celebrates Frankfurt's most popular dish which in turn is a symbol of Frankfurt's...
- published: 16 May 2012
- views: 512
- author: JewishNewsOne
6. (Sephardic Romances, Traditional Jewish Music from Spain) Ensemble Accentus - Si verias
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:01
- Updated: 16 May 2013
http://wn.com/6_Sephardic_Romances,_Traditional_Jewish_Music_from_Spain_Ensemble_Accentus_Si_verias
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel with Thousands of Sephardic Jews
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel Night before Yom Kipur with Thousands of Sephardic Jews together with Rav Ovadia Yosef.
http://wn.com/Belz_Rebbe_Attending_Slichos_Prayers_at_Kosel_with_Thousands_of_Sephardic_Jews
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel Night before Yom Kipur with Thousands of Sephardic Jews together with Rav Ovadia Yosef.
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 642
- author: Yossi Weinberger
Question - Sephardic Jews.mp4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:35
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
2 Nights 4 Israel Panel Question: Wat do you think is happening with the Sephardic Jews?
http://wn.com/Question_Sephardic_Jewsmp4
2 Nights 4 Israel Panel Question: Wat do you think is happening with the Sephardic Jews?
- published: 14 Dec 2011
- views: 408
- author: Abba World Wide Ministries
Jews of Jamaica the tribe of JUDAH sephardi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:18
- Updated: 03 Apr 2013
the Jews ruled Jamaica from 1494-1655 and still remain in Jamaica, over 400000 jamaicans have sephardi lineage and ancestry. warning to the (so-called "hebr...
http://wn.com/Jews_of_Jamaica_the_tribe_of_JUDAH_sephardi
the Jews ruled Jamaica from 1494-1655 and still remain in Jamaica, over 400000 jamaicans have sephardi lineage and ancestry. warning to the (so-called "hebr...
- published: 14 Nov 2012
- author: soloman king
Sephardic Jewish Turkish Haketia song- Landariko
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:43
- Updated: 24 Apr 2013
http://wn.com/Sephardic_Jewish_Turkish_Haketia_song_Landariko
Sephardic Jerusalem Jewish Music - Adon HaSlichot - Judeo-Mid East Music
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 11 Mar 2013
HaL'haka HaSepharadit HaYerushalmit performing the classic Adon HaSlichot. Featuring vocals by Uriel Suliman, qanun (zither) by Aaron Hai, violin by Yosef Ga...
http://wn.com/Sephardic_Jerusalem_Jewish_Music_Adon_HaSlichot_Judeo-Mid_East_Music
HaL'haka HaSepharadit HaYerushalmit performing the classic Adon HaSlichot. Featuring vocals by Uriel Suliman, qanun (zither) by Aaron Hai, violin by Yosef Ga...
- published: 23 Sep 2010
- views: 3160
- author: israelbeat
Jewish Sephardic wedding song from Morocco
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:05
- Updated: 16 May 2013
Sung by Francoise Atlan during the Fes Festival of Sacred world music, in Morocco. You can buy the CD on Amazon! The song is called The Golden ladder and it ...
http://wn.com/Jewish_Sephardic_wedding_song_from_Morocco
Sung by Francoise Atlan during the Fes Festival of Sacred world music, in Morocco. You can buy the CD on Amazon! The song is called The Golden ladder and it ...
- published: 30 Oct 2008
- views: 247889
- author: Sana Atwa
Ashkenazi & Sephardim Jews are not Khazars - DNA test
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:36
- Updated: 06 May 2013
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews.
http://wn.com/Ashkenazi_Sephardim_Jews_are_not_Khazars_DNA_test
Pope reunites with Buenos Aires chief rabbi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:18
- Updated: 02 May 2013
http://en.romereports.com Pope Francis reunited with one of his oldest friends from Buenos Aires. Isaac Sacca, is the chief rabbi of the Sephardi Jewish comm...
http://wn.com/Pope_reunites_with_Buenos_Aires_chief_rabbi
http://en.romereports.com Pope Francis reunited with one of his oldest friends from Buenos Aires. Isaac Sacca, is the chief rabbi of the Sephardi Jewish comm...
- published: 26 Apr 2013
- views: 1520
- author: romereports
SHOCKING SECRET HIDDEN BY FREEMASONS TO PROMOTE FAKE JEWS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:43
- Updated: 18 May 2013
secret video In the book The Thirteenth Tribe, Ashkenazi Jew Arthur Koestler documented the history : This book traces the history of the ancient Khazar Empi...
http://wn.com/SHOCKING_SECRET_HIDDEN_BY_FREEMASONS_TO_PROMOTE_FAKE_JEWS
secret video In the book The Thirteenth Tribe, Ashkenazi Jew Arthur Koestler documented the history : This book traces the history of the ancient Khazar Empi...
- published: 02 Apr 2009
- views: 92574
- author: dnadina
2:42
History of Sephardic Jews: Al Hambra Decree; Sephardic Conquistadors; Sephardic Piracy
Music by Adik Chezron; "Intro: Historia de Sefardim" from "Sefarad EP....
published: 08 Aug 2010
author: SephardicHistory
History of Sephardic Jews: Al Hambra Decree; Sephardic Conquistadors; Sephardic Piracy
Music by Adik Chezron; "Intro: Historia de Sefardim" from "Sefarad EP.
- published: 08 Aug 2010
- author: SephardicHistory
12:52
The Sephardic Experience
This film was created with the intention of teaching others about the converse (Jews who w...
published: 09 Nov 2011
author: shoshanatyakov
The Sephardic Experience
This film was created with the intention of teaching others about the converse (Jews who where forced into conversion) culture and history.
- published: 09 Nov 2011
- author: shoshanatyakov
14:59
Interview with Yitzchak Kerem on "The Sephardic Jewish Experience in Israel"
Lowell interviews Dr. Yitchak Kerem on "The Sephardi Jewish Experience in Israel" Dr. Kere...
published: 04 Dec 2012
author: Lowell Gallin
Interview with Yitzchak Kerem on "The Sephardic Jewish Experience in Israel"
Lowell interviews Dr. Yitchak Kerem on "The Sephardi Jewish Experience in Israel" Dr. Kerem is the C.E.O. of the Foundation for Jewish Diversity set up to es...
- published: 04 Dec 2012
- author: Lowell Gallin
10:09
Israeli pop icon, Hedva Amrani, on Sephardic Jews' expulsion by Arabs to refuge in Israel
http://jootube.tv Songstress Hedva retells the Arab expulsion of Jews during the 1940s to ...
published: 18 Dec 2010
author: JooTubeTV
Israeli pop icon, Hedva Amrani, on Sephardic Jews' expulsion by Arabs to refuge in Israel
http://jootube.tv Songstress Hedva retells the Arab expulsion of Jews during the 1940s to '50s - and the Sephardic Jews experience of their absorption by Isr...
- published: 18 Dec 2010
- views: 1680
- author: JooTubeTV
23:49
Sephardic History: Part 1
A 6 part introduction to Medieval Jewish History with JTS Professor Benjamin Gampel. Part ...
published: 28 Nov 2011
author: JTS Vid
Sephardic History: Part 1
A 6 part introduction to Medieval Jewish History with JTS Professor Benjamin Gampel. Part 1: When the Jews Arrived in the Iberian Peninsula.
- published: 28 Nov 2011
- views: 3700
- author: JTS Vid
4:40
Differences ashkenazim and sephardim jewu 343
Award winning ONLINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM PROGRAM-Gold Medal in Adult Jewish Education/Su...
published: 16 Jan 2008
author: rjhgins
Differences ashkenazim and sephardim jewu 343
Award winning ONLINE CONVERSION TO JUDAISM PROGRAM-Gold Medal in Adult Jewish Education/Supervised by Beit Din of Jewish Conversion Academy of Chicago and On...
- published: 16 Jan 2008
- author: rjhgins
8:01
Latinos discovering their Jewish roots
Over the years, many Latin Americans have begun discovering that they have Sephardic Jewis...
published: 20 Apr 2012
author: YehudaMizrahi
Latinos discovering their Jewish roots
Over the years, many Latin Americans have begun discovering that they have Sephardic Jewish ancestry from Spain and Portugal through their family history and...
- published: 20 Apr 2012
- views: 4191
- author: YehudaMizrahi
4:39
המוסיקה היהודית האנדלוסית يهود الأندلس Jewish Sephardic music
Mor Karbasi You wait 500 years for a Ladino singer to mix medieval Sephardic songs with a ...
published: 19 Nov 2010
author: David Gardi
המוסיקה היהודית האנדלוסית يهود الأندلس Jewish Sephardic music
Mor Karbasi You wait 500 years for a Ladino singer to mix medieval Sephardic songs with a twist of flamenco, and then two come along at once. Following hard ...
- published: 19 Nov 2010
- author: David Gardi
0:43
Sephardi Jews Spanish passport claims to be fast-tracked
The Spanish government has said it will automatically give citizenship to Sephardi Jews wh...
published: 26 Nov 2012
author: JewishNewsOne
Sephardi Jews Spanish passport claims to be fast-tracked
The Spanish government has said it will automatically give citizenship to Sephardi Jews who can prove their ancestry with an official written document, speed...
- published: 26 Nov 2012
- author: JewishNewsOne
5:18
Ending a 500-year exile: Sephardi Jews retrace their roots in order to become Spanish again
One of the hottest topics from the international Jewish community in recent months has bee...
published: 28 Mar 2013
author: JewishNewsOne
Ending a 500-year exile: Sephardi Jews retrace their roots in order to become Spanish again
One of the hottest topics from the international Jewish community in recent months has been the proposed legislation that will allow Jews who can prove their...
- published: 28 Mar 2013
- views: 364
- author: JewishNewsOne
0:28
Rabbi Kahane on Sephardic Jews
Why Sephardic Jews Support(ed) Rabbi Meir Kahane Many have heard of Rabbi Kahane, But few ...
published: 15 Feb 2012
author: jewishpride4life
Rabbi Kahane on Sephardic Jews
Why Sephardic Jews Support(ed) Rabbi Meir Kahane Many have heard of Rabbi Kahane, But few have actualy heard Rabbi Kahane. HEAR RABBI MEIR KAHANE! Know what ...
- published: 15 Feb 2012
- views: 1194
- author: jewishpride4life
2:41
Frankfurt's Green Sauce Festival: Sephardic Jewish Cuisine Celebrated in Germany
The gruene sosse or green sauce festival marks the beginning of spring, and celebrates Fra...
published: 16 May 2012
author: JewishNewsOne
Frankfurt's Green Sauce Festival: Sephardic Jewish Cuisine Celebrated in Germany
The gruene sosse or green sauce festival marks the beginning of spring, and celebrates Frankfurt's most popular dish which in turn is a symbol of Frankfurt's...
- published: 16 May 2012
- views: 512
- author: JewishNewsOne
7:01
6. (Sephardic Romances, Traditional Jewish Music from Spain) Ensemble Accentus - Si verias
...
published: 09 Jul 2011
author: theklezmertube
6. (Sephardic Romances, Traditional Jewish Music from Spain) Ensemble Accentus - Si verias
- published: 09 Jul 2011
- views: 35329
- author: theklezmertube
8:51
sephardic jews
...
published: 22 Mar 2013
author: arellgold1
sephardic jews
- published: 22 Mar 2013
- author: arellgold1
Vimeo results:
28:43
Sephardic Jews
Go with Neil and Jamie to Spain as they explore the history of the Jews from Sepharad (Spa...
published: 10 Mar 2011
author: Jewish Jewels
Sephardic Jews
Go with Neil and Jamie to Spain as they explore the history of the Jews from Sepharad (Spain). You will be fascinated by the stories of believers in Spain and the U.S. who have reconnected with the Jewish roots of their ancestors. Enjoy Sephardic cooking with Sheryl, Spanish music with Jonathan Settel.
2:01
Sephardic Jews: Forced Conversion
published: 23 Jul 2009
author: News21
Sephardic Jews: Forced Conversion
3:00
The Last Sephardic Jew -ENG
90Min. (2003)
Directed by: Miguel Angel Nieto
A co-production with: TVE - ARTE G.E.I.E.
E...
published: 30 May 2011
author: ALEA Docs&Films;
The Last Sephardic Jew -ENG
90Min. (2003)
Directed by: Miguel Angel Nieto
A co-production with: TVE - ARTE G.E.I.E.
Eliezer Papo, a young rabbi from Sarajevo and teacher of Jewish Spanish in Jerusalem, plans a solitary trip in the reverse direction of the hands of the clock. He intends to make, starting from Israel, the reverse route of the Jewish Diaspora that began in 1492 with the Jews expulsion from the country that the Bible calls Sepharad. He wants to reach Toledo, the city that was its spiritual capital.
Youtube results:
2:04
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel with Thousands of Sephardic Jews
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel Night before Yom Kipur with Thousands of Sep...
published: 03 Oct 2012
author: Yossi Weinberger
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel with Thousands of Sephardic Jews
Belz Rebbe Attending Slichos Prayers at Kosel Night before Yom Kipur with Thousands of Sephardic Jews together with Rav Ovadia Yosef.
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 642
- author: Yossi Weinberger
16:35
Question - Sephardic Jews.mp4
2 Nights 4 Israel Panel Question: Wat do you think is happening with the Sephardic Jews?...
published: 14 Dec 2011
author: Abba World Wide Ministries
Question - Sephardic Jews.mp4
2 Nights 4 Israel Panel Question: Wat do you think is happening with the Sephardic Jews?
- published: 14 Dec 2011
- views: 408
- author: Abba World Wide Ministries
13:18
Jews of Jamaica the tribe of JUDAH sephardi
the Jews ruled Jamaica from 1494-1655 and still remain in Jamaica, over 400000 jamaicans h...
published: 14 Nov 2012
author: soloman king
Jews of Jamaica the tribe of JUDAH sephardi
the Jews ruled Jamaica from 1494-1655 and still remain in Jamaica, over 400000 jamaicans have sephardi lineage and ancestry. warning to the (so-called "hebr...
- published: 14 Nov 2012
- author: soloman king
5:43
Sephardic Jewish Turkish Haketia song- Landariko
...
published: 24 Apr 2013
author: Miroslav Miskovic
Sephardic Jewish Turkish Haketia song- Landariko
- published: 24 Apr 2013
- views: 1
- author: Miroslav Miskovic
photo: Flickr
17 May 2013
17 May 2013, 17.17. Bunga Bunga. Berlusconi 'Prostitute' In Court. Tweet. A teenage former belly dancer who denies having sex with former Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi has given her version of events at his allegedly raunchy "bunga bunga" parties ... Prosecutors claim that Miss El Mahroug was 17 when she was paid by the politician for sex and he is on trial separately in relation to that accusation ... She added ... She added ... She said....(size: 5.8Kb)
photo: AP / Jerome Favre
18 May 2013
(Adds Elon Musk details in the 13th paragraph.). May 17 (Bloomberg) -- Bill Gates is once again the world’s richest person. The 57-year-old co-founder of Redmond, Washington-based Microsoft Corp. recaptured the title from Mexican investor Carlos Slim yesterday, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, as the software maker hit a five-year high. It is the first time Gates has held the mantle since 2007 ... He denies the accusation....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: AP / Misha Japaridze
18 May 2013
The US has scolded Russia for sending missiles to the Syrian government, with plans for an international peace conference promoted by the two major powers appearing to founder on diplomatic rifts over its scope and purpose. General Martin Dempsey, the most senior US military officer, has described Russia's recent delivery of anti-ship missiles to President Bashar al-Assad as "ill-timed and very unfortunate" ... Report....(size: 7.6Kb)
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The New York Times
20 May 2013
MADRID — Six months after announcing a significant easing of the naturalization process for Sephardic Jews, the Spanish government has yet to put the rules into practice, leaving many applicants for citizenship frustrated ... Since November, the Justice Ministry has granted citizenship to 20 Sephardic Jews under the existing naturalization rules, with 2,900 Sephardic citizenship requests under review, most filed before the announcement....(size: 5.3Kb)
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New York Post Online
20 May 2013
... Sephardic Jewish singles and young couples from their home base in Brooklyn ... Executive Director Rebecca Harary estimates that there are 2,000 to 3,000 Sephardic families on the Upper East Side — but quickly adds that membership will be open to all Jews....(size: 1.4Kb)
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Springfield News-Sun
20 May 2013
The group, known as "Women of the Wall," convenes monthly prayer services at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews can pray, wearing prayer shawls and ......(size: 0.8Kb)
Edit
Seattle Post
20 May 2013
The group, known as "Women of the Wall," convenes monthly prayer services at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews can pray, wearing prayer shawls and performing ......(size: 0.9Kb)
Edit
The Columbus Dispatch
20 May 2013
Letters Policy. The Dispatch welcomes letters to the editor from readers. Typed letters of 200 words or fewer are preferred; all might be edited ... Submit Your Letter. ONLINE FORM ... (No attachments, please) MAIL ... . There indeed were 6 million Jews killed in concentration camps during World War II ... We must stop associating the Holocaust only with Jews ... ....(size: 1.9Kb)
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Belfast Telegraph
20 May 2013
He/she did not, however, provide information on laws which prove apartheid in Israel ... Buried deep in bureaucratic arrangements is the fact that this land is reserved, in law, for Jews and Jews only ... Hence, if your correspondent is a non-Jew and should marry a non-Jewish citizen of Israel, then he/she and partner would be excluded from buying land, or a home, on 93% of Israel. Maybe then they would recognise it as apartheid. JACK O'NEILL....(size: 4.2Kb)
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The Washington Post
20 May 2013
Israeli TV footage showed black writing on the hallway and door of the Jerusalem home. Police spokesman Micky Rosenfeld said Monday police were investigating. Photos of the day ... Gen ... The group, known as “Women of the Wall,” convenes monthly prayer services at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews can pray, wearing prayer shawls and performing rituals that ultra-Orthodox Jews believe only men are allowed to do ... ....(size: 2.5Kb)
photo: WN / Ahmed Deeb
20 May 2013
To accomplish this Zionist Jews sought to annihilate Palestinians, raze their towns, wipe off their homeland of the map, and erase their culture from history, for an independent Palestinian state negates Israel’s so-called right of existence ... Supremacist Jews keep on planting more seeds of hatred among nations, and as in the past they will reap only hatred....(size: 14.6Kb)
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The New York Times
20 May 2013
Lapid acknowledged that tens of thousands of Jews would someday be uprooted from what he described as “remote settlements” in the West Bank, something he called “heartbreaking.” But he said that problem should be set aside for now, advocating the immediate creation of an interim Palestinian state in parts of the West Bank where no Jews live, with final borders drawn in perhaps three, four or five years....(size: 9.7Kb)
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The Examiner
20 May 2013
But don't worry, my fellow Catholics ... Jews celebrated Pentecost for hundreds of years before Jesus, albeit for different reasons ... For Jews, the feast is called Shavuot in their original Hebrew language, and some of the traditions associated with the holiday include the Feast of Weeks ... Jews observe the harvest of barley, and ended on Pentecost, with the harvest of wheat — the last grain to ripen during the year in the Holy Land ... Tweet ... ....(size: 10.5Kb)
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The Irish Times
20 May 2013
Diaspora, a term once associated only with the exile of the Jews from Israel more than two millennia ago, has moved to the centre of the global policy agenda in recent years as governments everywhere have woken up to the value of their migrants who have settled in other countries ... They represent an important conduit to their home countries as well as an enhancement of Irish society. ....(size: 2.0Kb)
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The News Tribune
20 May 2013
When they met at a 2007 Washington camp for scholarship winners, Bashair Alazadi was 16 and wore the traditional headscarf of all Muslim women. Carlos Sandoval was 17, Catholic and a smartass. “I grew up in Tacoma, and I’d never seen a Muslim,” said Sandoval, a graduate of Mount Tahoma High School ... Especially after the events of Sept. 11, 2001 ... “Muslims believe Christians and Jews are on the path to heaven, too....(size: 4.6Kb)
1st row: Maimonides • Isaac Abrabanel • Baruch Spinoza • David Nieto • Daniel Mendoza • David Ricardo |
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| Sephardi Jews 2,200,000 up to 15% of world Jewish population |
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Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, other Jewish ethnic divisions, Spaniards and Portuguese, |
See also: Spanish and Portuguese Jews
Sephardi Jews (Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּי, Modern Sfaraddi Tiberian Səp̄āraddî) is a general term referring to the descendants of the Jews who lived in the Iberian Peninsula before their expulsion in the Spanish Inquisition. It can also refer to those who use a Sephardic style of liturgy or would otherwise define themselves in terms of the Jewish customs and traditions which originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Accordingly, the term Sephardic Jew refers to the Jews following the Sephardic Halakha.
The term essentially means "Spanish". It comes from Sepharad (Hebrew: סְפָרַד, Modern Sfarád Tiberian Səp̄āráḏ), a Biblical location.[1] This location is disputed, but "Sepharad" was identified by later Jews as the Iberian Peninsula, and still means "Spain" in modern Hebrew.[citation needed]
In other languages and scripts, "Sephardi" translates as plural Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּים, Modern Sfaraddim Tiberian Səp̄āraddîm; Spanish: Sefardíes; Portuguese: Sefarditas; Catalan: Sefardites; Basque: Sefardiak; Galician: Sefardís; Italian: Sefarditi; Greek: Σεφαρδίτες Sefardites; Bulgarian: Сефаради Sefaradi; Bosnian: Sefardi; Serbian: Сефарди Sefardi; Turkish: Sefarad, Judaeo-Spanish: Sefaradies/Sefaradim; and Arabic: سفارديون Safārdīyyūn.
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Definition[link]
A Sephardi Jew is a Jew descended from, or who follows the customs and traditions followed by, Jews who lived in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) before their expulsion in the late 15th century. This includes both the descendants of Jews expelled from Spain under the Alhambra decree of 1492, or from Portugal by order of King Manuel I in 1497, and the descendants of crypto-Jews who left the Peninsula in later centuries to North Africa, Asia Minor, the Philippines and elsewhere around the world, and the descendants of crypto-Jews who remained in Iberia. In modern times, the term has also been applied to Jews who may not have been born Sephardi (or even Jewish) but attend Sephardic synagogues and practice Sephardic traditions. Today there are around 12,000 Jews in Spain and 2,500 in Portugal[2] (although it must be taken into account that, when expelled from Portugal, Jews were allowed to stay if they converted to Christianity, resulting in a high percentage being assimilated in the Portuguese population. See: History of the Jews in Portugal). There is also a community of 600 in Gibraltar.[3] These are not necessarily Sephardi as defined above.
The name comes from Sepharad (Hebrew: ספרד, Modern Səfarád Tiberian Səp̄aráḏ / Səp̄āraḏ ; Turkish: Sefarad), a Biblical location.[1] This was probably the "Saparda" mentioned in Persian inscriptions: the location of that is disputed, but may have been Sardis in Asia Minor. "Sepharad" was identified by later Jews as the Iberian Peninsula, and still means "Spain" in modern Hebrew.
For religious purposes, and in modern Israel, "Sephardim" is often used in a wider sense to include most Jews of Asian and African origin, who use a Sephardic style of liturgy. This article is mostly concerned with Sephardim in the narrower ethnic sense, rather than in this broader Modern Israeli Hebrew definition. See also: Jewish ethnic divisions.
The term Sephardi can also describe the nusach (Hebrew language, "liturgical tradition") used by Sephardi Jews in their Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Sephardim traditionally pray using Minhag Sefarad, which is quite similar to Nusach Edot haMizrach (liturgy of the Eastern Congregations). For more details of the Sephardic liturgy see Sephardic Judaism.[citation needed]
Note that the term Nusach Sefard or Nusach Sfarad does not refer to the liturgy generally recited by Sephardim, but rather to an alternative Eastern European liturgy used by many Hasidim.
Divisions[link]
Historically, Sephardim are those Jews associated with the Iberian Peninsula.
- The most prominent sub-group consists of the descendants of the Jews expelled from Spain in 1492, who settled in various parts of the Ottoman Empire, in particular Salonica and Istanbul, and whose traditional language is Judaeo-Spanish, sometimes known as Judezmo or Ladino. Some went further east to the Arabic-speaking territories of the Ottoman Empire, settling among the long-established Arabic-speaking Jewish communities in Baghdad, Damascus and Alexandria. A few followed the spice trade routes as far as the Malabar coast of southern India, where they settled among the established Cochin Jewish community.
- Another branch settled in Morocco and Algeria and spoke a variant of Judaeo-Spanish known as Haketia and Judeo-Arabic. Several of the Moroccan Jews emigrated back to the Iberian Peninsula to form the core of the Gibraltar community (see History of the Jews in Gibraltar). In the 19th century, modern Spanish and French gradually replaced Haketia and Judeo-Arabic as mother tongue among most Moroccan Sephardim and other North African Sephardim.[4]
- A third sub-group, known as Spanish and Portuguese Jews, consists of Jews whose families remained in Spain and Portugal as ostensible Christians, and later reverted to Judaism in Italy, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, England or the New World.
- A fourth sub-group, known as Crypto-Jews, are those who choose to remain hidden since the Spanish and Mexican Inquisitions, but practice secret Jewish rites in privacy. (Library of Congress, Microfiche 7906177). Safarditas are found particularly in the northern state of Nuevo León, Mexico, the American Southwest i.e., New Mexico, Arizona, and South Texas (formerly part of Nuevo Santander, Spain/Mexico), the Caribbean, and South America and this also includes Crypto-Jews that were brought into exile during the 15th century inquisition that took refuge from Southeast Asia e.g., in Northern Samar, the Philippines, as well as, Crypto-Jews found in Belmonte, Portugal and in the former Portuguese colony of Goa, India, where they were subjected to the Goa Inquisition.
From the perspective of the present day, the first three sub-groups look in retrospect like separate branches, each with its own traditions, though some degree of merger is taking place as Spanish and Portuguese congregations increasingly include Jews of other backgrounds[original research?]. In earlier centuries, and as late as the editing of the Jewish Encyclopedia at the beginning of the twentieth century, they were usually regarded as together forming a continuum, with the Jewish community of Livorno acting as the clearing-house of personnel and traditions between the three sub-groups as well as the main publishing centre[improper synthesis?].
Sephardim and Mizrahim[link]
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For religious purposes, the term Sephardim means all Jews who use a Sephardic style of liturgy, and therefore includes most Jews of Middle Eastern background, whether or not they have any historical connection to the Iberian Peninsula. Most of these communities (with some exceptions such as the Yemenites) do in fact use much the same religious ritual as the Sephardim proper and, like them, base their religious law on the Shulchan Aruch without the glosses of Moses Isserles. When used in this sense, "Sephardim" should be translated not as "Spanish Jews" but as "Jews of the Spanish rite". (In the same way, Ashkenazim means "Jews of the German rite", whether or not their families actually originate in Germany.)
Accordingly, in the vernacular of modern-day Jews in Israel and worldwide, especially many Ashkenazi Jews, "Sephardi" has come to be used as an umbrella term for any Jew who is not Ashkenazi. This nomenclature is often perceived as unsatisfactory[who?], and a variety of other terms have been coined.
A term in common use for non-Ashkenazi Jewish communities that historically are not of Spanish descent is Mizrahim, which in Hebrew means "Easterners". In current use, Mizrahi Jews is a convenient way to refer collectively to a wide range of Jewish communities, most of which are as unrelated to each other as they are to either the Sephardi (in the narrower sense) or Ashkenazi communities. They include in particular the communities living in, or coming from, Southern Arabia (Yemen), Mesopotamia (Iraq), Syria, Persia (Iran) and India. The distinction between Sephardim and Mizrahim is not watertight as many communities (e.g. Syrian Jews) are ethnically speaking a mixture between local Jews and later arrivals of Jews from Spain and Portugal.
Moroccan and other North African Jews (sometimes known as "Maghrebi Jews") are closely associated with the Sephardim proper (Jews of Iberian descent), both because the Jewish community of Al-Andalus was itself partly of Maghrebi Jewish origin and because many Sephardim settled in North Africa after their expulsion from Spain.
Distribution[link]
Prior to 1492, substantial Jewish populations existed in most Spanish provinces. Among the more prominent were in Toledo, Córdoba, Sevilla and Granada. Smaller towns such as Ocaña, Guadalajara, Spain, Buitrago de Lozoya, Lucena, Ribadavia, Hervás, and Almazán were founded or inhabited principally by Jews. In Castile, Aranda de Duero, Ávila, Alba de Tormes, Arévalo, Burgos, Calahorra, Carrión de Los Condes, Cuéllar, Herrera del Duque, León, Medina del Campo, Ourense, Salamanca, Segovia, Soria, and Villalón were home to large Jewish communities or aljamas. Aragon and Catalonia had substantial Jewish communities in the famous Calls of Girona, Barcelona, Tarragona, Valencia and Palma (Majorca).
The first Jews to leave Spain settled in what is nowadays Algeria (in Oran and Tlemcen) after the massacre in Catalonia that took place in 1391. Following the 1492 expulsion from Spain, and the subsequent expulsions in Portugal (1497), these Jews, the nascent Sephardim, settled mainly in the Ottoman Empire (the modern-day Balkans, Anatolia, the Levant and Ottoman North Africa), Morocco and Algeria, southern France, Italy, Spanish North America, (Southwest United States New Mexico, Texas (Tejano), Arizona, and Mexico), Spanish South America and Portuguese Brazil and Goa, as well as the Netherlands, whence a number of families continued on to the former Dutch possessions of Curaçao, Suriname, Aruba and New Netherland (now New York), England (as well as English colonies such as Barbados and Jamaica), Germany, Denmark, Poland, Austria and Hungary.
As a result of the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, many of the Sephardim from the Middle East and North Africa relocated to either Israel or France, where they form a significant portion of the Jewish communities today. Other significant communities also exist in New York City, Argentina, and Montreal, Canada and Gibraltar.
Language[link]
The most typical traditional language of Sephardim is Judeo-Spanish, also called Judezmo or Ladino. It is a Romance language derived mainly from Old Castilian (Spanish), with many borrowings from Turkish, and to a lesser extent from Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and French. Until recently, two different dialects of Judeo-Spanish were spoken in the Mediterranean region: Eastern Judeo-Spanish (in various distinctive regional variations) and Western or North African Judeo-Spanish (also known as Ḥakitía), once spoken, with little regional distinction, in six towns in Northern Morocco and, because of later emigration, also in Ceuta and Melilla (Spanish cities in North Africa), Gibraltar (British Overseas Territory), Casablanca (Morocco), and Oran (Algeria). The Eastern Sephardic dialect is typified by its greater conservatism, its retention of numerous Old Spanish features in phonology, morphology, and lexicon, and its numerous borrowings from Turkish and, to a lesser extent, also from Greek and South Slavic. Both dialects have (or had) numerous borrowings from Hebrew, especially in reference to religious matters, but the number of Hebraisms in everyday speech or writing is in no way comparable to that found in Yiddish. On the other hand the North African Sephardic dialect was, until the early 20th century, also highly conservative; its abundant Colloquial Arabic loan words retained most of the Arabic phonemes as functional components of a new, enriched Hispano-Semitic phonological system. During the Spanish colonial occupation of Northern Morocco (1912–1956), Ḥakitía was subjected to pervasive, massive influence from Modern Standard Spanish and most Moroccan Jews now speak a colloquial, Andalusian form of Spanish, with only an occasional use of the old language as a sign of in-group solidarity, somewhat as American Jews may now use an occasional Yiddishism in colloquial speech. Except for certain younger individuals, who continue to practice Ḥakitía as a matter of cultural pride, this splendid dialect, probably the most Arabized of the Romance languages apart from Mozarabic, has essentially ceased to exist. By constrast , Eastern Judeo-Spanish has fared somewhat better, especially in Israel, where newspapers, radio broadcasts, and elementary school and university programs strive to keep the language alive. But the old regional variations (i.e. Bosnia, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey, and Italy for instance) are already either extinct or doomed to extinction. Only time will tell whether Judeo-Spanish koiné, now evolving in Israel—similar to that which developed among Sephardic immigrants to the United States early in the 20th century will prevail and survive into the next generation.[5]
Judæo-Portuguese was used by Sephardim — especially among the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of Western Europe. The pidgin forms of Portuguese spoken among slaves and their Sephardic owners were an influence in the development of Papiamento and the Creole languages of Suriname.
Other Romance languages with Jewish forms, spoken historically by Sephardim, include Judæo-Aragonese and Judæo-Catalan (or Catalanic). The Gibraltar community has had a heavy influence on the Gibraltar dialect Llanito contributing several words to this English/Spanish patois.
Other languages associated with Sephardic Jews are mostly extinct, i.e., formerly spoken by some Sephardic communities in Italy. Judeo-Arabic and its dialects have been a large vernacular language for Sephardim who settled in North African kingdoms and Arabic-speaking parts of the Ottoman Empire. Low German. (Low Saxon), formerly used as the vernacular by Sephardim around Hamburg and Altona in Northern Germany, is also no longer in use as a specifically Jewish vernacular.
In other words, through their diaspora, Sephardim have been a polyglot population, learning the language of their host population, most commonly Arabic, Greek, Turkish, Dutch or Italian and were easily integrated in the societies which hosted them. Within the last centuries and more particularly the 19th and 20th century, two languages have became dominant in the Sephardic diaspora; French introduced by the Alliance Israélite Universelle and Hebrew by the state of Israel.[citation needed]
History[link]
Main articles: History of the Jews in Spain and History of the Jews in Portugal
Early history[link]
The precise origins of the Jewish communities of the Iberian peninsula are unclear. There is fragmentary and inconclusive evidence of a Jewish presence on the Iberian Peninsula dating from pre-Roman times. More substantial references date from the Roman period.
Evidence which suggests Jewish connections with the Iberian Peninsula includes:
- References in the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, I Kings, and Jonah to the country of Tarshish, which is thought by many to have been located in modern southern Spain (in ancient Tartessus).
- A signet ring found at Cadiz, dating from the 8th-7th century BC. The inscription on the ring, generally accepted as Phoenician, has been interpreted by a few scholars to be "paleo-hebraic."
- An amphora dating from at least the first century found in Ibiza, which bears imprints of two Hebrew characters.
- Several early Jewish writers wrote that their families had lived in Spain since the destruction of the first temple. The famous Don Isaac Abravanel (1407–1508) stated that the Abravanel family had lived on the Iberian Peninsula for 2,000 years.
It is thought that substantial Jewish immigration probably occurred during the Roman period of Hispania. The province came under Roman control with the fall of Carthage after the Second Punic War (218–202 BC). Exactly how soon after this time Jews made their way onto the scene in this context is a matter of speculation. It is within the realm of possibility that they went there under the Romans as free men to take advantage of its rich resources.
Although the spread of Jews into Europe is most commonly associated with the Diaspora which ensued from the Roman conquest of Judea, emigration from Judea into the greater Roman Mediterranean area antedated the destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of the Romans under Titus. Any Jews already in Hispania at this time would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under Vespasian and Titus, and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the Jewish Wars, and especially after the defeat of Judea in 70. One account placed the number carried off to Hispania at 80,000. Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean.
Among the earliest records which may refer specifically to Jews in the Iberian peninsula during the Roman period is Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Many[who?] have taken Paul's intention to go to Hispania to preach the gospel (Romans 15:24, 28) to indicate the presence of Jewish communities there, as well as the fact that Herod Antipas's banishment by Caligula in the year 39 may have been to Hispania.[6]
From a slightly later period, Midrash Rabbah, Leviticus 29:2 makes reference to the return of the Diaspora from Hispania by 165.
Perhaps the most direct and substantial of early references are the several decrees of the Council of Elvira, convened in the early fourth century, which address proper Christian behavior with regard to the Jews of Hispania.
As citizens of the Roman Empire, the Jews of Hispania engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations, and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province. The edicts of the Synod of Elvira, provide evidence of Jews who were integrated enough into the greater community to cause alarm among some: of the Council's 80 canonic decisions, all which pertain to Jews served to maintain a separation between the two communities. It seems that by this time the presence of Jews was of greater concern to Christian authorities than the presence of pagans; Canon 16, which prohibited marriage of Christians with Jews, was worded more strongly than canon 15, which prohibited marriage with pagans. Canon 78 threatens Christians who commit adultery with Jews with ostracism. Canon 48 forbade the blessing of Christian crops by Jews, and canon 50 forbade the sharing of meals by Christians and Jews.
Yet in comparison to Jewish life in Byzantium and Italy, life for the early Jews in Hispania and the rest of western Europe was relatively tolerable. This is due in large measure to the difficulty which the Church had in establishing itself in its western frontier. In the west, Germanic tribes such as the Suevi, the Vandals, and especially the Visigoths had more or less disrupted the political and ecclesiastical systems of the Roman empire, and for several centuries western Jews enjoyed a degree of peace which their brethren to the east did not.
Barbarian invasions brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Visigothic rule by the early fifth century. Other than in their contempt for Orthodox Christians, who reminded them of the Romans and also because they were Arians, the Visigoths were largely uninterested in the religious creeds within their kingdom. It was not until 506, when Alaric II (484–507) published his Brevarium Alaricianum (Breviary of Alaric) (wherein he adopted the laws of the ousted Romans), that a Visigothic king concerned himself with the Jews.
The situation of the Jews changed after the conversion of the Visigothic royal family under Recared from Arianism to Roman Catholicism in 587. In their desire to consolidate the realm under the new religion, the Visigoths adopted an aggressive policy towards Jews. As the king and the church acted in a single interest, the Jews' situation deteriorated. Under successive Visigothic kings and under ecclesiastical authority, many orders of expulsion, forced conversion, isolation, enslavement, execution, and other punitive measures were made. By 612–621, the situation for Jews became intolerable and many left Spain for nearby northern Africa. In 711, thousands of Jews from North Africa accompanied the Moslems who invaded Spain, subsuming Catholic Spain and turning much of it into an Arab state, Al-Andalus. (N.H.Finkelstein, p. 13, 14)
The Jews of Hispania had been utterly embittered and alienated by Catholic rule by the time of the Muslim invasion. To them, the Moors were perceived as, and indeed were, a liberating force. Wherever they went, the Muslims were greeted by Jews eager to aid them in administering the country. In many conquered towns the garrison was left in the hands of the Jews before the Muslims proceeded further north. Thus were initiated the two centuries of Muslim rule in the Iberian peninsula which became known as the "Golden Age" of Sephardi Jewry.
Jews in Muslim Iberia[link]
- See also Al-Andalus; Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula; Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula
With the victory of Tariq ibn Ziyad in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. Though Islamic law placed restrictions on dhimmis (non-Muslim members of monotheistic faiths), the coming of the Moors was by and large welcomed by the Jews of Iberia.
Both Muslim and Christian sources claim that Jews provided valuable aid to the Muslim invaders. Once captured, the defense of Cordoba was left in the hands of Jews, and Granada, Malaga, Seville, and Toledo were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. Although in some towns Jews may have been helpful to Muslim success, they were of limited impact overall. However it was frequently claimed by Christians in later centuries that the fall of Iberia was due in large part to Jewish perfidy.
In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as dhimmis, life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity and Jews flourished as they did not under the Christian Visigoths. Many Jews came to Iberia, seen as a land of tolerance and opportunity, from the Christian and Muslim worlds. Following initial Arab victories, and especially with the establishment of Umayyad rule by Abd al-Rahman I in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab lands, from Morocco to Babylon. Jewish communities were enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of these diverse Jewish traditions.
Arabic culture, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General re-evaluation of scripture was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish polemics and the spread of rationalism, as well as the anti-Rabbanite polemics of Karaite sectarianism (which was inspired by various Muslim schismatic movements). The cultural and intellectual achievements of the Arabs, and much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of Ancient Greek culture, which had been best preserved by Arab scholars, was made available to the educated Jew. The meticulous regard which the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest in philological matters in general among Jews. Arabic came to be the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy, and everyday business, as had been the case with Babylonian geonim. This thorough adoption of the Arabic language also greatly facilitated the assimilation of Jews into Moorish culture, and Jewish activity in a variety of professions, including medicine, commerce, finance, and agriculture increased.
By the ninth century, some members of the Sephardic community felt confident enough to take part in proselytizing amongst Christians. Most famous were the heated correspondences sent between Bodo Eleazar, a former Christian deacon who had converted to Judaism in 838, and the Bishop of Córdoba Paulus Albarus, who had converted from Judaism to Christianity. Each man, using such epithets as "wretched compiler", tried to convince the other to return to his former faith, to no avail.
The Golden Age is most closely identified with the reign of Abd al-Rahman III (882–942), the first independent Caliph of Cordoba, and in particular with the career of his Jewish councilor, Hasdai ibn Shaprut (882–942). Within this context of cultural patronage, studies in Hebrew, literature, and linguistics flourished.
Hasdai benefitted world Jewry not only indirectly by creating a favorable environment for scholarly pursuits within Iberia, but also by using his influence to intervene on behalf of foreign Jews: in his letter to Byzantine Princess Helena, he requested protection for the Jews under Byzantine rule, attesting to the fair treatment of the Christians of al-Andalus, and perhaps indicating that such was contingent on the treatment of Jews abroad.
One notable contribution to Christian intellectualism is Ibn Gabirol's neo-Platonic Fons Vitae ("The Source of Life;" "Mekor Hayyim"). Thought by many to have been written by a Christian, this work was admired by Christians and studied in monasteries throughout the Middle Ages, though the work of Solomon Munk in the 19th century proved that the author of Fons Vitae was the Jewish ibn Gabirol.[7]
In addition to contributions of original work, the Sephardim were active as translators. Mainly in Toledo, texts were translated between Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin. In translating the great works of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek into Latin, Iberian Jews were instrumental in bringing the fields of science and philosophy, which formed much of the basis of Renaissance learning, into the rest of Europe.
In the early 11th century centralized authority based at Cordoba broke down following the Berber invasion and the ousting of the Umayyads. In its stead arose the independent taifa principalities under the rule of local Arab, Berber, or Slavonic leaders. Rather than having a stifling effect, the disintegration of the caliphate expanded the opportunities to Jewish and other professionals. The services of Jewish scientists, doctors, traders, poets, and scholars were generally valued by Christian and Muslim rulers of regional centers, especially as order was restored in recently conquered towns. Rabbi Samuel ha-Nagid (ibn Naghrela) was the Vizier of Granada. He was succeeded by his son Joseph ibn Naghrela who was slain by an incited mob along with most of the Jewish community. The remnant fled to Lucena.
The decline of the Golden Age began before the completion of the Christian Reconquista, with the penetration and influence of the Almoravides, and then the Almohads, from North Africa. These fundamentalist sects abhorred the liberality of the Islamic culture of al-Andalus, including the position of authority which some dhimmis held over Muslims. When the Almohads gave the Jews a choice of either death or conversion to Islam, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.
Meanwhile the Reconquista continued in the north throughout the 12th century. As various Arab lands fell to the Christians, conditions for some Jews in the emerging Christian kingdoms became increasingly favorable. As had happened during the reconstruction of towns following the breakdown of authority under the Umayyads, the services of Jews were employed by the victorious Christian leaders. Sephardic knowledge of the language and culture of the enemy, their skills as diplomats and professionals, as well as their desire for relief from intolerable conditions — the very same reasons that they had proved useful to the Arabs in the early stages of the Muslim invasion — made their services very valuable.
However, the Jews from the Muslim south were not entirely secure in their northward migrations. Old prejudices were compounded by newer ones. Suspicions of complicity with the Muslims were alive and well as Jews immigrated, speaking Arabic. However, many of the newly arrived Jews of the north prospered during the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The majority of Latin documentation regarding Jews during this period refers to their landed property, fields, and vineyards.
In many ways life had come full circle for the Sephardim of al-Andalus. As conditions became more oppressive during the 12th and 13th centuries, Jews again looked to an outside culture for relief. Christian leaders of reconquered cities granted them extensive autonomy, and Jewish scholarship recovered somewhat and developed as communities grew in size and importance. However, the Reconquista Jews never reached the same heights as had those of the Golden Age.
After the Reconquista[link]
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Among the Sephardim were many who were the descendants, or heads, of wealthy families and who, as Marranos, had occupied prominent positions in the countries they had left. Some had been state officials, others had held positions of dignity within the Church; many had been the heads of large banking-houses and mercantile establishments, and some were physicians or scholars who had officiated as teachers in high schools. Their Spanish or Portuguese was a lingua franca that enabled Sephardim from different countries to engage in commerce and diplomacy.
With their social equals they associated freely, without regard to religion and more likely with regard to equivalent or comparative education, for they were generally well read which became a tradition and expectation. They were received at the courts of sultans, kings, and princes, and often were employed as ambassadors, envoys, or agents. The number of Sephardim who have rendered important services to different countries is considerable as Samuel Abravanel (or "Abrabanel" — financial councilor to the viceroy of Naples). Among other names mentioned are those of Belmonte, Nasi, Francisco Pacheco, Pedro de Herrera, Palache, Pimentel, Azevedo, Sasportas, Salvador, Costa, Curiel, Cansino, Schonenberg, Toledo, Toledano, Pereira and Teixeira.
The Sephardim have distinguished themselves as physicians and statesmen, and have won the favor of rulers and princes, in both the Christian and the Islamic world. That the Sephardim were selected for prominent positions in every country in which they settled was only in part due to the fact that Spanish had become a world-language through the expansion of Spain into the world spanning Spanish Empire—the cosmopolitan cultural background after long associations with Islamic scholars of the Sephardic families also made them extremely well educated for the times, even well into the European Enlightenment.
For a long time the Sephardim took an active part in Spanish literature; they wrote in prose and in rhyme, and were the authors of theological, philosophical, belletristic (aesthetic rather than content based writing), pedagogic (teaching), and mathematical works. The rabbis, who, in common with all the Sephardim, emphasized a pure and euphonious pronunciation of Hebrew, delivered their sermons in Spanish or in Portuguese. Several of these sermons have appeared in print. Their thirst for knowledge, together with the fact that they associated freely with the outer world, led the Sephardim to establish new educational systems wherever they settled; they founded schools in which the Spanish language was the medium of instruction. Theatre in Istanbul was in Judæo-Spanish since it was forbidden to Muslims.
In Portugal the Sephardim were given important roles in the sociopolitical sphere and enjoyed a certain amount of protection from the Crown (e.g. Yahia Ben Yahia, first "Rabino Maior" of Portugal and supervisor of the public revenue of the first King of Portugal, D. Afonso Henriques). Even with the increasing pressure from the Catholic Church this state of affairs remained more or less constant and the number of Jews in Portugal grew with those running from Spain. This changed with the marriage of D. Manuel I of Portugal with the daughter of the Catholic Monarchs of the newly born Spain. In 1497 the Decree ordering the expulsion or forced conversion of all the Jews was passed, and the Sephardim either fled or went into secrecy under the guise of "Cristãos Novos", i.e. New Christians (this Decree was symbolically revoked in 1996 by the Portuguese Parliament). Those who fled to Genoa were only allowed to land provided they received baptism. Those who were fortunate enough to reach the Ottoman Empire had a better fate: the Sultan Bayezid II sarcastically[citation needed] sent his thanks to Ferdinand for sending him some of his best subjects, thus "impoverishing his own lands while enriching his (Bayezid's)". Jews arriving in the Ottoman Empire were mostly resettled in and around Selanik (Thessaloniki in Greek) and to some extent in Istanbul and İzmir. This was followed by a great massacre of Jews in the city of Lisbon in 1506 and the establishment of the Portuguese Inquisition in 1536. This caused the flight of the Portuguese Jewish community, which continued until the extinction of the Courts of Inquisition in 1821; by then there were very few Jews in Portugal.
In Amsterdam, where Jews were especially prominent in the seventeenth century on account of their number, wealth, education, and influence, they established poetical academies after Spanish models; two of these were the Academia de los Sitibundos and the Academia de los Floridos. In the same city they also organized the first Jewish educational institution, with graduate classes in which, in addition to Talmudic studies, instruction was given in the Hebrew language. The most important synagogue, or Esnoga, as it is usually called amongst Spanish and Portuguese Jews, is the Amsterdam Esnoga — usually considered the "mother synagogue", and the historical centre of the Amsterdam minhag.
A sizable Sephardic community had settled in Morocco and other Northern African countries, which were colonized by France in the 19th century. Jews in Algeria were given French citizenship in 1870 by the décret Crémieux (previously Jews and Muslims could apply for French citizenship, but had to renounce the use of traditional religious courts and laws, which many did not want to do). When France withdrew from Algeria in 1962, the local Jewish communities largely relocated to France. There are some tensions between some of those communities and the earlier French Jewish population (who were mostly Ashkenazi Jews), and with Arabic-Muslim communities.
In the Age of Discoveries[link]
The largest part, likely a majority, of Spaniard Jews expelled in 1492 fled to Portugal, where they eluded persecution for a few years. The Jewish community in Portugal was perhaps then some 10% of that country's population.[8] They were declared Christians by Royal decree unless they left, but the King hindered their departure, needing their artisanship and working population for Portugal's overseas enterprises and territories. Later Sephardic Jews settled in many trade areas controlled by the Empire of Philip II and others. With various countries in Europe also the Sephardi Jews established commercial relations. In a letter dated November 25, 1622, King Christian IV of Denmark invites Jews of Amsterdam to settle in Glückstadt, where, among other privileges, the free exercise of their religion would be assured to them.
Álvaro Caminha, in Cape Verde islands, who received the land as a grant from the crown, established a colony with Jews forced to stay on the island of São Tomé. Príncipe island was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult, however, the Jewish settlement was a success and their descendants settled many parts of Brazil.[9]
In particular, the relations between the Dutch and South America were established by Jews; they contributed to the establishment of the Dutch West Indies Company in 1621, of the directorate of which some of them were members. The ambitious schemes of the Dutch for the conquest of Brazil were carried into effect through Francisco Ribiero, a Portuguese captain, who is said to have had Jewish relations in Holland. As some years afterward the Dutch in Brazil appealed to Holland for craftsmen of all kinds, many Jews went to Brazil; about 600 Jews left Amsterdam in 1642, accompanied by two distinguished scholars - Isaac Aboab da Fonseca and Moses Raphael de Aguilar. In the struggle between Holland and Portugal for the possession of Brazil the Dutch were supported by the Jews.
In 1642, Aboab da Fonseca was appointed rabbi at Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in the Dutch colony of Pernambuco (Recife), Brazil. Most of the white inhabitants of the town were Sephardic Jews from Portugal who had been banned by the Portuguese Inquisition to this town at the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1624, the colony had been occupied by the Dutch. By becoming the rabbi of the community, Aboab da Fonseca was the first appointed rabbi of the Americas. The name of his congregation was Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue and the community had a synagogue, a mikveh and a yeshiva as well. However, during the time he was rabbi in Pernambuco, the Portuguese re-occupied the place again in 1654, after a struggle of nine years. Aboab da Fonseca managed to return to Amsterdam after the occupation of the Portuguese. Members of his community immigrated to North America and were among the founders of New York City.
Besides merchants, a great number of physicians were among the Spanish Jews in Amsterdam: Samuel Abravanel, David Nieto, Elijah Montalto, and the Bueno family; Joseph Bueno was consulted in the illness of Prince Maurice (April, 1623). Jews were admitted as students at the university, where they studied medicine as the only branch of science which was of practical use to them, for they were not permitted to practise law, and the oath they would be compelled to take excluded them from the professorships. Neither were Jews taken into the trade-guilds: a resolution passed by the city of Amsterdam in 1632 (the cities being autonomous) excluded them. Exceptions, however, were made in the case of trades which stood in peculiar relations to their religion: printing, bookselling, the selling of meat, poultry, groceries, and drugs. In 1655 a Jew was, exceptionally, permitted to establish a sugar-refinery.
The Holocaust[link]
The Nazi Holocaust that devastated European Jewry and virtually destroyed its centuries-old culture also wiped out the great European population centers of Sephardi Jewry and led to the almost complete demise of its unique language and traditions. Sephardi Jewish communities from France and the Netherlands in the northwest to Yugoslavia and Greece in the southeast almost disappeared.
On the eve of World War II, the European Sephardi community was concentrated in the Balkan countries of Greece, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria. Its leading centers were in Salonika, Sarajevo, Belgrade, and Sofia. The experience of the Balkan Jewish communities during the war varied greatly and depended on the type of regime under which they fell.
The Jewish communities of Serbia and northern Greece, including the 50,000 Jews of Salonika, fell under direct German occupation in April 1941 and bore the full weight and intensity of Nazi repressive measures from dispossession, humiliation, and forced labor to hostage taking, and finally deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau and extermination in March–August 1943. The Jewish population of southern Greece fell under the jurisdiction of the Italians who eschewed the enactment of anti-Jewish legislation and resisted whenever possible German efforts to transfer them to occupied Poland, until the surrender of Italy on September 8, 1943 brought the Jews under German control.
Sephardi Jews in Bosnia and Croatia were ruled by a German-created Fascist-Catholic satellite state from April 1941, which subjected them to pogrom-like actions before herding them into local camps where they were murdered side by side with Serbs and Roma (see Porajmos). The Jews of Macedonia and Thrace were controlled by Bulgarian occupation forces, which after rendering them stateless, rounded them up and turned them over to the Germans for deportation.
Finally, the Jews of Bulgaria proper were under the rule of a Nazi ally that subjected them to ruinous anti-Jewish legislation, but ultimately yielded to pressure from Bulgarian parliamentarians, clerics, and intellectuals not to deport them. More than 50,000 Bulgarian Jews were thus saved.
Later history and culture[link]
Today, the Sephardim have preserved the romances and the ancient melodies and songs of Spain and Portugal, as well as a large number of old Portuguese and Spanish proverbs.[10] A number of children's plays, like, for example, El Castillo, are still popular among them, and they still manifest a fondness for the dishes peculiar to Iberia, such as the pastel, or pastelico, a sort of meat-pie, and the pan de España, or pan de León. At their festivals they follow the Spanish custom of distributing dulces, or dolces, a confection wrapped in paper bearing a picture of the magen David (six pointed star).
In Mexico, the Sephardic community originates mainly from Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria. In 1942 the Colegio Hebreo Tarbut was founded in collaboration with the Ashkenazi family and instruction was in Yiddish. In 1944 the Sephardim community established a separate "Colegio Hebreo Sefaradí" with 90 students where instruction was in Hebrew and complemented with classes on Jewish customs. By 1950 there were 500 students. In 1968 a group of young Sephardim created the group Tnuat Noar Jinujit Dor Jadash in support for the creation of the state of Israel. In 1972 the Majazike Tora institute is created aiming to prepare young male Jews for their Bar Mitzva (History of the Sephardim Community in Mexico).
While the majority of American Jews today are Ashkenazim, in Colonial times Sephardim made up the majority of the Jewish population. For example, the 1654 Jews who arrived in New Amsterdam fled from the colony of Recife, Brazil after the Portuguese seized it from the Dutch. Through most of the 18th century, American synagogues conducted and recorded their business in Portuguese, even if their daily language was English. It was not until widespread German immigration to the United States in the 19th century that the tables turned and Ashkenazim (initially from Germany but by the 20th century from Eastern Europe) began to dominate the American Jewish landscape.
Names[link]
The Sephardim usually have followed the general rules for Spanish and Portuguese names. Many used to bear Portuguese and Spanish names , however it is worthy to note that a large number of Sephardic names are of Hebrew and Arabic roots and are totally absent in Iberian patronyms and are therefore often seen as typically Jewish . Many of the names are associated with non-Jewish (Christian) families and individuals, and are by no means exclusive to Jews. After 1492, many marranos changed their names to hide their Jewish origins and avoid persecution. It was common to choose the name of the Parish Church where they have been baptised into the Christian faith, such as Santa Cruz or the common name of the word "Messiah" (saviour/Salvador), or adopted the name of their Christian godparents.[11] Dr. Mark Hilton's research demonstrated in IPS DNA testing that the last name of marranos linked with the location of the local parish were correlated 89.3%
In contrast to Ashkenazic Jews, who do not name newborn children after living relatives, Sephardic Jews often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if they are still alive. The first son and daughter are traditionally named after the paternal grandparents, and then the maternal parent's names are next up in line for the remaining children. After that, additional children's names are "free", so to speak, meaning that one can choose whatever name, without any more "naming obligations." The only instance in which Sephardic Jews will not name after their own parents is when one of the spouses shares a common first name with a mother/father-in-law (since Jews will not name their children after themselves.) There are times though when the "free" names are used to honor the memory of a deceased relative who died young or childless. These conflicting naming conventions can be troublesome when children are born into mixed Ashkenazic-Sephardic households.
A notable exception to the distinct Ashkenazi and Sephardi naming traditions is found among Dutch Jews, where Ashkenazim have for centuries followed the tradition otherwise attributed to Sephardim. See Chuts.
Sephardic pedigrees[link]
- See also List of Jewish surnames, Spanish and Portuguese names, List of Sephardic People, List of Iberian Jews
- Abravanel
- Abulafia
- Avelar
- Camondo
- Carabajal[12]
- Carvajal[13]
- Cotto
- Cunha
- De Castro
- Erazo
- Garza
- Gonzales
- Gonzalez
- Harari
- Maimon
- Pardo[14]
- Paredes
- Silva
- Tasman
- Vargas
- Verdugo/Berdugo
Congregations[link]
Great authority was given to the president of each congregation. He and the rabbinate of his congregation formed the "ma'amad," without whose approbation (often worded in Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian) no book of religious content might be published. The president not only had the power to make authoritative resolutions with regard to congregational affairs and to decide communal questions, but he had also the right to observe the religious conduct of the individual and to punish anyone suspected of heresy or of trespassing against the laws.
Leading Sephardi rabbis[link]
"Proto-Sephardim"[link]
(Geonim/Rishonim from the Near East or North Africa accepted as authorities by Sephardim)
Islamic Spain[link]
- Isaac Alfasi
- Joseph ibn Migash
- Judah al-Bargeloni
- Solomon ibn Gabirol
- Abraham ibn Ezra
- Moses ibn Ezra
- Judah ha-Levi
- Samuel ibn Naghrela
- Bahya ibn Paquda
- Maimonides
Christian Spain[link]
- Nahmanides
- Solomon ben Adret
- Yom Tob of Seville (the Ritba)
- Nissim of Gerona
- Asher ben Jehiel (Ashkenazi by birth, became Chief Rabbi of Toledo)
- Jacob ben Asher
- Moses de Leon
- David Abudirham
- Isaac Campanton
- Isaac Aboab
After the expulsion[link]
- David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra
- Jacob Berab
- Levi ibn Ḥabib
- Joseph Caro
- Bezalel Ashkenazi
- Moses ben Jacob Cordovero
- Ḥayim Vital
- Moses Alshech
- Solomon Nissim Algazi
- Yaakov Culi
- Hayim Palaggi
Recent Sephardi rabbis[link]
- Yosef Hayyim
- Elijah Benamozegh
- Shem Tob Gaguine
- Solomon Gaon
- David de Sola Pool
- Obadiah Yosef
- Mordechai Eliyahu
- Shlomo Amar
Medical genetics[link]
Main article: Medical genetics of Jewish people
Due to their origin in the Mediterranean basin, there is a higher incidence of certain hereditary diseases and inherited disorders in Sephardi Jews. However, there are no specifically Sephardic genetic diseases, since the diseases in this group are not common to Sephardic Jews in general but are instead those which are common in the particular country of birth.[15] The most important ones are:
- Beta-Thalassemia
- Familial Mediterranean fever
- Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and Gilbert's Syndrome
- Glycogen storage disease type III
- Machado-Joseph disease
- Hereditary Inclusion Body Myopathy
List of Nobel laureates[link]
- 1911 - Tobias Asser
- 1959 - Emilio Gino Segrè
- 1968 - René Cassin
- 1969 - Salvador Luria
- 1980 - Baruj Benacerraf
- 1981 - Elias Canetti
- 1985 - Franco Modigliani
- 1986 - Rita Levi-Montalcini
- 1997 - Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b Obadiah, 1–20: And the captivity of this host of the children of Israel shall possess that of the Canaanites, even unto Zarephath; and the captivity of Jerusalem, which is in Sepharad, shall possess the cities of the south. (KJV)
- ^ Census of Portugal 2003
- ^ 2006 Jewish statistics around the world
- ^ Samuel Toledano, Espagne: les retrouvailles, in: Les Juifs du Maroc (Editions du Scribe, Paris 1992)
- ^ Samuel G. Armistead, "Oral Literature of the Sephardic Jews,"
- ^ Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 2.9.6. However, the place of banishment is identified in Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews as Gaul; for discussion, see Emil Schürer (1973). The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ: Volume I. revised and edited by Geza Vermes, Fergus Millar and Matthew Black (revised English ed.). Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 352 n. 41. ISBN 0-567-02242-0.
- ^ Richard Gottheil, Stephen S. Wise, Michael Friedländer, "IBN GABIROL, SOLOMON BEN JUDAH (ABU AYYUB SULAIMAN IBN YAḤYA IBN JABIRUL), known also as Avicebron", JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2011-11-20.
- ^ Kayserling, Meyer. "História dos Judeus em Portugal". Editora Pioneira, São Paulo, 1971
- ^ The Expulsion 1492 Chronicles, section XI: "The Vale of Tears", quoting Joseph Hacohen (1496-1577); also, section XVII, quoting 16th century author Samuel Usque
- ^ For the largest online collection of Sephardic folk literature, visit Folk Literature of the Sephardic Jews.
- ^ Roth, Cecil. A History of the Marranos. Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-8052-0463-6.
- ^ http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4015-carabajal#
- ^ http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4089-carvajal-antonio-fernandez
- ^ http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11906-pardo
- ^ Talia Bloch The Other Jewish Genetic Diseases The Jewish Daily Forward August 28, 2009
Bibliography[link]
- Ashtor, Eliyahu, The Jews of Moslem Spain, Vol. 2, Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America (1979)
- Assis, Yom Tov, The Jews of Spain: From Settlement to Expulsion, Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem|The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (1988)
- Baer, Yitzhak. A History of the Jews of Christian Spain. 2 vols. Jewish Publication Society of America (1966).
- Bowers, W. P. "Jewish Communities in Spain in the Time of Paul the Apostle" in Journal of Theological Studies Vol. 26 Part 2, October 1975, pp. 395–402
- Dan, Joseph, "The Epic of a Millennium: Judeo-Spanish Culture's Confrontation" in Judaism Vol. 41, No. 2, Spring 1992
- Gampel, Benjamin R., "Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia: Convivencia through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews," in Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, ed. Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. Dodds, New York: George Braziller, Inc. (1992)
- Kaplan, Yosef, An Alternative Path to Modernity: The Sephardi Diaspora in Western Europe. Brill Publishers (2000). ISBN 90-04-11742-3
- Katz, Solomon, Monographs of the Mediaeval Academy of America No. 12: The Jews in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Society of America (1937)
- Kedourie, Elie, editor. Spain and the Jews: The Sephardi Experience 1492 and After. Thames & Hudson (1992).
- Raphael, Chaim, The Sephardi Story: A Celebration of Jewish History London: Valentine Mitchell & Co. Ltd. (1991)
- Sarna, Nahum M., "Hebrew and Bible Studies in Medieval Spain" in Sephardi Heritage, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House, Inc. (1971)
- Sassoon, Solomon David, "The Spiritual Heritage of the Sephardim," in The Sephardi Heritage, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House Inc. (1971)
- Stein, Gloria Sananes, Marguerite: Journey of a Sephardic Woman, Morgantown, PA : Masthof Press, 1997.
- Stillman, Norman, "Aspects of Jewish Life in Islamic Spain" in Aspects of Jewish Culture in the Middle Ages ed. Paul E. Szarmach, Albany: State University of New York Press (1979)
- Swetschinski, Daniel. Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam. Litmann Library of Jewish Civilization, (2000)
- Zolitor, Jeff, "The Jews of Sepharad" Philadelphia: Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations (CSJO) (1997) ("The Jews of Sepharad" reprinted with permission on CSJO website.)
External links[link]
Genealogy:
- Sefardies.org Sephardic Genealogy and official web in Spain
- Sephardic Genealogy
- Multiple searchable databases for Sephardic genealogy
- Consolidated Index of Sephardic Surnames
- Extensive bibliography for Sephardim and Sephardic Genealogy
- Sephardic names translated into English
Genetics:
History and community:
- European Sephardic Institute
- International Sephardic Education Foundation
- International Sephardic Journal
- Sephardic educational materials for children
- International Sephardic Leadership Council
- Radio Sefarad an internet radio broadcasting from Madrid; includes Huellas, a weekly program for those looking for the origins of their Sephardic surnames
- Sephardic Jews in Jamaica
- Turkish Sephardi Şalom Newspaper
- Sephardic Dating Project
- From Andalusian Orangeries to Anatolia
- Sephardic Jewish History – Iberian Peninsula (American Sephardi Federation)
- Pascua Marrana. Surname Rojas/Shajor/black sefardim
- Sefarad, Journal on Hebraic, Sephardim and Middle East Studies, ILC, CSIC (scientific articles in Spanish, English and other languages)
Philosophical:
- Sepharadim in the Nineteenth Century: New Directions and Old Values by Jose Faur, outlining the positive yet traditionalist responses to modernity typical of the Sepharadi Jewish community
- Sepharadi Thought in the Presence of the European Enlightenment by Jose Faur, identifying the difference in reaction to the European Enlightenment among Sepharadi and Ashkenazi communities
- Anti-Semitism in the Sepharadi Mind by Jose Faur, describing the cultural response of Sepharadim to anti-Semitism
- Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?
- The Special Character of Sephardic Tolerance
Music and liturgy:
- Folk Literature of the Sephardic Jews Searchable archive of audio recordings of Sephardic ballads and other oral literature collected from informants from around the world, from 1950s until the 1990s, by Professor Samuel Armistead and his colleagues, maintained by Professor Bruce Rosenstock.
- Sephardic Pizmonim Project- Music of the Middle Eastern Sephardic Community.
- Daniel Halfon website of a British-born cantor and leading exponent of the liturgical tradition of Spanish and Portuguese Jews
- Liturgy of the Spanish Synagogue in Rome performed by Rev. Alberto Funaro
- Isaac Azose website of a cantor from Seattle, WA, USA, instrumental in preservation of the Sephardic liturgical tradition of Rhodes
- Songs of the Sephardic Jewish Women of Morocco Internet Radio Show featuring field recordings of Sephardic Jewish Women in Tangier & Tetuan, 1954 w/ song texts translated into English.
- Hiiba's Sephardic Music Anthology
- /A Guide to Jewish Bulgaria, published by Vagabond Media, Sofia, 2011
- [1] Diaspora Sefardi - Jordi Savall, Hespèrion XXI - Alia Vox AV9809
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This article is about the Jewish people. For their religion, law and culture, see Judaism.
"Jew" redirects here. For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation).
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The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.[2][3][4] Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh."[5] Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350[6] to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora.[7] A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
As of 2010[update], the world Jewish population was estimated at 13.4 million by the North American Jewish Data Bank,[1] or roughly 0.2% of the total world population. According to this report, about 42.5% of all Jews reside in Israel (5.7 million), and 39.3% in the United States (5.3 million), with most of the remainder living in Europe (1.5 million) and Canada (0.4 million).[1] These numbers include all those who consider themselves Jews, whether or not they are affiliated with a Jewish organization. The total world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, there are halakhic disputes regarding who is a Jew and secular, political, and ancestral identification factors that may affect the figure considerably.[8]
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Name and etymology[link]
Main article: Jew (word)
The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, a loan from Old French giu, earlier juieu, ultimately from Latin Iudaeum. The Latin Iudaeus simply means Judaean, "from the land of Judaea". The Latin term itself, like the corresponding Greek Ἰουδαῖος, is a loan from Aramaic Y'hūdāi, corresponding to Hebrew: יְהוּדִי, Yehudi (sg.); יְהוּדִים, Yehudim (pl.), in origin the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah. The name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob.[9]
The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced [jehuˈdi], with the stress on the final syllable, in Israeli Hebrew, in its basic form.[10]
The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio (sg.); ג׳ודיוס, Djudios (pl.); Yiddish: ייִד Yid (sg.); ייִדן, Yidn (pl.).
The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., "Yahoud"/"Yahoudi" (Arabic: يهود/يهودي) in Arabic language, "Jude" in German, "judeu" in Portuguese, "juif" in French, "jøde" in Danish, "judío" in Spanish, "joodse" in Dutch, etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian ("Ebri/Ebrani" (Persian: عبری/عبرانی)) and Russian (Еврей, Yevrey).[11] The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective "jüdisch" [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".[12] (See Jewish ethnonyms for a full overview.)
According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000):
It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.[13]
Origins[link]
See also: Origins of Judaism
According to their tradition, the Jewish people originated from the Israelites of the Southern Levant, who had several independent states before being overtaken first by the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and later the Roman Empire, with a large portion of the population being scattered throughout the world. According to the Hebrew Bible, all Israelites were descended from Abraham, who was born in the Sumerian city of Ur, and migrated to Canaan (commonly known as the Land of Israel) with his family. Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide do indeed bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the Fertile Crescent, with only minor contribution from their host populations[14] (historically due to the taboo on intermarriage in Jewish tradition, the low number of converts to Judaism, as well as the general isolations and persecutions of Jews throughout history). According to some Biblical archaeologists, however, Israelite culture did not overtake the region, but rather grew out of Canaanite culture.
Judaism[link]
Main article: Judaism
Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"[15] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[16] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[17] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[18] in North Africa and the Middle East,[18] India,[19] and China,[20] or the contemporary United States[21] and Israel,[22] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities, each as authentically Jewish as the next.[23]
Who is a Jew?[link]
Main article: Who is a Jew?
Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.[24] Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion; those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent); and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[25]
Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the oral tradition into the Babylonian Talmud. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by learned Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others." Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[26][27] Since the Haskalah, these halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[28]
At times, conversion has accounted for a substantial part of Jewish population growth. In the first century of the Christian era, for example, the population more than doubled, from four to 8–10 million within the confines of the Roman Empire, in good part as a result of a wave of conversion.[29]
Ethnic divisions[link]
Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions
Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities were established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another resulting in effective and often long-term isolation from each other. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments; political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestation of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[30]
Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Medieval Hebrew, denoting their Central European base), and the Sephardim, or "Hispanics" (Sefarad meaning "Spain/Hispania" or "Iberia" in Hebrew, denoting their Spanish, and Portuguese, base). The Mizrahim, or "Easterners" (Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews, constitute a third major group, although they are sometimes termed Sephardi for liturgical reasons.[31]
Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen and Oman; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[32]
The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are often as unrelated to each other as they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen and Oman are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[32]
Despite this diversity, Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, emigration of Jews from North Africa has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim .[33] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[34]
Languages[link]
Main article: Jewish languages
Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed l'shon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[35] By the third century BCE, Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[36]
For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Gruzinic, Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[37]
For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[38] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[35] Modern Hebrew is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with Arabic.[39]
The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English and Russian. Some Romance languages, such as French and Spanish, are also widely used.[37] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,[40] but it is far less used today, after the Holocaust and the adoption of Hebrew by the Zionist movement, then Israel.
Genetic studies[link]
Main article: Genetic studies on Jews
Genetic studies indicate various lineages found in modern Jewish populations; however, most of these populations share a lineage in common, traceable to an ancient population that underwent geographic branching and subsequent independent evolutions.[41] While DNA tests have demonstrated inter-marriage in all of the various Jewish ethnic divisions over the last 3,000 years, it was substantially less than in other populations.[42] The findings lend support to traditional Jewish accounts accrediting their founding to exiled Israelite populations, and counters theories that many or most of the world's Jewish populations were founded entirely by local populations that adopted the Jewish religion, devoid of any actual Israelite genetic input.[42]
DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe—"Kohanim"—share an ancestor dating back about 3,000 years.[43] This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world.[43] The researchers estimated that the most recent common ancestor of modern Kohanim lived between 1000 BCE (roughly the time of the Biblical Exodus) and 586 BCE, when the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple.[44] They found similar results analyzing DNA from Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews.[44] The scientists estimated the date of the original priest based on genetic mutations, which indicated that the priest lived roughly 106 generations ago, between 2,650 and 3,180 years ago depending whether one counts a generation as 25 or 30 years.[44] These Jews belong to the haplotypes J1e and J2a. However, more recent research has shown that many ethnic groups in the Middle East and Mediterranean area also share this genetic profile.[45]
Although individual and groups of converts to Judaism have historically been absorbed into contemporary Jewish populations, it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Jewish groups, and much less that they represented their genesis as Jewish communities.[41][46]
Biologist Robert Pollack stated in 2003 that one cannot determine the biological "Jewishness" of an individual because "there are no DNA sequences common to all Jews and absent from all non-Jews".[47] A 2009 study was able to genetically identify individuals with full or partial Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.[48]
Male lineages: Y chromosomal DNA[link]
A study published by the National Academy of Sciences found that "the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population", and suggested that "most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora".[41] Researchers expressed surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the diaspora has become dispersed around the world.[41]
Other Y-chromosome findings show that the world's Jewish communities are closely related to Kurds, Syrians and Palestinians.[43][49] Skorecki and colleague wrote that "the extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations observed ... supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin".[43] According to another study of the same year, more than 70% of Jewish men and half of the Arab men (inhabitants of Israel and the territories only) whose DNA was studied inherited their Y-chromosomes from the same paternal ancestors who lived in the region within the last few thousand years. The results are consistent with the Biblical account of Jews and Arabs having a common ancestor. About two-thirds of Israeli Arabs and Arabs in the territories and a similar proportion of Israeli Jews are the descendants of at least three common ancestors who lived in the Middle East in the Neolithic period. However, the Palestinian Arab clade includes two Arab modal haplotypes which are found at only very low frequency among Jews, reflecting divergence and/or large scale admixture from non-local populations to the Palestinians.[50]
A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al.[41] found that the Y chromosome of some Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." However, when all haplotypes were included in the analysis, m (the admixture percentage) increased to 23% ± 7%. In addition, of the Jewish populations in this cluster, the Ashkenazim were closest to South European populations, specifically the Greeks.[41]
In Jewish populations, Haplogroup J1 (defined by the 267 marker) constitutes 30% of the Yemenite Jews[51] 20.0% of the Ashkenazim results and 12% of the Sephardic results.[51][52][53][54] However, J1 is most frequent in Yemen (76%),[55][56] Saudi (64%),[57] Qatar (58%).[56] J1 is generally frequent amongst Negev Bedouins (62%[58]). It is also very common among other Arabs such as those of the Levant, i.e. Palestinian (38.4%),[52] Syria (30%), Lebanon (25%).[59][60] In Europe, higher frequencies have been reported in the central Adriatic regions of Italy: Gargano (17.2%),[61] Pescara (15%),[61] in the Mediterranean Paola (11.1%)[61] and in South Sicilian Ragusa (10.7%).[62] Fairly high frequencies have also been reported in other nearby Mediterranean areas: Crete (8.3%),[63] Malta (7.8%), Cyprus (6.2%),[64] Greece (5.3%).[63]
Haplogroup J2 which is found in the Sephardic Jews (29%)[65] and Ashkenazi Jews (23%),[65] or 19%.[66] is found mainly in the Fertile Crescent, the Caucasus,[67] Anatolia, the Balkans, Italy, the Mediterranean littoral, the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, and South Asia.[65] More specifically, it is found in Iraq,[68] Syria, Lebanon,[69] Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Greece, Italy and the eastern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula,[61] and more frequently in Iraqis 29.7%,[70] Lebanese 25%,[71] Palestinians 16.8%,[65] Syrians 22.5%,[72] Kurds 28.4%, Saudi Arabia 15.92%,[73] Jordan 14.3%, Oman 10–15%,[74] UAE 10.4%, Yemen 9.7%,[56] in Israel,[65] in Palestine,[65] and in Turkey.[75]
Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNA[link]
Before 2006, geneticists largely attributed the genesis of most of the world's Jewish populations to founding acts by males who migrated from the Middle East and "by the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism", though no genetic relation was found between Jewish and non Jewish female lineages. However, more recent findings of studies of maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, at least in Ashkenazi Jews, has led to a review of this archetype.[76] This research has suggested that, in addition to Israelite male, significant female founder ancestry might also derive from the Middle East-with 40% of Ashkenazim descended from four women lived about 1000–1500 years ago in the Middle East.[76] In addition, Behar (2006) suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from about 150 women, most of those were probably of Middle Eastern origin.[77] Approximately 32% of people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry belong to the mtDNA haplogroup K. This high percentage points to a genetic bottleneck occurring some 100 generations ago.[78]
Research in 2008 found significant founder effects in many non-Asheknazi Jewish populations. In Belmonte, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Bene Israel and Libyan Jewish communities "a single mother was sufficient to explain at least 40% of their present-day mtDNA variation". In addition, "the Cochin and Tunisian Jewish communities show an attenuated pattern with two founding mothers explaining >30% of the variation." In contrast, Bulgarian, Turkish, Moroccan and Ethiopian Jews were heterogeneous with no evidence "for a narrow founder effect or depletion of mtDNA variation attributable to drift". The authors noted that "the first three of these communities were established following the Spanish expulsion and/or received large influxes of individuals from the Iberian Peninsula and high variation presently observed, probably reflects high overall mtDNA diversity among Jews of Spanish descent. Likewise, the mtDNA pool of Ethiopian Jews reflects the rich maternal lineage variety of East Africa." Jewish communities from Iraq, Iran, and Yemen showed a "third and intermediate pattern... consistent with a founding event, but not a narrow one".[79]
In this and other studies Yemenite Jews differ from other Mizrahim, as well as from Ashkenazim, in the proportion of sub-Saharan African gene types which have entered their gene pools.[80] African-specific Hg L(xM,N) lineages were found only in Yemenite and Ethiopian Jewish populations.[79] Among Yemenites, the average stands at 35% lineages within the past 3,000 years.[80]
Genome-wide association and linkage studies[link]
In genetic epidemiology, a genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of a particular species to see how much the genes vary from individual to individual. These techniques were originally designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic associations with observable traits.[81]
A 2006 study by Seldin, et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure amongst the Ashkenazi. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the 'northern' population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the 'southern' group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".[82]
A 2007 study by Bauchet, et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations when compared to Global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins.[83][84]
A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry.", as both groups—the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their non Jewish fellow countrymen.[85] Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. Using their DNA analysis, the authors traced the ancestors of all Jews to Persia and Babylon, areas that now form part of Iran and Iraq.[86] The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins[87][88]
A 2010 study by Bray et al, using SNP microarray techniques and linkage analysis, estimated that 35 to 55 percent of the modern Ashkenazi genome is specifically traceable to Europe, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome". The study assumed Druze and Palestinian Arabs populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome. With this reference point, the linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population was interpreted as "matches signs of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations". In their press release, Bray stated: "We were surprised to find evidence that Ashkenazi Jews have higher heterozygosity than Europeans, contradicting the widely-held presumption that they have been a largely isolated group". "Thus, the AJ population shows evidence of past founding events; however, admixture and selection have also strongly influenced its current genetic makeup." The authors note that their results will require further investigation.[89][90]
Demographics[link]
Main article: Jewish population
Population centres[link]
Further information: Judaism by country and Jewish population by cities and city areas
| Country[1] | Jews, № | Jews, % |
|---|---|---|
| Israel |
5,916,200[91] | 75.52% |
 United States |
5,275,000 | 1.71% |
 France |
483,500 | 0.77% |
 Canada |
375,000 | 1.11% |
 United Kingdom |
292,000 | 0.47% |
 Russia |
205,000 | 0.15% |
 Argentina |
182,300 | 0.45% |
 Germany |
119,000 | 0.15% |
 Australia |
107,500 | 0.50% |
 Brazil |
95,600 | 0.05% |
 Ukraine |
71,500 | 0.16% |
 South Africa |
70,800 | 0.14% |
 Hungary |
48,600 | 0.49% |
 Mexico |
39,400 | 0.04% |
 Belgium |
30,300 | 0.28% |
 Netherlands |
30,000 | 0.18% |
 Italy |
28,400 | 0.05% |
| Total | 13,558,300 | 0.21% |
There are an estimated 13–14 million Jews worldwide.[1] The table lists countries with significant populations.[1] Please note that these populations represent low-end estimates of the worldwide Jewish population, accounting for around 0.2% of the world's population.
State of Israel[link]
Main article: Israeli Jews
Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.[92] Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on May 14, 1948.[93] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[94] currently, 12 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel, most representing Arab political parties and one of Israel's Supreme Court judges is a Palestinian Arab.[95]
Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[96] Currently, Jews account for 75.8% of the Israeli population, or 5.4 million people.[97] The early years of the state of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jews fleeing Arab lands.[98] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[99] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[100] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and the United States[101]
A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, due to economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[102]
Diaspora (outside Israel)[link]
Main article: Jewish diaspora
The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Russia, the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.[103]
Currently, the largest Jewish community in the world is located in the United States, with 5.3 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada, Argentina, and Brazil, and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[97]
Western Europe's largest Jewish community can be found in France, home to 490,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[105] There are 295,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. The fastest-growing Jewish community in the world, outside Israel, is the one in Germany, especially in Berlin, its capital. Tens of thousands of Jews from the former Eastern Bloc have settled in Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[106]
The Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East were home to around 900,000 Jews in 1945. Fueled by anti-Zionism[107] after the founding of Israel, systematic persecution caused almost all of these Jews to flee to Israel, North America, and Europe in the 1950s (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). Today, around 8,000 Jews remain in all Arab nations combined.[108]
Iran is home to around 10,800 Jews, down from a population of 100,000 Jews before the 1979 revolution. After the revolution some of the Iranian Jews emigrated to Israel or Europe but most of them emigrated (with their non-Jewish Iranian compatriots) to the United States (especially Los Angeles, where the principal community is called "Tehrangeles").[108][109]
Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia and South Africa.[108]
Demographic changes[link]
Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons
Assimilation[link]
Main article: Jewish assimilation
Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity.[110] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[110] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[111] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[112]
Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, they are just under 50%,[113] in the United Kingdom, around 53%, in France, around 30%,[114] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%.[115][116] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate themselves with Jewish religious practice.[117] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.
War and persecution[link]
Main article: Persecution of Jews
Further information: Antisemitism, Islam and antisemitism, History of antisemitism, and New antisemitism
The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[118][119]
According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[120]
Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews in the name of Christianity occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled.[121][122]
In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.[123] In the 19th and (before the end of World War II) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.[124]
Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and to administer their internal affairs, but subject to certain conditions.[125] They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.[125] Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[126] Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading"[127] was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.[127] On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.[128]
Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and/or forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century,[129] as well as in Islamic Persia,[130] and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.[131] In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."[132]
Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews;[121] the Spanish Inquisition (led by Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews;[133] the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine;[134] the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars;[135] as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.[122] According to a recent study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics 19.8% of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,[136] indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.[137][138]
The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.[139] The Holocaust — the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern day persecution of Jews.[140] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.[141] Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease.[142] Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[143] Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers.[144] Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."[145]
Migrations[link]
Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland and the areas in which they have resided. This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.[146] The incomplete list of major and other noteworthy migrations that follows includes numerous instances of expulsion or departure under duress:
- The patriarch Abraham was a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees[147] after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod.[148]
- The Children of Israel experienced the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.[149]
- The Kingdom of Israel was sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire,[150] from whence they scattered all over the world (or at least to unknown locations).[151]
- The Kingdom of Judah was exiled by Babylonia,[152] then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire,[153] and then many were exiled again by the Roman Empire.[154]
- The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, and settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia[155] to the Iberian Peninsula[156] to Poland[157] to the United States[158] and, as a result of Zionism, back to Israel.[159]
- Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.[160]
- Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.[161]
- During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).[162]
- The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World, including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880–1925, see History of the Jews in the United States and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union.[163]
- The Pogroms in Eastern Europe,[135] the rise of modern antisemitism,[164] the Holocaust,[165] and the rise of Arab nationalism[166] all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.[159]
- The Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, CA) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.[167]
- When the Soviet Union collapsed, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.[102]
Growth[link]
Israel is the only country with a consistently growing Jewish population due to natural population increase, though the Jewish populations of other countries in Europe and North America have recently increased due to immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.[168]
Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.[169]
There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend of secular Jews becoming more religiously observant, known as the Baal Teshuva movement, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.[170] Additionally, there is also a growing movement of Jews by Choice by gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.[171]
Leadership[link]
Main article: Jewish leadership
There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.[172] Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.[173]
Notable individuals[link]
Main article: Lists of Jews
Jews have made contributions in a broad range of human endeavors, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business.[174][175] Although Jews comprise only 0.2% of the world's population, over 20%[175][176] of Nobel Prize laureates have been Jewish, with multiple winners in each field.
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x DellaPergola, Sergio (November 2, 2010). "World Jewish Population, 2010". In Dashefsky, Arnold; Sheskin, Ira (PDF). Current Jewish Population Reports. Storrs, Connecticut: North American Jewish Data Bank. http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Reports/World_Jewish_Population_2010.pdf. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
- ^ Brandeis, Louis (April 25, 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. http://www.law.louisville.edu/library/collections/brandeis/node/234. Retrieved April 2, 2012. "Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member"
- ^ Palmer, Edward Henry (October 14, 2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. http://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm. Retrieved April 2, 2012. Lay summary.
- ^ Einstein, Albert (June 21, 1921). "How I Became a Zionist". Einstein Papers Project. Princeton University Press. http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf. Retrieved April 5, 2012. "The Jewish nation is a living fact"
- ^ A 1970 amendment to Israel's Law of Return defines "Jew" as "a person who was born of a Jewish mother or has become converted to Judaism and who is not a member of another religion." "Law of Return". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/Text_of_Law_of_Return.html.
- ^ Ancient Canaan and Israel: an introduction. Golden, Jonathan M. (2009). Oxford University Press US.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 82.
- ^ Pfeffer, Anshel (September 12, 2007). "Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768". Haaretz. Archived from the original on March 19, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090319024731/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Jew", Oxford English Dictionary.
- ^ Grintz, Yehoshua M. (2007). "Jew". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 253. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Falk, Avner (1996). A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 131. ISBN 0-8386-3660-8.
- ^ "Yiddish". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2004. p. 1453. ISBN 0-87779-809-5.
- ^ "Jew". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Jew. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Jared Diamond (1993). "Who are the Jews?". http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf. Retrieved November 8, 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19.
- ^ Neusner (1991) p. 64
- ^ Patai, Raphael (1996) [1977]. The Jewish Mind. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8143-2651-X.
- ^ Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-19-510071-9.
- ^ a b Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30.
- ^ Sharot (1997), pp. 42–3.
- ^ Sharot (1997), p. 42.
- ^ Fishman, Sylvia Barack (2000). Jewish Life and American Culture. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-7914-4546-1.
- ^ Kimmerling, Baruch (1996). The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-88706-849-9.
- ^ Lowenstein, Steven M. (2000). The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-19-513425-7.
- ^ Weiner, Rebecca (2007). "Who is a Jew?". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html. Retrieved 2007-10-06.
- ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). World Religions: An Introduction for Students. Sussex Academic Press. p. 7. ISBN 1-898723-48-6.
- ^ "What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?". Shamash.org. September 4, 2003. http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html. Retrieved January 9, 2009.
- ^ "What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?". Torah.org. http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318. Retrieved January 9, 2009.
- ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 56–7.
- ^ Bauer, Yehuda. "Beyond the fourth wave: contemporary anti-Semitism and radical Islam". http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_1-2_55/ai_n26961277/. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Dosick (2007), p. 60.
- ^ Dosick (2007), p. 59.
- ^ a b Schmelz, Usiel Oscar; Sergio DellaPergola (2007). "Demography". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 5 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 571. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Schmelz, Usiel Oscar; Sergio DellaPergola (2007). "Demography". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 5 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. pp. 571–2. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Dosick (2007), p. 61.
- ^ a b Grintz, Jehoshua M. (March 1960). "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple". Journal of Biblical Literature (The Society of Biblical Literature) 79 (1): 32–47. DOI:10.2307/3264497. JSTOR 3264497.
- ^ Feldman (2006), p. 54.
- ^ a b "Links". Beth Hatefutsoth. Archived from the original on March 26, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090326102214/http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Parfitt, T. V. (1972). "The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822". Journal of Semitic Studies 17 (2): 237–52. DOI:10.1093/jss/17.2.237. http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/2/237.full.pdf+html.
- ^ "Israel and the United States: Friends, Partners, Allies". Embassy of Israel in Washington, D.C.. http://www.mfa.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/EDC6CB3D-73EE-43BD-9CDC-ED4EFF8A4008/0/usisrael_pub.pdf. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985) Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages'
- ^ a b c d e f Hammer, M. F.; Redd, A. J.; Wood, E. T.; Bonner, M. R.; Jarjanazi, H.; Karafet, T.; Santachiara-Benerecetti, S.; Oppenheim, A. et al. (June 2000). "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". PNAS 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode 2000PNAS...97.6769H. DOI:10.1073/pnas.100115997. PMC 18733. PMID 10801975. http://www.pnas.org/content/97/12/6769.full.pdf+html.
- ^ a b Wade, Nicholas (May 9, 2000). "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D02E0D71338F93AA35756C0A9669C8B63. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
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- ^ a b c "Priestly Gene Shared By Widely Dispersed Jews". American Society for Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. July 14 1998. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/07/980714071409.htm.
- ^ Ekins, JE; E.N. Tinah, N.M. Myres, K.H. Ritchie, U.A. Perego, J.B. Ekins, L.A.D. Hutchison, L. Layton, M.L. Lunt, S.S. Masek, A.A. Nelson, M.E. Nelson, K.L. Pennington, J.L. Peterson, T. Tolley, S.R. Woodward (2005). "An Updated World-Wide Characterization of the Cohen Modal Haplotype" (PDF). ASHG meeting October 2005. http://www.smgf.org/resources/papers/ASHG2005_Jayne.pdf.
- ^ Nebel, A; Filon, D; Brinkmann, B; Majumder, Pp; Faerman, M; Oppenheim, A (November 2001). "The Y chromosome pool of Jews as part of the genetic landscape of the Middle East". Am J Hum Genet 69 (5): 1095–112. DOI:10.1086/324070. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1274378. PMID 11573163. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1274378.
- ^ Pollack, Robert (March 7, 2003). "The Fallacy of Biological Judaism". http://www.forward.com/articles/9406/. "...there are no DNA sequences common to all Jews and absent from all non-Jews. There is nothing in the human genome that makes or diagnoses a person as a Jew."
- ^ Need AC, Kasperaviciute D, Cirulli ET, Goldstein DB (2009). "A genome-wide genetic signature of Jewish ancestry perfectly separates individuals with and without full Jewish ancestry in a large random sample of European Americans". Genome Biology 10 (1): R7. DOI:10.1186/gb-2009-10-1-r7. PMC 2687795. PMID 19161619. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2687795.
- ^ Appelbaum, Diana Muir; Paul S. Appelbaum (12 February 2008). "Genetics and the Jewish identity". Jerusalem Post. http://www.jpost.com/Features/Article.aspx?id=91746. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
- ^ Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (2000). "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". Human Genetics 107 (6): 630–41. DOI:10.1007/s004390000426. PMID 11153918.
- ^ a b Shen, et al. 2004
- ^ a b Semino, et al. 2004
- ^ Questions Answered through DNA Genealogy Testing for Ancestry by Familybuilder
- ^ Behar, et al. 2004
- ^ Alshamaly, et al. 2009: 84/104 (81%), Malouf, et al. 2008: 28/40 = 70% J1-M267, 6/40 = 15% J2a4b-M67
- ^ a b c Cadenas AM, Zhivotovsky LA, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ (March 2008). "Y-chromosome diversity characterizes the Gulf of Oman". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 16 (3): 374–86. DOI:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201934. PMID 17928816.
Yemen 45/62 = 72.6% J1-M267
Qatar 42/72 = 58.3% J1-M267 - ^ Alshamaly, et al. 2009: 68/106 (64%)
- ^ 21/31 Nebel, et al. 2001
- ^ combined (Wells, et al. 2001 19%) & (Zalloua, et al. 2008 20%) Wells, et al. 2001: 32.0% E-M96, 30.0% J1-M267, 30.0% J2-M172, 2.0% L-M20, 6.0% R1-M173.
- ^ Zalloua PA, Xue Y, Khalife J, Makhoul N, Debiane L, Platt DE, Royyuru AK, Herrera RJ, Hernanz DF, Blue-Smith J, Wells RS, Comas D, Bertranpetit J, Tyler-Smith C (April 2008). "Y-chromosomal diversity in Lebanon is structured by recent historical events". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 82 (4): 873–82. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.01.020. PMC 2427286. PMID 18374297. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2427286.
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- ^ Di Gaetano C, Cerutti N, Crobu F, Robino C, Inturri S, Gino S, Guarrera S, Underhill PA, King RJ, Romano V, Cali F, Gasparini M, Matullo G, Salerno A, Torre C, Piazza A (January 2009). "Differential Greek and northern African migrations to Sicily are supported by genetic evidence from the Y chromosome". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 17 (1): 91–9. DOI:10.1038/ejhg.2008.120. PMC 2985948. PMID 18685561. http://volgagermanbrit.us/documents/ejhg2008120a.pdf.
- ^ a b King RJ, Ozcan SS, Carter T, et al. (March 2008). "Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic". Ann. Hum. Genet. 72 (Pt 2): 205–14. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00414.x. PMID 18269686.
Crete 16 out of 193
Greece 9 out of 171 - ^ Capelli C, Redhead N, Romano V, Calì F, Lefranc G, Delague V, Megarbane A, Felice AE, Pascali VL, Neophytou PI, Poulli Z, Novelletto A, Malaspina P, Terrenato L, Berebbi A, Fellous M, Thomas MG, Goldstein DB (March 2006). "Population structure in the Mediterranean basin: a Y chromosome perspective". Ann. Hum. Genet. 70 (Pt 2): 207–25. DOI:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00224.x. PMID 16626331.
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- ^ Bauchet M, McEvoy B, Pearson LN, Quillen EE, Sarkisian T, Hovhannesyan K, Deka R, Bradley DG, Shriver MD (May 2007). "Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80 (5): 948–56. DOI:10.1086/513477. PMC 1852743. PMID 17436249. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1852743.
- ^ "''Tracing Jewish roots'' by Tina Hesman Saey, ''ScienceNews'', June 3, 2010". Sciencenews.org. 2010-07-03. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/59938/title/Tracing_Jewish_roots. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ "''How religion made Jews genetically distinct'' by Andy Coghlan, ''Newscientist'', June 4, 2010". Newscientist.com. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19008-how-religion-made-jews-genetically-distinct.html. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Genes set Jews apart, study finds, by Thomas H. Maugh II, Los Angeles Times, June 3, 2010
- ^ Atzmon, G.; Hao, L.; Pe'er, I.; Velez, C.; Pearlman, A.; Palamara, P. F.; Morrow, B.; Friedman, E. et al. (2010). "Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry". American Journal of Human Genetics 86 (6): 850–859. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. PMC 3032072. PMID 20560205. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3032072.
- ^ Analysis of Ashkenazi Jewish genomes reveals diversity, history, Press release, Emory University, 26-Aug-2010
- ^ Signatures of founder effects, admixture, and selection in the Ashkenazi Jewish population, Steven M. Braya, Jennifer G. Mullea, Anne F. Dodda, Ann E. Pulverb, Stephen Woodingc, and Stephen T. Warrena, PNAS doi: 10.1073/pnas.1004381107
- ^ "Israel closes decade with population of 7.5 million". Haaretz. 30 December 2009. http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel-closes-decade-with-population-of-7-5-million-1.1083. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
- ^ "'Iran must attack Israel by 2014'". The Jerusalem Post. February 9, 2012. http://www.jpost.com/IranianThreat/News/Article.aspx?id=257112. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
- ^ "Israel". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2007-06-19. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/is.html. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
- ^ "The Electoral System in Israel". The Knesset. http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
- ^ "Israel". Freedom in the World. Freedom House. 2009. http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/israel.
- ^ "Population, by Religion and Population Group". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
- ^ a b "Annual Assessment" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). 2007. p. 15. http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf. , based on Annual Assessment 2007. 106. American Jewish Committee. 2006. http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142.
- ^ Dekmejian 1975, p. 247. "And most [Oriental-Sephardic Jews] came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine."
- ^ "airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jews". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html#operation1/. Retrieved July 7, 2005.
- ^ Alexeyeva, Lyudmila (1983). "История инакомыслия в СССР [History of Dissident Movement in the USSR]" (in Russian). Vilnius. http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/.
- ^ Goldstein (1995) p. 24
- ^ a b Dosick (2007), p. 340.
- ^ Gartner (2001), p. 213.
- ^ Gurock, Jeffrey S. (1998). East European Jews in America, 1880–1920: Immigration and Adaptation. New York: Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 0-415-91924-X.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 410–410.
- ^ Waxman, Chaim I. (2007). "Annual Assessment 2007" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). pp. 40–2. http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
- ^ "The Ingathering of the Exiles". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Ingathering%20of%20the%20Exiles.
- ^ a b c "Jewish Virtual Library". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html#region. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Littman (1979), p. 5.
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), p. 171.
- ^ Edinger, Bernard (December 15, 2005). "Chinese Jews: Reverence for Ancestors". Shavei Israel. http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Elazar (2003), p. 434.
- ^ "NJPS: Defining and Calculating Intermarriage". http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Cohen, Erik H.. "Les Juifs de France: La Lente Progression des Mariages Mixtes" (in French). http://www.akadem.org/photos/contextuels/1027_357_Rapport_Erik_Cohen.pdf. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
- ^ "Australia". World Jewish Congress. http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ "The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Mexico". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Mexico.html. Retrieved July 7, 2005.
- ^ Waxman, Chaim I. (2007). "Annual Assessment 2007" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). p. 61. http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
- ^ Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–6.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 164–5.
- ^ Carroll, James. Constantine's Sword (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 207–8.
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–31.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 243–4.
- ^ "A Catholic Timeline of Events Relating to Jews, Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust, From the 3rd century to the Beginning of the Third Millennium". Sullivan-county.com. http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/timeline.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ a b Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20
- ^ Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27
- ^ a b Lewis (1999), p.131
- ^ Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62
- ^ Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77
- ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 17–8, 94–5; Stillman (1979), p. 27
- ^ Lewis (1984), p. 28.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard (June 1998). "Muslim Anti-Semitism". Middle East Quarterly. Middle East Forum. http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 226–9.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 259–60.
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 364–5.
- ^ "Study: 20 Percent of Spanish, Portuguese Have Jewish Ancestry". Fox News Channel. December 8, 2008. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,463564,00.html.
- ^ "DNA study shows 20 percent of Iberian population has Jewish ancestry". The New York Times. December 4, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/world/europe/04iht-gene.4.18411385.html.
- ^ "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". Cell.com. http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297(08)00592-2. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 512.
- ^ Donald L Niewyk, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 484–8.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 490–2.
- ^ "Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found". BBC News. 2007-06-05. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 493–8.
- ^ Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum, 2006, p. 103.
- ^ de Lange (2002), pp. 41–3.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 10.
- ^
Hirsch, Emil G.; Seligsohn, Max (1901–1906). "NIMROD". Jewish Encyclopedia. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11548-nimrod. - ^ Johnson (1987), p. 30.
- ^ Malamat, Abraham (2007). "Exile, Assyrian". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. ISBN 0-02-865928-7. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0006_0_06182.html.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 70–1.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 78–9.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 85–6.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 147.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 163.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 177.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 231.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 460.
- ^ a b Gartner (2001), p. 431.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 11–2.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 306.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 370.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 213–5.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30.
- ^ Netzer, Amnon (2007). "Iran". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 10 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. pp. 13. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 400–1.
- ^ Kaplan (2003), p. 301.
- ^ Danzger (2003), pp. 495–6.
- ^ de Lange (2002), p. 220.
- ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (2004). Explorations in Jewish Historical Experience: The Civilizational Dimension. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 75. ISBN 90-04-13693-2.
- ^ Lewis, Hal M. (2006). From Sanctuary to Boardroom: A Jewish Approach to Leadership. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. ISBN 0-7425-5229-2.
- ^ Schwartz, Richard H. (2001). Judaism and Global Survival. New York: Lantern Books. p. 153. ISBN 1-930051-87-5.
- ^ a b Brooks, David (January 11, 2010). "The Tel Aviv Cluster". The New York Times: p. A23. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/12/opinion/12brooks.html. Retrieved January 13, 2010. "Jews are a famously accomplished group. They make up 0.2 percent of the world population, but 54 percent of the world chess champions, 27 percent of the Nobel physics laureates and 31 percent of the medicine laureates. Jews make up 2 percent of the U.S. population, but 21 percent of the Ivy League student bodies, 26 percent of the Kennedy Center honorees, 37 percent of the Academy Award-winning directors, 38 percent of those on a recent Business Week list of leading philanthropists, 51 percent of the Pulitzer Prize winners for nonfiction."
- ^
- Shalev, Baruch (2005). 100 Years of Nobel Prizes. p. 57. "A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish."
- Dobbs, Stephen Mark (October 12, 2001). "As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates". j.. http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/16556/as-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates/. Retrieved April 3, 2012. "Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize -- perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population."
- "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
- Ted Falcon, David Blatner (2001). "28". Judaism for dummies. John Wiley & Sons. "Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent."
- Lawrence E. Harrison (2008). The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It. Oxford University Press. p. 102. "That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population."
- Jonathan B. Krasner, Jonathan D. Sarna (2006). The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880's America. Behrman House, Inc.. p. 1. "These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population!"
References[link]
- Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
- Carr, David R. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism in Christendom". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Cowling, Geoffrey (2005). Introduction to World Religions. Singapore: First Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3714-3.
- Danzger, M. Herbert (2003) [2000]. "The "Return" to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975). Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-291-X.
- de Lange, Nicholas (2002) [2000]. An Introduction to Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46073-5.
- Dosick, Wayne (2007). Living Judaism. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-062179-6.
- Elazar, Daniel J. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Feldman, Louis H. (2006). Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14906-6.
- Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001). History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289259-2.
- Goldenberg, Robert (2007). The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84453-3.
- Goldstein, Joseph (1995). Jewish History in Modern Times. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-898723-06-0.
- Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-091533-1.
- Kaplan, Dana Evan (2003) [2000]. "Reform Judaism". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Katz, Shmuel (1974). Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine. Taylor Productions. ISBN 0-929093-13-5.
- Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
- Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
- Littman, David (1979). "Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia". The Wiener Library Bulletin XXXII (New series 49/50).
- Neusner, Jacob (1991). Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25136-6.
- Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press.
- Ruderman, David B. Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History (Princeton University Press; 2010) 326 pages. Examines print culture, religion, and other realms in a history emphasizing the links among early modern Jewish communities from Venice and Kraków to Amsterdam and Smyrna.
- Sharot, Stephen (1997). "Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities". In Endelman, Todd M.. Comparing Jewish Societies. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06592-0.
- Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
- Sweeney, Marvin A. (2003) [2000]. "The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
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- For other meanings see Ashkenaz (disambiguation).
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Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and other Jewish ethnic divisions. |
Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim (Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, pronounced [ˌaʃkəˈnazim], singular: [ˌaʃkəˈnazi]; also יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכֲּנָז, Y'hudey Ashkenaz, "the Jews of Ashkenaz"), are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities along the Rhine in Germany from Alsace in the south to the Rhineland in the north.[citation needed]
The name Ashkenazi derives from the bibilical figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, and a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). In the Rabbinic literature, Ashkenaz's kingdom was first associated with the Scythian region, then later on with the Slavic territories,[5] and from the 11th century onwards with Northern Europe and Germany.[6] The Jews living in the northern regions, associated with Ashkenaz's kingdom, thus came to call themselves the Ashkenazi Jews.[6] Later, Jews from Western and Central Europe also came to be called "Ashkenazi" because the main centers of Jewish learning were located in Germany.
Many Ashkenazi Jews later migrated, largely eastward, forming communities in non German-speaking areas, including Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and elsewhere between the 11th and 19th centuries. With them, they took and diversified Yiddish, a High German language written using the Hebrew alphabet. It had developed in medieval times as the lingua franca among Ashkenazi Jews. The Jewish communities of three cities along the Rhine: Speyer, Worms and Mainz, created the SHUM league (SHUM after the first Hebrew letters of Shpira, Vermayza, and Magentza). The ShUM-cities are considered the cradle of the distinct Ashkenazi culture and liturgy.
Although in the 11th century, they composed only three percent of the world's Jewish population, at their peak in 1931, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for 92 percent of the world's Jews. Today they make up approximately 80 percent of Jews worldwide.[7] Most Jewish communities with extended histories in Europe are Ashkenazim, with the exception of those associated with the Mediterranean region. The majority of the Jews who migrated from Europe to other continents in the past two centuries are Ashkenazim, Eastern Ashkenazim in particular.
Contents |
Definition[link]
The exact definition of Jewishness is not universally agreed upon—neither by religious scholars (especially across different denominations); nor in the context of politics (as applied to those who wish to make Aliyah); nor even in the conventional, everyday sense where "Jewishness" may be loosely understood by the casual observer as encompassing both religious and secular Jews, or religious Jews alone. This makes it especially difficult to define who is an Ashkenazi Jew. The people have been defined differently from religious, cultural, or ethnic perspectives.
Since the overwhelming majority of Ashkenazi Jews no longer live in Eastern Europe, the isolation that once favored a distinct religious tradition and culture has vanished. Furthermore, the word Ashkenazi is being used in non-traditional ways, especially in Israel. By conservative and orthodox philosophies, a person can be considered a Jew only if his or her mother was Jewish (meaning, more specifically, either matrilineal descent from a female believed to be present at Mt. Sinai when the ten commandments were given, or else descent from a female who was converted to Judaism before the birth of her children), or if he or she has personally converted to Judaism. This means that a person can be Ashkenazi but not considered a Jew by some of those within the Jewish communities, making the term "Ashkenazi" more applicable as broad ethnicity which evolved from the practice of Judaism in Europe.[citation needed]
By religion[link]
Religious Jews have Minhagim, customs, in addition to Halakha, or religious law, and different interpretations of law. Different groups of religious Jews in different geographic areas historically adopted different customs and interpretations. On certain issues, Orthodox Jews are required to follow the customs of their ancestors, and do not believe they have the option of picking and choosing. For this reason, observant Jews at times find it important for religious reasons to ascertain who their household's religious ancestors are in order to know what customs their household should follow. These times include, for example, when two Jews of different ethnic background marry, when a non-Jew converts to Judaism and determines what customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less observant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must determine what was done in his or her family's past. In this sense, "Ashkenazic" refers both to a family ancestry and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ancestry.
In a religious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose family tradition and ritual follows Ashkenazi practice. Until the Ashkenazi community first began to develop in the Early Middle Ages, the centers of Jewish religious authority were in the Islamic world, at Baghdad and in Islamic Spain. Ashkenaz (Germany) was so distant geographically that it developed a minhag of its own. Ashkenazi Hebrew came to be pronounced in ways distinct from other forms of Hebrew.
In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is Sephardic, since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic or Mizrahi woman who marries into an Orthodox or Haredi Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashkenazi Jews; conversely an Ashkenazi woman who marries a Sephardi or Mizrahi man is expected to take on Sephardic practice and the children inherit a Sephardic identity, though in practice many families compromise. A convert generally follows the practice of the beth din that converted him or her.
With the integration of Jews from around the world in Israel, North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is blurring, especially outside Orthodox Judaism. Many Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews have joined liberal movements that originally developed within Ashkenazi Judaism. In recent decades, the congregations which they have joined have often embraced them, and absorbed new traditions into their minhag. Rabbis and cantors in most non-Orthodox movements study Hebrew in Israel, where they learn Sephardic rather than Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation. Ashkenazi congregations are adopting Sephardic or modern Israeli melodies for many prayers and traditional songs. Since the middle of the 20th century, there has been a gradual syncretism and fusion of traditions. This is affecting the minhag of all but the most traditional congregations.
New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism"[8][9] often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest in Kabbalah, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework. Another trend is the new popularity of ecstatic worship in the Jewish Renewal movement and the Carlebach style minyan, both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin.[10]
By culture[link]
Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the concept of Yiddishkeit, which means “Jewishness” in the Yiddish language. Yiddishkeit is specifically the Jewishness of Ashkenazi Jews.
Before the Haskalah and the emancipation of Jews in Europe, this meant the study of Torah and Talmud for men, and a family and communal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for men and women. From the Rhineland to Riga to Romania, most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, and spoke Yiddish in their secular lives.
But with modernization, Yiddishkeit now encompasses not just Orthodoxy and Hasidism, but a broad range of movements, ideologies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of Jewishness. Although a far smaller number of Jews still speak Yiddish, Yiddishkeit can be identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association. Broadly speaking, a Jew is one who associates culturally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish books and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, travels to Israel, visits ancient synagogues in Prague, and so forth. It is a definition that applies to Jewish culture in general, and to Ashkenazi Yiddishkeit in particular.
Contemporary population migrations have contributed to a reconfigured Jewishness among Jews of Ashkenazi descent that transcends Yiddishkeit and other traditional articulations of Ashkenazi Jewishness. As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Eastern Europe, settling mostly in Israel, North America, and other English-speaking areas, the geographic isolation that gave rise to Ashkenazim has given way to mixing with other cultures, and with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no longer isolated in distinct geographic locales. For Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe, chopped liver and gefilte fish were archetypal Jewish foods. To contemporary Ashkenazi Jews living both in Israel and in the diaspora, Middle Eastern foods such as hummus and falafel, neither traditional to the historic Ashkenazi experience, have become central to their lives as Ashkenazi Jews in the current era. Hebrew has replaced Yiddish as the primary Jewish language for many Ashkenazi Jews, although many Hasidic and Hareidi groups continue to use Yiddish in daily life.
France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the Inquisition and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German Alsace, and speaking mainly Yiddish. The two communities were so separate and different that the National Assembly emancipated them separately in 1791.
But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by the Dreyfus affair in the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees from antisemitism, the Russian revolution, and the economic turmoil of the Great Depression. By the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in radical political movements. After the Vichy years and the Holocaust, the French Jewish population was augmented once again, first by Ashkenazi refugees from Eastern Europe, and later by Sephardi immigrants and refugees from North Africa, many of them francophone.
Then, in the 1990s, yet another Ashkenazi Jewish wave began to arrive from countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The result is a pluralistic Jewish community that still has some distinct elements of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic culture. But in France, it is becoming much more difficult to sort out the two, and a distinctly French Jewishness has emerged.[11]
By ethnicity[link]
In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can be traced to the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists have identified genetic variations that have high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but not in the general European population. This is true for patrilineal markers (Y-chromosome haplotypes) as well as for matrilineal markers (mitotypes).[12]
Since the middle of the 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and with people of other nations and faiths, while some Jews have also adopted children from other ethnic groups or parts of the world and raised them as Jews. Conversion to Judaism, rare for nearly 2,000 years, has become more common.[citation needed]
A 2006 study found Ashkenazi Jews to be a clear, relatively homogeneous genetic subgroup. Strikingly, regardless of the place of origin, Ashkenazi Jews can be grouped in the same genetic cohort — that is, regardless of whether an Ashkenazi Jew's ancestors came from Poland, Russia, Hungary, Lithuania, or any other place with a historical Jewish population, they belong to the same ethnic group. The research demonstrates the endogamy of the Jewish population in Europe and lends further credence to the idea of Ashkenazi Jews as an ethnic group. Moreover, though intermarriage among Jews of Ashkenazi descent has become increasingly more common, many Haredi Jews, particularly members of Hasidic or Hareidi sects, continue to marry exclusively fellow Ashkenazi Jews. This trend keeps Ashkenazi genes prevalent and also helps researchers further study the genes of Ashkenazi Jews with relative ease. It is noteworthy that these Haredi Jews often have extremely large families.[13]
Realignment in Israel[link]
In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used in ways that have nothing to do with its original meaning; it is often applied to all Jews of European background living in Israel, including sometimes for those whose ethnic background is actually Sephardic. Jews of any non-Ashkenazi background, including Mizrahi, Yemenite, Kurdish and others who have no connection with the Iberian Peninsula, have similarly come to be lumped together as Sephardic. Jews of mixed background are increasingly common, partly because of intermarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because many do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews.[citation needed]
Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in halakhic matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties; although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties which play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to the Knesset, a unicameral legislature with 120 seats.[citation needed]
History[link]
History of Jews in Europe before the Ashkenazim[link]
Although the historical record is very limited, there is a scholarly consensus of cultural, linguistic, and genetic evidence that the Ashkenazi Jewish population originated in the Middle East.[14] Jews have lived in Germany, or "Ashkenaz", at least since the early 4th century.[citation needed] They brought with them both Rabbinic Judaism and the Babylonian Talmudic culture that underlies it. Yiddish, once spoken by the vast majority of Ashkenazi Jewry, is a Germanic language that developed from the Middle High German vernacular, written with Hebrew characters, and heavily influenced by Hebrew and Aramaic.
After the Roman empire had overpowered the Jewish resistance in the First Jewish–Roman War in Judea and destroyed the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE, the complete Roman takeover of Judea followed the Bar Kochba rebellion of 132–135 CE. Though their numbers were greatly reduced, Jews continued to populate large parts of Judaea province (renamed to Palaestina), remaining a majority in Galilee for several hundred years. However, the Romans no longer recognized the authority of the Sanhedrin or any other Jewish body, and Jews were prohibited from living in Jerusalem. Outside the Roman Empire, a large Jewish community remained in Mesopotamia. Other Jewish populations could be found dispersed around the Mediterranean region, with the largest concentrations in the Levant, Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, including Rome. Smaller communities are recorded in southern Gaul (France), Spain, and North Africa.[15]
Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 CE, when Emperor Caracalla granted all free peoples this privilege. But, as a penalty for the first Jewish Revolt, Jews were required to pay a poll tax until the reign of Emperor Julian in 363. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. But, after Christianity became the official religion of Rome and Constantinople in 380, Jews were increasingly marginalized, and brutally persecuted.[citation needed]
In Syria-Palaestina and Mesopotamia, where Jewish religious scholarship was centered, the majority of Jews were still engaged in farming, as demonstrated by the preoccupation of early Talmudic writings with agriculture. In diaspora communities, trade was a common occupation, facilitated by the easy mobility of traders through the dispersed Jewish communities.
Throughout this period and into the early Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to Christianity.[16] In Syria-Palaestina and Mesopotamia, the spoken language of Jews continued to be Aramaic, but elsewhere in the diaspora, most Jews spoke Greek. Conversion and assimilation were especially common within the Hellenized or Greek-speaking Jewish communities, amongst whom the Septuagint and Aquila of Sinope (Greek translations and adaptations of the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible) were the source of scripture. A remnant of this Greek-speaking Jewish population (the Romaniotes) survives to this day.
In the late Roman Empire, Jews are known to have lived in Cologne and Trier, as well as in what is now France. However, it is unclear whether there is any continuity between these late Roman communities and the distinct Ashkenazi Jewish culture that began to emerge about 500 years later. King Dagobert I of the Franks expelled the Jews from his Merovingian kingdom in 629. Jews in former Roman territories now faced new challenges as harsher anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced.
In Mesopotamia, and in Persian lands free of Roman imperial domination, Jewish life fared much better. Since the conquest of Judea by Nebuchadnezzar II, this community had always been the leading diaspora community, a rival to the leadership of Judea. After conditions for Jews began to deteriorate in Roman-controlled lands, many of the religious leaders of Judea and the Galilee fled to the east. At the academies of Pumbeditha and Sura near Babylon, Rabbinic Judaism based on Talmudic learning began to emerge and assert its authority over Jewish life throughout the diaspora. Rabbinic Judaism created a religious mandate for literacy, requiring all Jewish males to learn Hebrew and read from the Torah. It has been suggested that this mandate led to a higher literacy rate for Jewish minorities in both Christian and Islamic lands compared to the majority of gentiles, a result which gave these Jews a comparative advantage in urban commercial and financial roles which, to some extent, may explain their relative prevalence in these fields at the time.[17]
After the Islamic conquest of the Middle East and North Africa, new opportunities for trade and commerce opened between the Middle East and Western Europe. The vast majority of Jews now lived in Islamic lands. Urbanization, trade, and commerce within the Islamic world allowed Jews, as a highly literate people, to abandon farming and live in cities, engaging in occupations where they could use their skills.[18] The influential, sophisticated, and well organized Jewish community of Mesopotamia, now centered in Baghdad, became the center of the Jewish world. In the Caliphate of Baghdad, Jews took on many of the financial occupations that they would later hold in the cities of Ashkenaz. Jewish traders from Baghdad began to travel to the west, renewing Jewish life in the western Mediterranean region. They brought with them Rabbinic Judaism and Babylonian Talmudic scholarship.
Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire around 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a brief period of stability and unity in Western Europe. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle once again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under the Roman Empire. In addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious persecution, began to move into central Europe. These Jews carried with them, the Haplogroup G2c (Y-DNA) which now accounts for the largest haplogroup within the Ashkenazi population.[19] Returning once again to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took on occupations in finance and commerce, including money lending, or usury. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charlemagne's time to the present, there is a well-documented record of Jewish life in northern Europe, and by the 11th century, when Rashi of Troyes wrote his commentaries, Ashkenazi Jews had emerged also as interpreters and commentators on the Torah and Talmud.[citation needed]
High and Late Middle Ages migrations[link]
Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and 9th century. By the end of the first millennium, Jewish populations were well-established in Western Europe, later followed the Norman Conquest into England in 1066, and settled in many cities of the Rhine area by the end of the 11th century.
Although the Jewish people in general were present across a wide geographical area as described, genetic research done by Gil Atzmon of the Longevity Genes Project at Albert Einstein College of Medicine suggests "that Ashkenazim branched off from other Jews around the time of the destruction of the First Temple, 2,500 years ago. . flourished during the Roman Empire but then went through a 'severe bottleneck' as they dispersed, reducing a population of several million to just 400 families who left Northern Italy around the year 1000 for Central and eventually Eastern Europe."[20]
With the onset of the Crusades, and the expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (15th century), Jewish migration pushed eastward into Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to several presumed factors: Christian European prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (such as "usurious" loans)[21] between Christians, high rates of literacy, near universal male education, and ability of merchants to rely upon and trust family members living in different regions and countries.
By the 15th century, the Ashkenazi Jewish communities in Poland were the largest Jewish communities of the Diaspora.[22] This area, which eventually fell under the domination of Russia, Austria, and Prussia (Germany), would remain the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until the Holocaust.
The answer to why there was so little assimilation of Jews in Eastern Europe for so long would seem to lie in part in the probability that the alien surroundings in Eastern Europe were not conducive, though contempt did not prevent some assimilation. Furthermore, Jews lived almost exclusively in shtetls, maintained a strong system of education for males, heeded rabbinic leadership, and scorned the life-style of their neighbors; and all of these tendencies increased with every outbreak of antisemitism.[23]
Usage of the name[link]
In reference to the Jewish peoples of Northern Europe and particularly the Rhineland, the word Ashkenazi is often found in medieval rabbinic literature. References to Ashkenaz in Yosippon and Hasdai ibn Shaprut's letter to the king of the Khazars would date the term as far back as the 10th century, as would also Saadia Gaon's commentary on Daniel 7:8.
The word Ashkenaz first appears in the genealogy in the Tanakh (Genesis 10) as a son of Gomer and grandson of Japheth. It is thought that the name originally applied to the Scythians (Ishkuz), who were called Ashkuza in Assyrian inscriptions, and lake Ascanius and the region Ascania in Anatolia derive their names from this group.
Ashkenaz in later Hebrew tradition became identified with the peoples of Germany, and in particular to the area along the Rhine.
Ashkenaz and the Ashkenazi contrast to the land of Knaan, a geo-ethnological term denoting the Jewish populations living east of the Elbe river as opposed to the Ashkenazi Jews living to the West of it, and the Sephardic Jews of Iberian Peninsula.[24]
The autonym was usually Yidn, however.[citation needed]
Medieval references[link]
In the first half of the 11th century, Hai Gaon refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany. Rashi in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz[25] and the country of Ashkenaz.[26] During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.[27]
In the literature of the 13th century, references to the land and the language of Ashkenaz often occur. Examples include Solomon ben Aderet's Responsa (vol. i., No. 395); the Responsa of Asher ben Jehiel (pp. 4, 6); his Halakot (Berakot i. 12, ed. Wilna, p. 10); the work of his son Jacob ben Asher, Tur Orach Chayim (chapter 59); the Responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet (numbers 193, 268, 270).
In the Midrash compilation Genesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Palestinian Jews, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica." This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by Germamia, which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound.
In later times the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern and Western Germany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of Eastern Germany and Poland. Thus the prayer-book of Isaiah Horowitz, and many others, give the piyyutim according to the Minhag of Ashkenaz and Poland.
According to 16th century mystic Rabbi Elijah of Chelm, Ashkenazi Jews lived in Jerusalem during the 11th century. The story is told that a German-speaking Palestinian Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. So when the knights of the First Crusade came to siege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger’s family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to Worms to repay the favor.[28] Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakhic questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century.[29]
Modern history[link]
In an essay on Sephardi Jewry, Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs[7] summarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years, noting that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; in the mid-17th century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two", but by the end of the 18th century, "Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe versus the Ottoman Muslim world."[7] By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry.[7]
Ashkenazi Jews developed the Hasidic movement as well as major Jewish academic centers across Poland, Russia, and Belarus in the generations after emigration from the west. After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to pogroms in the east and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since 1750.[22]
Ashkenazi cultural growth led to the Haskalah or Jewish Enlightenment, and the development of Zionism in modern Europe.[citation needed]
The Holocaust[link]
Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning of World War II, the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million — more than two-thirds — were systematically murdered in the Holocaust. These included 3 million of 3.3 million Polish Jews (91%); 900,000 of 1.5 million in Ukraine (60%); and 50–90% of the Jews of other Slavic nations, Germany, Hungary, and the Baltic states, and over 25% of the Jews in France. Sephardi communities suffered similar depletions in a few countries, including Greece, the Netherlands and the former Yugoslavia.[30] As the large majority of the victims were Ashkenazi Jews, their percentage dropped from nearly 92% of world Jewry in 1931 to nearly 80% of world Jewry today.[7] The Holocaust also effectively put an end to the dynamic development of the Yiddish language in the previous decades, as the vast majority of the victims of the Holocaust, around five million, were Yiddish speakers.[31] Many of the surviving Ashkenazi Jews emigrated to countries such as Israel, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and the United States after the war.
In Israel[link]
Today, Ashkenazi Jews constitute the largest group among Jews,[7] and among Israeli Jews as well. They have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and politics of Israel since its founding. During the first decades of Israel as a state, strong cultural conflict occurred between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews (mainly east European Ashkenazim). The roots of this conflict, which still exists to a much smaller extent in present day Israeli society, are chiefly attributed to the concept of the "melting pot".[citation needed] That is to say, all Jewish immigrants who arrived in Israel were strongly encouraged to "melt down" their own particular exilic identities within the general social "pot" in order to become Israeli.[citation needed]
Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis in the Yishuv and Israel[link]
- Abraham Isaac Kook: (23 February 1921 – 1 September 1935)
- Isaac Halevi Herzog: (1937 – 25 July 1959)
- Isser Yehuda Unterman: (1964–1972)
- Shlomo Goren: (1972–1983)
- Avraham Shapira: (1983–1993)
- Israel Meir Lau: (1993 – 3 April 2003)
- She'ar Yashuv Cohen (acting): (3 April 2003 – 14 April 2003)
- Yona Metzger: (14 April 2003 – present)
Customs, laws and traditions[link]
The Halakhic practices of (Orthodox) Ashkenazi Jews may differ from those of Sephardi Jews, particularly in matters of custom. Differences are noted in the Shulkhan Arukh itself, in the gloss of Moses Isserles. Well known differences in practice include:
- Observance of Pesach (Passover): Ashkenazi Jews traditionally refrain from eating legumes, grain, millet, and rice (quinoa, however, has become accepted as foodgrain in the North American communities), whereas Sephardi Jews typically do not prohibit these foods.
- Ashkenazi Jews freely mix and eat fish and milk products; some Sephardic Jews refrain from doing so.
- Ashkenazim are more permissive toward the usage of wigs as a hair covering for married and widowed women.
- In the case of kashrut for meat, conversely, Sephardi Jews have stricter requirements—this level is commonly referred to as Beth Yosef. Meat products which are acceptable to Ashkenazi Jews as kosher may therefore be rejected by Sephardi Jews. Notwithstanding stricter requirements for the actual slaughter, Sephardi Jews permit the rear portions of an animal after proper Halakhic removal of the sciatic nerve, while many Ashkenazi Jews do not. This is not because of different interpretations of the law; rather, slaughterhouses could not find adequate skills for correct removal of the sciatic nerve and found it more economical to separate the hindquarters and sell them as non-kosher meat.
- Ashkenazi Jews frequently name newborn children after deceased family members, but not after living relatives. Sephardi Jews, in contrast, often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if those grandparents are still living. A notable exception to this generally reliable rule is among Dutch Jews, where Ashkenazim for centuries used the naming conventions otherwise attributed exclusively to Sephardim such as Chuts.
- Ashkenazi tefillin bear some differences from Sephardic tefillin. In the traditional Ashkenazic rite, the tefillin are wound towards the body, not away from it. Ashkenazim traditionally don tefillin while standing, whereas other Jews generally do so while sitting down.
- Ashkenazic traditional pronunciations of Hebrew differ from those of other groups. The most prominent consonantal difference from Sephardic and Mizrahic Hebrew dialects is the pronunciation of the Hebrew letter tav in certain Hebrew words (historically, in postvocalic undoubled context) as an /s/ and not a /t/ or /θ/ sound.
Further information: Ashkenazi Hebrew
- The prayer shawl, or tallit (or tallis in Ashkenazi Hebrew), is worn by the majority of Ashkenazi men after marriage, but western European Ashkenazi men wear it from Bar Mitzvah. In Sephardi or Mizrahi Judaism, the prayer shawl is commonly worn from early childhood.[32]
Relationship with other Jews[link]
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The term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach Ashkenaz (Hebrew, "liturgical tradition", or rite) used by Ashkenazi Jews in their Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are Nusach Sefard (not to be confused with Sephardi), which is the same as the general Polish (Hasidic) Nusach; and Nusach Chabad, otherwise known as Lubavitch Chasidic, Nusach Arizal or Nusach Ari.
This phrase is often used in contrast with Sephardi Jews, also called Sephardim, who are descendants of Jews from Spain and Portugal. There are some differences in how the two groups pronounce certain Hebrew letters and in points of ritual.
Several famous people have Ashkenazi as a surname, such as Vladimir Ashkenazy. However, most people with this surname hail from within Sephardic communities, particularly from the Syrian Jewish community. The Sephardic carriers of the surname would have some Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted by families who were initially of Ashkenazic origins who move to Sephardi countries and joined those communities. Ashkenazi would be formally adopted as the family surname having started off as a nickname imposed by their adopted communities. Some have shortened the name to Ash.
The theory that the majority of Ashkenazi Jews are the descendants of the non-Semitic converted Khazars was advocated by various racial theorists and antisemitic sources in the late-19th and 20th centuries, especially following the publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe.[33][34][35] Despite recent genetic evidence to the contrary,[1] and a lack of any real mainstream scholarly support,[36] this belief is still popular among antisemites.[37][38]
Notable Ashkenazim[link]
Ashkenazi Jews have a noted history of achievement in western societies.[39] They have won a large number of the Nobel awards.[40][41] In those societies where they have been free to enter any profession, they have a record of high occupational achievement, entering professions and fields of commerce where higher education is required.[42] For example, during the 20th century in the United States, Ashkenazi Jews represented approximately 3% of the population, but won 27% of the US Nobel Prizes in science, and 25% of the ACM Turing Awards (the Nobel-equivalent in computer science).[43]
Genetics[link]
Genetic origins[link]
Main article: Genetic studies on Jews
Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis began in the 1990s. Like most DNA studies of human migration patterns, the earliest studies focused on two segments of the human genome, the Y-chromosome (passed on only by males), and the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA, passed on only by females). Both segments are unaffected by recombination. Genome-wide association studies have also been employed to yield findings relevant to genetic origins.
Male lineages: Y-chromosomal DNA[link]
A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al.[44] found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors."
A 2001 study by Nebel et al. showed that both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish populations share the same overall paternal Near Eastern ancestries. In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent. The authors also report on Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes, which are very frequent in Eastern Europeans (54%–60%) at elevated frequency (12.7%) in Ashkenazi Jews. They hypothesized that the differences among Ashkenazim Jews could reflect low-level gene flow from surrounding European populations and/or genetic drift during isolation.[45] A later 2005 study by Nebel et al., found a similar level of 11.5% of male Ashkenazim belonging to R1a1a (M17+), the dominant Y-chromosome haplogroup in Eastern Europeans, suggesting possible gene flow.[46]
Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNA[link]
Before 2006, geneticists largely attributed the genesis of most of the world's Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to founding effects by males who migrated from the Middle East and "by the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism." In line with this model of origin, David Goldstein, now of Duke University, reported in 2002 that, unlike male lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities "did not seem to be Middle Eastern", and that each community had its own genetic pattern and even that "in some cases the mitochondrial DNA was closely related to that of the host community." In his view this suggested "that Jewish men had arrived from the Middle East, taken wives from the host population and converted them to Judaism, after which there was no further intermarriage with non-Jews."[47]
However, a 2006 study by Behar et al.,[1] based on high-resolution analysis of haplogroup K(mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a Hebrew/Levantine mtDNA pool" originating in the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Although Haplogroup K is common throughout western Eurasia, "the observed global pattern of distribution renders very unlikely the possibility that the four aforementioned founder lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene flow from a European host population:
"..Both the extent and location of the maternal ancestral deme from which the Ashkenazi Jewry arose remain obscure. Here, using complete sequences of the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), we show that close to one-half of Ashkenazi Jews, estimated at 8,000,000 people, can be traced back to only four women carrying distinct mtDNAs that are virtually absent in other populations, with the important exception of low frequencies among non-Ashkenazi Jews. We conclude that four founding mtDNAs, likely of Near Eastern ancestry, underwent major expansion(s) in Europe within the past millennium.."[1][47]
In addition, Behar et al. have suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from ~150 women, most of those likely of Middle Eastern origin.[1] However, other studies by Behar indicate that this mtDNA is different from other Jewish populations found outside of Europe, leaving the possibility of a separate origin or even a European origin a distinct possibility.[48]
Genome-wide association and linkage studies[link]
In genetic epidemiology, a genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of a particular species to see how much the genes vary from individual to individual. These techniques were originally designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic associations with observable traits.[49]
A 2006 study by Seldin et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure. The results showed “a consistent and reproducible distinction between ‘northern’ and ‘southern’ European population groups”. Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the ‘northern’ population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the 'southern' group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the “southern” group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".[50]
A 2007 study by Bauchet et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations when compared to Global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins.[51][52]
A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry.", as both groups – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen.[53] Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. Using their DNA analysis, the authors traced the ancestors of all Jews to Persia and Babylon, areas that now form part of Iran and Iraq.[54] The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.[14][55]
A 2010 study by Bray et al, using SNP microarray techniques and linkage analysis, estimated that 35 to 55 percent of the modern Ashkenazi genome may be of European origin, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome". The study assumed Druze and Palestinian Arabs populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome. With this reference point, the linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population was interpreted as "matches signs of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations". In their press release, Bray stated: "We were surprised to find evidence that Ashkenazi Jews have higher heterozygosity than Europeans, contradicting the widely-held presumption that they have been a largely isolated group". The authors conclude that their results will require further investigation.[56]
Medical genetics[link]
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Main article: Medical genetics of Jewish people
There are many references to Ashkenazi Jews in the literature of medical and population genetics. Indeed, much awareness of "Ashkenazi Jews" as an ethnic group or category stems from the large number of genetic studies of disease, including many that are well reported in the media, that have been conducted among Jews. Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations, for a variety of reasons:
- Geneticists are intrinsically interested in Jewish populations as a disproportionate percentage of genetics researchers are Jewish. Israel in particular has become an international center of such research.
- Jewish populations, and particularly the large Ashkenazi Jewish population, are ideal for such research studies, because they exhibit a high degree of endogamy, yet they are sizable.
- Jewish populations are overwhelmingly urban, and are concentrated near biomedical centers where such research has been carried out. Such research is especially easy to carry out in Israel, where cradle-to-grave medical insurance is available, together with universal screening for genetic disease.
- Jewish communities are comparatively well informed about genetics research, and have been supportive of community efforts to study and prevent genetic diseases.
- Participation of Jewish scientists and support from the Jewish community alleviates ethical concerns that sometimes hinder such genetic studies in other ethnic groups.
The result is a form of ascertainment bias. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations.[57] Healthcare professionals are often taught to consider those of Ashkenazi descent to be at increased risk for colon cancer.[58]
A study by the Albert Einstein College of Medicine examines a particular genetic trait that increases the lifespan of the Ashkenazi population. The study focuses on telomerase, the enzyme responsible for maintaining telomeres at the ends of chromosomes during cell division.[59][60]
Genetic counseling and genetic testing are recommended for couples where both partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notably Dor Yeshorim, organize screening programs to prevent homozygosity for the genes that cause these diseases. E. L. Abel's book Jewish Genetic Disorders: A Layman's Guide (McFarland, 2008: ISBN 0-7864-4087-2) is a comprehensive reference text on the topic; also see the Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders[61] for more information.
See also[link]
- Sephardi Jews
- Ashkenazi intelligence
- Rosalind Franklin
- History of the Jews in Germany
- Jews and Judaism in Europe
- Jewish ethnic divisions
- Oberlander Jews
- Nusach Ashkenaz
- Three hares
- List of Israeli Ashkenazi Jews
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d e Behar, Doron M.; Ene Metspalu, Toomas Kivisild, Alessandro Achilli, Yarin Hadid, Shay Tzur, Luisa Pereira, Antonio Amorim, Lluı's Quintana-Murci, Kari Majamaa, Corinna Herrnstadt, Neil Howell, Oleg Balanovsky, Ildus Kutuev, Andrey Pshenichnov, David Gurwitz, Batsheva Bonne-Tamir, Antonio Torroni, Richard Villems, and Karl Skorecki (March 2006). "The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event" (PDF). The American Journal of Human Genetics 78 (3): 487–97. DOI:10.1086/500307. PMC 1380291. PMID 16404693. http://www.ftdna.com/pdf/43026_Doron.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
- ^ John Hopkins Gazette, September 8, 1997.
- ^ a b Gabriel E. Feldman, Do Ashkenazi Jews have a Higher than expected Cancer Burden?PDF (650 KB) , Israel Medical Association Journal, Volume 3, 2001.
- ^ "Ashkenazi Jews", Hebrew University of Jerusalem website. Retrieved November 10, 2009.
- ^ Kraus. S, 1932, Hashemot 'ashkenaz usefarad, Tarbiz 3:423-435
- ^ a b Yiddish Civilisation: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation, Paul Kriwaczek, (London 2011), Chapter 3, footnote 9
- ^ a b c d e f Elazar, Daniel J.. "Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles3/sephardic.htm. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
- ^ Rosenthal, Rachel (2006). "What's in a name?". Kedma (Winter 2006).
- ^ Greenberg, Richard and Debra Nussbaum Cohen (2005). "Uncovering the Un-Movement" (PDF). http://jewschool.com/THE_NEW_JEW.pdf.
- ^ Donadio, Rachel (August 10, 2001). "Any Old Shul Won't Do for the Young and Cool". Archived from the original on 2006-10-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20061007113608/http://www.kehilathadar.org/Aboutus/forward08-10-01.html. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
- ^ Wall, Irwin. (2002) "Remaking Jewish Identity in France", in Howard Wettstein, Diaspora's and Exiles. University of California Press, pages 164–190.
- ^ "New Light on Origins of Ashkenazi in Europe", New York Times, 14 Jan 2006
- ^ http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.0020143#pgen-0020143-g003
- ^ a b Atzmon, G.; Hao, L.; Pe'er, I.; Velez, C.; Pearlman, A.; Palamara, P. F.; Morrow, B.; Friedman, E. et al. (2010). "Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry". American Journal of Human Genetics 86 (6): 850–859. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. PMC 3032072. PMID 20560205. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3032072.
- ^ Schwartz, Seth (2001). Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 BCE to 640 CE. Princeton University Press. pp. 103–128. ISBN 0-691-11781-0.
- ^ Shaye J. D. Cohen (2001). The Beginnings of Jewishness. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22693-3.
- ^ Botticini, M.; Eckstein, Z. (January 2003). "From Farmers to Merchants: A Human Capital Interpretation of Jewish Economic History". CEPR Discussion Papers (3718). http://www.econ.barnard.columbia.edu/~econhist/papers/Botticini_Eckstein_HumCap.pdf.
- ^ Botticini, Maristella; Zvi Eckstein (March 2006). "From Farmers to Merchants, Voluntary Conversions and Diaspora: A Human Capital Interpretation of Jewish History". http://ideas.repec.org/p/cpr/ceprdp/5571.html. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
- ^ www.isogg.org
- ^ "What Do a Bunch of Old Jews Know About Living Forever?by Jesse Green. New York Magazine. Published Nov 6, 2011[1]
- ^ Ben-Sasson, Hayim (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-39730-4.
- ^ a b Schoenberg, Shira. "Ashkenazim". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Ashkenazim.html. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
- ^ Feldman, Louis H. Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World : Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian. Ewing, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press, 1996. p 43.
- ^ (Polish) various authors; Szymon Datner (1983). Witold Tyloch. ed. Z dziejów Żydów w Polsce. Warsaw: Interpress. p. 6. ISBN 83-223-2095-7.
- ^ Commentary on Deuteronomy 3:9; idem on Talmud tractate Sukkah 17a
- ^ Talmud, Hullin 93a
- ^ ib. p. 129
- ^ Seder ha-Dorot", p. 252, 1878 ed.
- ^ Epstein, in "Monatsschrift," xlvii. 344; Jerusalem: Under the Arabs
- ^ "Estimated Number of Jews Killed in The Final Solution". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/killedtable.html. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
- ^ Solomo Birnbaum, Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache (4., erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3.
- ^ Tallit: Jewish Prayer Shawl, Religion Facts. Retrieved December 13, 2008.
- ^ Michael Barkun, Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement, UNC Press, ISBN 0-8078-4638-4, pp. 137–142.
- ^ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Black Sun: Aryan cults, esoteric nazism, and the politics of identity, NYU Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4, p. 237.
- ^ Paul F. Boller, Memoirs of an Obscure Professor and Other Essays, TCU Press, 1992, pp. 5–6.
- ^ "This theory… is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where the Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics." Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites, W.W. Norton and Company, ISBN 0-393-31839-7, p. 48.
- ^ "Of course an anti-Zionist (as well as an anti-Semitic) point is being made here: The Palestinians have a greater political right to Palestine than the Jews do, as they, not the modern-day Jews, are the true descendants of the land's Jewish inhabitants/owners." Morris, Benny. The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, I.B.Tauris, 2003, ISBN 1-86064-989-0, p. 22.
- ^ "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." Yehoshafat Harkabi, "Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots", in Helen Fein, The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism, Walter de Gruyter, 1987, ISBN 3-11-010170-X, p. 424.
- ^ Murray, Charles (April 2007). "Jewish Genius". Commentary Magazine. https://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Jewish-Genius-10855?page=all. Retrieved 2007-12-23. "Disproportionate Jewish accomplishment in the arts and sciences continues to this day."
- ^ Murray, Charles (April 2007). "Jewish Genius". Commentary Magazine. https://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Jewish-Genius-10855?page=all. Retrieved 2007-12-23. "In the first half of the 20th century, despite pervasive and continuing social discrimination against Jews throughout the Western world, despite the retraction of legal rights, and despite the Holocaust, Jews won 14 percent of Nobel Prizes in literature, chemistry, physics, and medicine/physiology. In the second half of the 20th century, when Nobel Prizes began to be awarded to people from all over the world, that figure rose to 29 percent. So far, in the 21st century, it has been 32 percent. Jews constitute about two-tenths of one percent of the world’s population."
- ^ Pinker, Steven (2006-06-17). "THE LESSONS OF THE ASHKENAZIM:Groups and Genes". The New Republican. http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/media/2006_06_17_thenewrepublic.html. Retrieved 2007-12-23. "Though never exceeding 3 percent of the American population, Jews account for 37 percent of the winners of the U.S. National Medal of Science, 25 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in literature, 40 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in science and economics, and so on."
- ^ Murray, Charles (April 2007). "Jewish Genius". Commentary Magazine. https://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Jewish-Genius-10855?page=all. Retrieved 2007-12-23. "From 1870 to 1950, Jewish representation in literature was four times the number one would expect. In music, five times. In the visual arts, five times. In biology, eight times. In chemistry, six times. In physics, nine times. In mathematics, twelve times. In philosophy, fourteen times."
- ^ G. Cochran, J. Hardy, H. Harpending, Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence, Journal of Biosocial Science 38 (5), pp. 659–693 (2006).
- ^ Hammer, M. F.; A. J. Redd, E. T. Wood, M. R. Bonner, H. Jarjanazi, T. Karafet, S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Oppenheim, M. A. Jobling, T. Jenkins, H. Ostrer, and B. Bonné-Tamir (May 9 2000). "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (12): 6769. Bibcode 2000PNAS...97.6769H. DOI:10.1073/pnas.100115997. PMC 18733. PMID 10801975. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=18733.
- ^ Almut Nebel, Dvora Filon, Bernd Brinkmann, Partha P. Majumder, Marina Faerman, Ariella Oppenheim. "The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East", The American Journal of Human Genetics (2001), Volume 69, number 5. pp. 1095–112
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- ^ Coghlan, Andy (June 4, 2010). "How religion made Jews genetically distinct". Newscientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19008-how-religion-made-jews-genetically-distinct.html.
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References[link]
References for "Who is an Ashkenazi Jew?"[link]
- Goldberg, Harvey E. (2001). The Life of Judaism. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21267-3.
- Silberstein, Laurence (2000). Mapping Jewish Identities. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-9769-5.
- Wettstein, Howard (2002). Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22864-2.
- Wex, Michael (2005). Born to Kvetch: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-30741-1.
Other references[link]
- Beider, Alexander (2001): A Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pronunciations, and Migrations. Avotaynu. ISBN 1-886223-12-2.
- Biale, David (2002): Cultures of the Jews: A New History. Schoken Books. ISBN 0-8052-4131-0.
- Brook, Kevin Alan (2003): "The Origins of East European Jews" in Russian History/Histoire Russe vol. 30, nos. 1–2, pp. 1–22.
- Gross, N. (1975): Economic History of the Jews. Schocken Books, New York.
- Haumann, Heiko (2001): A History of East European Jews. Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9241-26-1.
- Kriwaczek, Paul (2005): Yiddish Civilization: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 14000040876
- Lewis, Bernard (1984): The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05419-3.
- Vital, David (1999): A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821980-6.
External links[link]
- The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
- "Jewish legacy inscribed on genes?". Los Angeles Times. 18 April 2009. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-sci-jewish-iq18-2009apr18,0,2228388.story. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
- Ashkenazi history at the Jewish Virtual Library
- "The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event"PDF (2.02 MB)
- "Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA haplogroup distribution varies among distinct subpopulations: lessons of population substructure in a closed group" (European Journal of Human Genetics – 2007)
- "Analysis of genetic variation in Ashkenazi Jews by high density SNP genotyping"
- Nusach Ashkenaz, and Discussion Forum
- Ashkenaz Heritage
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