Latin jazz is jazz with Latin American rhythms. Although musicians continually expand its parameters, the term Latin jazz, is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz sub-genre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African influence. The two main categories of Latin jazz are:

1. Afro-Cuban jazz—jazz rhythmically based on clave, often with a rhythm section employing ostinato patterns from Cuban popular dance music.
2. Afro-Brazilian jazz—includes bossa nova and jazz samba.

In 1993 trombonist, composer, and arranger William Cepeda created a sub-genre he calls Afro-Rican jazz, which blends jazz with the African elements of Puerto Rican music.

Afro-Cuban jazz[link]

"Spanish tinge"—The Cuban influence in early jazz and proto-Latin jazz[link]

African American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban musical motifs in the 19th century, when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity. The habanera was the first written music to be rhythmically based on an African motif. The habanera rhythm (also known as congo,^[1] tango-congo,^[2] or tango.^[3]) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. Wynton Marsalis considers tresillo to be the New Orleans "clave," although technically, the pattern is only half a clave.^[4]

Tresillo.  Play (help·info)

"St. Louis Blues" (1914) by W.C. Handy has a habanera/tresillo bass line. Handy noted a reaction to the habanera rhythm included in Will H. Tyler's "Maori": "I observed that there was a sudden, proud and graceful reaction to the rhythm...White dancers, as I had observed them, took the number in stride. I began to suspect that there was something Negroid in that beat." After noting a similar reaction to the same rhythm in "La Paloma", Handy included this rhythm in his "St. Louis Blues," the instrumental copy of "Memphis Blues," the chorus of "Beale Street Blues," and other compositions."^[6] Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.^[7] The habanera rhythm can be heard in his left hand on songs like "The Crave" (1910, recorded 1938).

Now in one of my earliest tunes, “New Orleans Blues,” you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can’t manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz—Morton (1938: Library of Congress Recording).^[8]

Jelly Roll Morton

Although the exact origins of jazz syncopation may never be known, there’s evidence that the habanera/tresillo was there at its conception. Buddy Bolden, the first known jazz musician, is credited with creating the big four, a habanera-based pattern. The big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.^[9] As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

It is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz . . . because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed. It may also account for the fact that patterns such as [tresillo have] . . . remained one of the most useful and common syncopated patterns in jazz—Schuller (1968).^[10]

The Cuban influence is evident in many pre-1940s jazz tunes, but rhythmically, they are all based on single-celled motifs such as tresillo, and not do not contain an overt two-celled, clave-based structure. "Caravan," written by Juan Tizol and first performed in 1936, is an early proto-Latin jazz composition. It is not clave-based.

Jazz in-clave[link]

Machito and his sister Graciella Grillo

The first jazz piece to be overtly based in-clave, and therefore, the first true Latin jazz piece, was "Tanga" (1943) composed by Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans the same year, 1943. The tune was initially a descarga (Cuban jam) with jazz solos superimposed, spontaneously composed by Bauzá.

The right hand of the "Tanga" piano guajeo is in the style known as ponchando, a type of non-arpeggiated guajeo using block chords. The sequence of attack-points is emphasized, rather than a sequence of different pitches. As a form of accompaniment it can be played in a strictly repetitive fashion or as a varied motif akin to jazz comping.^[11] The following example is in the style of a 1949 recording by Machito. 2‐3 clave, piano by René Hernández.^[12]

"Tanga" in the style of Machito and His Afro‐Cubans (recorded 1949). 2‐3 clave, piano: René Hernández.

The first descarga that made the world take notice is traced to a Machito rehearsal on May 29, 1943, at the Park Palace Ballroom, at 110th Street and 5th Avenue. At this time, Machito was at Fort Dix (New Jersey) in his fourth week of basic training. The day before at La Conga Club, Mario Bauza, Machito's trumpeter and music director, heard pianist Luis Varona and bassist Julio Andino play El Botellero composition and arrangements of the Cuban-born Gilberto Valdez which would serve as a permanent sign off (end the dance) tune. On this Monday evening, Dr. Bauza leaned over the piano and instructed Varona to play the same piano vamp he did the night before. Varona's left hand began the introduction of Gilberto Valdes' El Botellero. Bauza then instructed Julio Andino what to play; then the saxes; then the trumpets. The broken chord sounds soon began to take shape into an Afro-Cuban jazzed up melody. Gene Johnson's alto sax then emitted oriental-like jazz phrases. Afro-Cuban jazz was invented when Bauza composed "Tanga" (African word for marijuana) that evening of 1943. Thereafter, whenever "Tanga" was played, it sounded different, depending on a soloist's individuality. In August 1948, when trumpeter Howard McGhee soloed with Machito's orchestra at the Apollo Theatre, his ad-libs to "Tanga" resulted in "Cu-Bop City," a tune which was recorded by Roost Records months later. The jams which took place at the Royal Roots, Bop City and Birdland between 1948 - 49, when Howard McGhee, tenor saxophonist Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie sat in with the Machito orchestra, were unrehearsed, uninhibited, unheard of before jam sessions which at the time, master of ceremonies Symphony Sid called Afro-Cuban jazz. The Machito orchestra's ten or fifteen minute jams were the first in Latin music to break away from the traditional under four minute recordings. In February 1949, the Machito orchestra became the first to set a precedent in Latin music when it featured tenor saxophonist Flip Phillips in a five minute recording of "Tanga." The twelve inch 78 RPM, part of The Jazz Scene album, sold for $25—Salazar (1997).^[13]

3-2 clave and 2-3 clave written in cut-time.

Mario Bauzá developed the 3-2 / 2-3 clave concept and terminology. A chord progression can begin on either side of clave. When the progression begins on the three-side, the song or song section is said to be in 3-2 clave. When the chord progression begins on the two-side, it is in 2-3 clave. In North America, salsa and Latin jazz charts commonly represent clave in two measures of cut-time (2/2); this is most likely the influence of jazz conventions.^[14] When clave is written in two measures (above) changing from one clave sequence to the other is a matter of reversing the order of the measures.

Bobby Sanabria, who was Bauzá's drummer, cites several important innovations of Machito's band:

• The first band to explore jazz arranging techniques with authentic Afro-Cuban rhythms on a consistent basis giving it a unique identifiable sound that no other band in the genre of Afro-Cuban based dance music had at the time. Cuban big band arranger Chico O'Farill stated: "This was a new concept in interpretating Cuban music with as much (harmonic) richness as possible. You have to understand how important this was. It made every other band that came after, followers."^[15]
• The first band to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective through their recording of "Tanga." Of note is the sheet of sound effect in the arrangement through the use of multiple layering.
• 4 The first big band to explore, from an Afro-Cuban rhythmic perspective, large scale extended compositional works. e.g. "The Afro-Cuban Jazz Suite" by Chico O'Farill.
• The first band to successfully wed jazz big band arranging techniques within an original composition with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner. e.g. Gene Johnson - alto, Brew Moore - tenor, composition - "Tanga" (1943).
• The first Afro-Cuban based dance band to OVERTLY explore the concept of clave conterpoint from an arranging standpoint. The ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement.^[16]

Dizzy Gillespie 1955

Bauzá introduced be-bop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummer Chano Pozo. "Manteca" is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. "Manteca" was co-written by Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo in 1947. According to Gillespie, Pozo created the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, and Gillespie wrote the bridge. The rhythm of the melody of the A section is identical to a common mambo bell pattern.

Top: opening measures of "Manteca" melody. Bottom: common mambo bell pattern (2-3 clave).

On March 31, 1946, Stan Kenton recorded "Machito," written by his collaborator / arranger Pete Rugolo, which is considered by some to be the first Latin jazz recording by American jazz musicians. The Kenton band was augmented by Ivan Lopez on bongos and Eugenio Reyes on maracas. Later, on December 6 the same year, Stan Kenton recorded an arrangement of the Afro-Cuban tune "The Peanut Vendor" with members of Machito's rhythm section.

Mongo Santamaria 1969

Cuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition "Afro Blue" in 1959.^[17] "Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola.^[18] The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to "keep time."

"Afro Blue" bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed noteheads.

Afro-Brazilian jazz[link]

Samba originated from the 19th century Afro-Brazilian music such as the Lundu.

Bossa nova[link]

Bossa Nova is a hybrid form based on the samba rhythm, but influenced by European and American music from Debussy to US jazz. Bossa Nova originated in the 1950s, largely from the efforts of Brazilians Antonio Carlos Jobim and João Gilberto, and American Stan Getz. Its most famous song is arguably "The Girl from Ipanema" sung by Gilberto and his wife, Astrud Gilberto. While the musical style evolved from samba, it is more complex harmonically and less percussive. Bossa nova emerged primarily from the upscale beachside neighborhoods of Rio de Janeiro as opposed to Samba's origins in the favelas of Rio. Certain similar elements were already evident, even influencing Western classical music like Gershwin's Cuban Overture which has the characteristic 'Latin' clave rhythm. The influence on bossa nova of jazz styles such as cool jazz is often debated by historians and fans, but a similar "cool sensibility" is apparent.

Bossa nova was developed in Brazil in the mid 1950s, with its creation being credited to artists including Johnny Alf, Antonio Carlos Jobim and João Gilberto. One of the first songs was "Bim-Bom"(Gilberto). Bossa nova was made popular by Dorival Caymmi's "Saudade da Bahia" and Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP, composed by Vinícius de Moraes (lyrics) and Antonio Carlos Jobim (music). The song was soon after released by Gilberto.

The initial releases by Gilberto and the internationally popular 1959 film Orfeu Negro ("Black Orpheus", with score by Luiz Bonfá) brought significant popularity of this musical style in Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America, which spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented its popularity and led to a worldwide boom with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald (Ella Abraça Jobim) and Frank Sinatra (Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim). Since that time, the bossa nova style maintains a lasting influence in world music for several decades and even up to the present.

The first bossa nova single to achieve international popularity was perhaps the most successful of all time, the 1964 Getz/Gilberto recording "The Girl From Ipanema", edited to include only the singing of Astrud Gilberto, Gilberto's then wife. The genre would withstand substantial "watering down" by popular artists throughout the next four decades.

An early influence on bossa nova was the song "Dans mon île" by French singer Henri Salvador, featured in the 1957 Italian movie Europa di notte by Alessandro Blasetti; the song was distributed in Brazil and covered later by Brazilian artists Eumir Deodato (Los Danseros en Bolero - 1964) and Caetano Veloso (Outras Palavras - 1981). In 2005, Henri Salvador was awarded the Brazilian Order of Cultural Merit, which he received from singer and Minister of Culture, Gilberto Gil, in the presence of President Lula for his influence on Brazilian culture.

The so-called "bossa nova clave" (or "Brazilian clave") is played on the snare rim of the drum kit in bossa nova. The pattern has a similar rhythm to that of the son clave, but the second note on the two-side is delayed by one pulse (subdivision). The pattern is shown below in 2/4, as it is written in Brazil. In North American charts it is more likely to be written in cut-time.

Bossa nova snare rim pattern.

According to drummer Bobby Sanabria the Brazilian composer Antonio Carlos Jobim, who developed the pattern, considers it to be merely a rhythmic motif and not a clave (guide pattern). Jobim later regretted that Latino musicians misunderstood the role of this bossa nova pattern.^[19]

Brazilian percussionist Airto Moreira

Beyond Latin jazz[link]

Naná Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau

Brazilian percussionist Airto Moreira became a professional musician at age 13. He won acclaim as a member of the samba jazz pioneers Sambalanço Trio and for his landmark recording Quarteto Novo with Hermeto Pascoal in 1967. Shortly after, he followed his wife Flora Purim to the United States. Once in the U.S., Airto introduced Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments into a wide variety of jazz styles, in ways that had not been done before. In Chick Corea's original Return to Forever band, Airto was able to showcase his samba prowess on several percussion instruments, including drum kit. However, the terms jazz samba or Latin jazz are too limiting a label for the types of music Airto participated in the U.S. during the 1970s. Airto played in the two most important avant-garde electric jazz bands of the day—Miles Davis and Weather Report. He also performed on more mainstream albums, such as those of CTI Records. Besides energetic rhythmic textures, Airto added percussion color, using bells, shakers, and whistles to create evocative textures of timbre. Airto paved the way for other avant garde Brazilian musicians such as Hermeto Pascoal, to enter the North American jazz scene.

Another innovative Brazilian percussionis is Naná Vasconcelos. Vasconcelos contributed to four Jon Hassell albums from 1976 to 1980 (including Possible Musics by Brian Eno and Hassell), and later to several Pat Metheny Group works and Jan Garbarek concerts from early 1980s to early 1990s. In 1984 he appeared on the Pierre Favre album Singing Drums along with Paul Motian. He also appears on Arild Andersen's album "If You Look Far Enough" with Ralph Towner. Vasconcelos formed a group named Codona with Don Cherry and Collin Walcott, which released three albums in 1978, 1980 and 1982.^[20][21][22] While Vasconcelos uses Afro-Brazlian rhythms and instruments, he like Airto, transcend the categories of Brazilian jazz and Latin jazz.

Comparing Latin jazz with straight-ahead jazz[link]

In comparison with straight-ahead jazz, Latin jazz employs straight rhythm (or "even-eighths"), rather than swung rhythm. Early Latin jazz rarely employed a backbeat, but contemporary forms fuse the backbeat with the clave. The conga, timbale, güiro, bongos, and claves are percussion instruments often used in place of the drum kit.

Formats[link]

Latin jazz music, like most types of jazz music, can be played in small or large groups. Small groups, or combos, often use the bebop format made popular in the 1950s in America, where the musicians play a standard melody, many of the musicians play an improvised solo, and then everyone plays the melody again. In Latin jazz bands, percussion is often featured in solos.

Quotation[link]

We play jazz with the Latin touch, that's all, you know. - Tito Puente^[23]

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Peñalosa, David (2009). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
• Mauleón, Rebeca (1993). Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 0-9614701-9-4.
• Acosta, Leonardo (2003) One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba. Washington DC: Smithsonian Books.
• Roberts, John Storm (1999) Latin Jazz. New York: Schirmer Books.
• Delannoy, Luc (2001) Caliente, una historia del Jazz Latino. Mexico: FCE.
• Delannoy, Luc (2005) Carambola, vidas en el Jazz Latino. Mexico: FCE.
• Campos Fonseca, Susan.  “¿Una habitación propia en el “Jazz Latino”?”. En: IASPM@Journal, Vol. 1, Nº2 (2010).

External links[link]

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (September 2009)

Latin Jazz on Film/Video/DVD

• "Calle 54" - Fernando Trueba's Latin Jazz Movie

Latin Jazz websites/blogs

• LatinJazzClub Magazine"
• Celebrating the Masters of Latin Jazz"
• Chip Boaz' "The Latin Jazz Corner"
• Love Kiss Music Label
• Chicano roots latin jazz fusion

Latin Jazz radio programs

• Latin Jazz Online Radio
• "The Latin Jazz Show" with Chuy Varela - KCSM 91.1 FM - San Mateo, CA
• "Lunchtime @ the Oasis" with Arturo Gomez-Cruz - KUVO 89.3 FM - Denver, CO
• "Con Sabor" with Luis Medina - KPFA 94.1FM - Berekely, CA
• "Con Clave" with Chata Gutierrez - KPOO 89.5FM - San Francisco, CA
• "Canto Tropical" with Héctor "La Voz" Resendez - KPFK 90.7 FM - Los Angeles, CA
• "Latin/Jazz Mecca" with C'Tone - Ozcat Radio 89.5FM - Vallejo, CA
• "Jazz on the Latin Side" with Jose Rizo - KJAZ 88.1FM - Long Beach, CA
• "Alma Caribeña" with Lady DJ Margarita - KBBF 89.1 FM - Santa Rosa, CA
• "Ritmo Con Ache" with Nancy Rodriguez - WBAI 99.5 FM - New York City, NY
• "Al Lado Latino" with 'JC' Johnny Conga - KBCS 91.3 FM - Seattle, WA
• "Azucar y Candela" with Santa Salsera - WXDU 88.7 FM - Durham, NC
• "Latin Jazz Cruise" with Awilda Rivera - WBGO 88.3 FM - Newark, NJ
• "The Latin Jazz Beat" with Jim Benitez - WICN 90.5 FM - Worcester, MA
• "Latin Jazz Brunch" with Henry Brun - KRTU 91.7 FM - San Antonio, TX
• "Raices" with Louis Head - KUNM 89.9 - Albuquerque, NM
• "La Musica Brava" & "The Latin Quarter" - WDNA 88.9 FM - Miami, FL
• "WMNF/Latin Jazz & Salsa" with Luis "Speedy" Gonzalez - WMNF 88.5 FM - Tampa, FL
• "Latin Aura" with Tomas Algarín - WCLK 91.9 FM - Atlanta, GA
• "Latin Perspective" with Tony V - WRUW 91.1 FM - Cleveland, OH
• "Onda Suave" with Ernesto Portillo Jr. - KXCI, 91.3-FM - Tucson, AZ
• "Salsa Caliente" - KTEP 88.5 FM - El Paso, TX
• "Jazz Y Clave" with Mike Villafane - WJYC Whiting, NJ
• "El Viaje" with David Ortiz - WRTI 90.1 FM - Philadelphia, PA
• "Tiene Sabor" with Yolanda Estrada - WWOZ 90.7 FM - New Orleans, LA
• "Mambo Express" with Victor Parra - WDCB 90.9 FM - Chicago,IL
• "Tiempo Latino" with Danny VillaBlanca - WMUH 91.7 FM - Allentown, Pennsylvania
• More US and International Latin Jazz radio listings at: http://www.vinilemania.net/latinjazzradio.htm
• "Latin Soul" with David Hervás - KETR 88.9 FM - Commerce, TX

Poncho Sanchez (born October 30, 1951), a Mexican-American, is a conguero (conga player), Latin jazz band leader, and salsa singer. In 2000, Sanchez and his ensemble won the Grammy Award for Best Latin Jazz Album for their work on the Concord Picante album Latin Soul. Sanchez has performed with artists Cal Tjader, Mongo Santamaría, Hugh Masekela, Clare Fischer and Tower of Power, among others.^[1]

Early life[link]

The youngest of eleven children, Poncho Sanchez was born in Laredo, Texas. He was reared in Norwalk, California. Growing up, Sanchez was exposed to and influenced by two very different styles of music: Afro-Cuban music (mambo, son, cha-cha, rumba, guaracha, salsa) by greats such as Tito Puente, and bebop jazz, including the works of Charlie Parker. Originally a guitarist, he discovered his talent for singing during an audition for an R&B band "The Halos" that rehearsed across the street from where he lived with his neighborhood friend Ralph Vasquez then becoming the lead vocalist of the group. Sanchez would later go on to teach himself the flute, drums, and timbales before finally deciding to pursue conga-playing in high school.

Career[link]

In 1975, Sanchez's idol, vibraphonist Cal Tjader, invited him to perform one set with his band. Seeing the young man's talent, Tjader hired Sanchez for a week before officially making him a full member of the ensemble. Sanchez played a crucial role as conguero for several years until Tjader's death in 1982.

Before he died, Tjader suggested that Concord Records founder Carl Jefferson sign Sanchez and his soon-to-be-formed group under the Concord Picante label. Tjader's wishes were honored, and the first two records were composed and arranged by long-time Tjader collaborator Clare Fischer.

Poncho Sanchez went on to produce 19 albums for the label, eventually garnering a Grammy for his work. Currently, Sanchez is respected as one of the top American percussionists of our time. He performs frequently in venues varying in size from concert halls to local jazz festivals. His 2005 CD, Do It!, features the iconic funk band Tower of Power on two tracks as well as South African trumpeter Hugh Masekela.

Discography[link]

• Sonando - 1982
• Baila Mi Gente: Salsa! - 1982
• Bien Sabroso - 1983
• El Conguero - 1985
• Papa Gato - 1986
• Gaviota - 1986
• Fuerte - 1987
• La Familia - 1988
• Chile Con Soul - 1989
• A Night At Kimball's East - 1990
• Bailar - 1990
• Cambios - 1990
• El Mejor - 1992
• Para Todos - 1993
• Soul Sauce - 1995
• Conga Blue - 1995
• Freedom Sound - 1997
• Afro-Cuban Fantasy - 1998
• Latin Soul - 1999
• Poncho Sanchez - The Concord Jazz Heritage Series - 2000
• Soul of the Conga - 2000
• Latin Spirits - 2001
• Ultimate Latin Dance Party - 2002
• Instant Party: Poncho Sanchez - 2004
• Poncho at Montreux - 2004
• Out of Sight! - 2004
• Do It! - 2005
• Raise Your Hand - 2007
• Psychedelic Blues - 2009
• Chano Y Dizzy! - 2011

References[link]

External links[link]

• DrummerWorld. "Poncho Sanchez". [1]
• Gerber, Lewis. "Poncho Sanchez". [2]
• VH1.com. "VH1.com: Poncho Sanchez". [3]
• Official Website

Chano Domínguez in 2007.

Chano Domínguez (born Sebastián Domínguez Lozano on March 29, 1960 in Cádiz) is a Latin jazz, post bop and flamenco jazz pianist. He began in the progressive rock group CAI before moving on to jazz.^[1] His initial interest in jazz came from jazz fusion groups like Mahavishnu Orchestra or Weather Report, but later he became interested in Bill Evans and Thelonious Monk.^[2]

Discography[link]

• En directo
• 10 de Paco versions of Paco de Lucía'songs, with Jorge Pardo and Tino di Geraldo, 1994.
• Hecho a mano (with Tomatito), 1996
• Chano
• Tú no sospechas, 2000
• Imán (with Enrique Morente), 2000
• Mira como viene, 2003
• Oye como viene, 2003
• 1993-2003, 2004
• Con alma (with George Mraz and Jeff Ballard), 2005
• Cuentos del mundo, 2005
• Flamenco Jazz, 2005
• Acoplados (with Martirio), 2006.
• New Flamenco Sound, 2006.
• Acércate más, 2006
• Quartier Latin (with Paquito D'Rivera), 2009

Web sources[link]

External links[link]

• Apoloybaco biography (Spanish jazz site)
• "Chano Dominguez Performs with Jazz at Lincoln Center" by Tim Wilkins, (Jazz.com).

Tito Puente
Background information
Birth name	Ernesto Antonio Puente
Also known as	Tito Puente "El Rey de los Timbales" The King of Latin Music
Born	(1923-04-20)April 20, 1923 New York City
Died	June 1, 2000(2000-06-01) (aged 77) New York City
Genres	Afro-Cuban jazz, mambo, salsa
Occupations	Musician, producer
Instruments	Timbales, Vibraphone
Years active	1946 - 2000
Labels	Fania Records, Sony Discos, RMM Records
Associated acts	La Lupe

Tito Puente, (April 20, 1923 – June 1, 2000)^[1], born Ernesto Antonio Puente, was a Latin jazz and salsa musician and composer. The son of native Puerto Ricans, Ernest and Ercilia Puente, living in New York City's Spanish Harlem community, Puente is often credited as "El Rey de los Timbales" (The King of the timbales) and "The King of Latin Music". He is best known for dance-oriented mambo and Latin jazz compositions that helped keep his career going for 50 years. He and his music appear in many films such as The Mambo Kings and Fernando Trueba's Calle 54. He guest starred on several television shows including Sesame Street, The Cosby Show and The Simpsons.

Early life[link]

Tito Puente was born on April 23, 1923, at Harlem Hospital Center in New York City.^[2][3] His family moved frequently, but he spent the majority of his childhood in the Spanish Harlem area of the city.^[2] Puente's father was the foreman at a razorblade factory.^[4]

As a child, he was described as hyperactive, and after neighbors complained of hearing seven-year-old Puente drumming on pots and window frames, his mother sent him to 25 cent piano lessons.^[4] By age 10, he switched to percussion, drawing influence from jazz drummer Gene Krupa.^[4] He later created a song-and-dance duo with his sister Anna in the 1930s and intended to become a dancer, but an ankle tendon injury prevented him pursuing dance as a career.^[4][3] When the drummer in Machito's band was drafted to the army, Puente subsequently took his place.^[4]

Career[link]

Tito Puente Sr. served in the Navy for three years during World War II after being drafted in 1942. He was discharged with a Presidential Unit Citation for serving in nine battles on the escort carrier USS Santee (CVE-29). The GI Bill allowed him to study music at Juilliard School of Music, where he completed a formal education in conducting, orchestration and theory. In 1969, he received the key to the City of New York from former Mayor John Lindsay. In 1992, he was inducted into the National Congressional Record, and in 1993 he received the James Smithson Bicentennial Medal from the Smithsonian.^[5]

During the 1950s, Puente was at the height of his popularity, and helped to bring Afro-Cuban and Caribbean sounds, like mambo, son, and cha-cha-cha, to mainstream audiences (he was so successful playing popular Afro-Cuban rhythms that many people mistakenly identify him as Cuban). Dance Mania, possibly Puente's most well known album was released in 1958.^[6] Later, he moved into more diverse sounds, including pop music, bossa nova and others, eventually settling down with a fusion of Afro-Cuban and Latin jazz genres that became known as "salsa" (a term that he disliked). In 1979, Puente won the first of five Grammy Awards for the albums A Tribute to Benny Moré, On Broadway, Mambo Diablo, and Goza Mi Timbal. In 1990, Puente was awarded the James Smithson Bicentennial Medal. He was also awarded a Grammy at the first Latin Grammy Awards, winning Best Traditional Tropical Album for Mambo Birdland. In 1995, he appeared as himself on the Simpsons episode "Who Shot Mr. Burns?" In early 2000, he shot the music documentary Calle 54, wearing an all-white outfit with his band.^[7] After a show in Puerto Rico on May 31, he suffered a massive heart attack and was flown to New York City for surgery to repair a heart valve, but complications developed and he died during the night of May 31 – June 1, 2000.^[8] He was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2003.

Tito Puente's name is often mentioned in a television production called La Epoca, a film about the Palladium era in New York, Afro-Cuban music and rhythms, Mambo and Salsa as dances and music and much more. The film discusses many of Tito Puente's as well as Arsenio Rodriguez's contributions, and features interviews with some of the musicians Puente recorded with such as Alfonso "El Panameno" Joseph, Luis Mangual, Julian Lianos and others.

Puente's youngest son, Tito Puente, Jr., has continued his father's legacy by presenting many of the same songs in his performances and recordings, while daughter Audrey Puente is a television meteorologist for WNYW and WWOR-TV in New York City.

Awards and recognition[link]

• During the presidency of Sen. Roberto Rexach Benítez, Tito Puente received the unique honor of having both a special session of the Senate of Puerto Rico dedicated to him, and being allowed to perform in his unique style on the floor of the Senate while it was in session.
• On September 10, 2007, a United States Post Office in Spanish Harlem was named after him at a ceremony presided by House Ways and Means Committee Chairman Charles Rangel (D-NY) and Rep. José Serrano (D-NY).
• An amphitheatre was named in his honor at Luis Muñoz Marín Park, next to the Roberto Clemente Coliseum, in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
• Puente performed at the closing ceremonies at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. The timbales he used there are on display at the National Museum of American History in Washington D.C.
• In 1997, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.^[9]
• In 1990 he received a Star on the Hollywood Walk Of Fame. (ref Hollywood Chamber Of Commerce)
• In 1984 he received an honorary Decree from the Los Angeles City Council.
• On June 5, 2005, Puente was honored by Union City, New Jersey with a star on the Walk of Fame at Union City's Celia Cruz Park.^[10]

Discography[link]

As leader[link]

• Puente In Percussion (1956)
• Dance Mania (1958)
• El Rey: Bravo (1963)
• El Rey: Tito Puente & His Latin Ensemble (1984)
• Percussion's King (1997)
• Selection of Mambo & Cha Cha Cha (1997)
• 50 Years of Swing (1997)
• Tito Meets Machito: Mambo Kings (1997)
• Cha Cha Cha Rumba Beguine (1998)
• Dance Mania '98: Live at Birdland (1998)
• The Very Best of Tito Puente (1998)
• Timbalero Tropical (1998)
• Yambeque (1998)
• Absolute Best (1999)
• Carnival (1999)
• Colección original (1999)
• Golden Latin Jazz All Stars: In Session (1999)
• Latin Flight (1999)
• Latin Kings (1999)
• Lo mejor de lo mejor (1999)
• Mambo Birdland (1999)
• Special Delivery featuring Maynard Ferguson (1999)
• Rey (2000)
• His Vibes & Orchestra (2000)
• Cha Cha Cha for Lovers (2000)
• Homenaje a Beny Moré. Vol. 3 (2000)
• Dos ídolos. Su música (2000)
• Tito Puente y su Orquesta Mambo (2000)
• The Complete RCA Recordings. Vol. 1 (2000)
• The Best of the Concord Years (2000)
• Por fin (Finally) (2000)
• Party with Puente! (2000)
• Obra maestra (2000)
• Mambo Mambo (2000)
• Mambo King Meets the Queen of Salsa (2000)
• Latin Abstract (2000)
• Kings of Mambo (2000)
• Cha Cha Cha for Lovers (2000)
• The Legends Collection: Tito Puente & Celia Cruz (2001)
• The Complete RCA Recordings, Vol. 2 (2001)
• RCA Recordings (2001)
• Puente caliente (2001)
• The Best of... (2001)
• King of Mambo (2001)
• El Rey: Pa'lante! Straight! (2001)
• Cocktail Hour (2001)
• Selection. King of Mambo (2001)
• Herman Meets Puente (2001)
• Undisputed (2001)
• Fiesta (2002)
• Colección Diamante (2002)
• Tito Puente y Celia Cruz (2002)
• Live at the Playboy Jazz Festival (2002)
• King of Kings: The Very Best of Tito Puente (2002)
• Hot Timbales! (2002)
• Dr. Feelgood (2002)
• Carnaval de éxitos (2002)
• Caravan Mambo (2002)
• We Love Salsa (2006)

As sideman[link]

With Dizzy Gillespie

• Rhythmstick (1990)

Filmography[link]

Selected Feature Films[link]

• Armed and Dangerous (1986)
• Radio Days (1987)

Documentaries[link]

• Tito Puente: The King of Latin Music (2000)^[11]
• PROFILES featuring Tito Puente Jr. (2007)
• Latin Knights (2005)
• Calle 54 (2000)^[12]

Concert films[link]

• Tito Puente - Live in Montreal (Montreal Jazz Festival) (1983) (2003)

Quotation[link]

^[13]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Steven Loza (1999) Tito Puente and the Making of Latin Music, University of Illinois Press
• Josephine Powell (2007) "Tito Puente:When The Drums Are Dreaming", (Authorhouse 2007)

External links[link]

• Tito Puente at NPR Music
• Tito Puente on the Internet Movie Database
• Tito Puente at Find a Grave
• "Tito Puente: The Complete 78s (1949-1955)" by Ted Giorgia (Jazz.com)
• Tito Puente - King of Latin Music, by Jim Payne and Tito Puente

Afro-Cuban boys playing in Trinidad, Cuba

The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of Sub Saharan African ancestry, and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community. The term can refer to the combining of African and other cultural elements found in Cuban society such as religion, music, language, the arts, and class culture.^[1]

Afrocubanismo Movement in the 1920s and 1930s[link]

During the 1920s and 1930s Cuba experienced a movement geared towards Afro-Cuban culture called Afrocubanismo.^[2] The movement had a large impact on Cuban literature, poetry, painting, music, and sculpture. It was the first artistic campaign in Cuba that focused on one particular theme: black culture. Specifically it highlighted the struggle for independence from Spain, black slavery, and building a purely Cuban national identity. Its goal was to incorporate African folklore and rhythm into traditional modes of art.

History of the Movement[link]

The movement evolved from an interest in the rediscovery of African heritage. It developed in two very different stages. The first stage stemmed from European artists and intellectuals who were interested in African art and musical folk forms.^[3] This stage paralleled the Harlem Renaissance in New York, Négritude in the French Caribbean, and coincided with stylistic European Vanguard (like cubism and its representation of African masks). It was characterized by the participation of white intellectuals like Cubans Alejo Carpentier, Fortunato Vizcarrondo and Lydia Cabrera, Puerto Rican Luis Palés Matos, and Spaniards Pablo Picasso and Roger de Lauria. The African-inspired art that was produced in this early part of the movement was extremely picturesque but lacked a true understanding of black culture. The art tended to represent Afro-Cubans with cliché images like a black man sitting beneath a palm tree with a cigar.

Although the depth of the first stage was shallow, it paved the way for Afro-Cubans to be recognized for their artistic ability. The influence of black writers in Cuba dates back to the early 17th century but it took the participation of the white intellectuals to bring their talent to the foreground.

Once white poets and intellectuals began publishing their work in the 20s with an Afro-Cuban subject matter, other poems and essays by black writers began to be published in the 30s in newspapers, magazines, and books where they discussed their own personal heritage. Afro-Cuban artists began to realize that the movement brought light to the once-marginalized black race and culture. It became a symbol of empowerment and individuality for Afro-Cubans within the established Western culture of the Americas and Europe.^[4]

This empowerment became a catalyst for the second stage to be characterized by Afro-Cuban artists making art that truly reflected what it meant to be Afro-Cuban. Beginning in the 1930s this stage depicted a more serious view of black culture like African religions and the struggles associated with slavery. The main protagonist during this stage of the movement was Nicolas Guillen.^[5]

Results of the Movement[link]

The lasting reputation of the Afrocubanismo movement was the establishment of a New World art form thatmovenem used aesthetics from both European and African culture.^[6] Although the actual movement of Afrocubanismo faded by the early 40s, Afro-Cuban culture continues to play a vital role in the identity of Cuba. It has been the Cuban Revolution that opened up a space for extended research of African ethnic roots in Cuba.^[7] The rhetoric of the Revolution incorporates black history and its contribution as an important stratum of Cuban identity. The Revolution has funded many projects that restore the work of Afro-Cubans in an effort to accommodate an African-driven identity within the new anti-racist Cuban society.^[8]

Demographics[link]

According to a 2002 national census which surveyed 11.2 million Cubans, 1.1 million Cubans described themselves as Black, while 2.8 million considered themselves to be "mulatto" or "mestize".^[9] Thus a significant proportion of those living on the island affirm some African ancestry. The matter is further complicated by the fact that a fair number of people still locate their origins in specific African ethnic groups or regions, particularly Yoruba (or Lucumi), Igbo and Congo, but also Arará, Carabalí, Mandingo, Fula, Makua, and others.

Although Afro-Cubans can be found throughout Cuba, Eastern Cuba has a higher concentration of blacks than other parts of the island, and Havana has the largest population of blacks of any city in Cuba.^[10] Recently, many African immigrants have been coming to Cuba, especially from Angola. Also, immigrants from Jamaica and Haiti have been settling in Cuba, most of whom settle in the eastern part of the island, due to it's proximity to their home country, further contributing to the already high percentage of blacks on that side of the island.^[10]

The percentage of Afro-Cubans on the island increased after the 1959 Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro due to mass migration from the island of the largely white Cuban professional class.^[11] A small percentage of Afro-Cubans left Cuba, mostly for the United States, (particularly Florida), where they and their U.S.-born children are called Cuban Americans, Hispanic-Americans, and African Americans. Only a few of them resided in nearby Spanish-speaking countries of Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico.

The Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at the University of Miami says 62% are black.^[12] The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution.

Afro-Cuban descendants in Africa[link]

Countries such as Nigeria, the home of the Yoruba and Igbo cultures, and Equatorial Guinea experienced and influx of ex-slaves from Cuba brought there as indentured servants during the 17th century, and again during the 19th century. In Equatorial Guinea, they became part of the Emancipados; in Nigeria, they were called Amaros. Despite being free to return to Cuba when their tenure was over, they remained in these countries marrying into the local indigenous population. The former slaves were brought to Africa by the Royal Orders of September 13, 1845 (by way of voluntary arrangement) and a June 20, 1861 deportation from Cuba, due to the lack of volunteers. Similar circumstances previously occurred during the 17th century where ex-slaves from both Cuba and Brazil were offered the same opportunity.

Angola also has communities of Afro-Cubans, Amparos. They are descendants of Afro-Cuban soldiers brought to the country in 1975 as a result of the Cuban involvement in the Cold War. Fidel Castro deployed thousands of troops to the country during the Angolan Civil War. As a result of this era, there exists a small Spanish-speaking community in Angola of Afro-Cubans numbering about 100,000.

Religion[link]

Santería icons at an open place of worship in Havana. Santería is a syncretism practiced by many Afro-Cubans

Afro-Cuban religion can be broken down into three main currents: Santería, Palo Monte, and Abakuá, and include individuals of all origins. Santería and Abakuá both have large parts of their liturgy in African languages (Yoruba, Igbo and Ñañigo, respectively) while Palo Monte uses a mixture of Spanish and Kikongo. Santería and Palo Monte are largely syncretised with Catholicism, though it is generally considered that the African elements outweigh the Catholic ones.

The Abakuá religion is a secret society for men, similar to the freemason orders of Europe (which first integrated white (Spanish) members in the late 19th century). It has not been syncretised with Catholicism and remains close to its origins in south-eastern Nigeria. An important aspect of Abakuá is that while membership is only for men, a host of rules mandates that conditions to be initiated are to be a good son, good brother, good father, good friend, and, above all, heterosexual. There are presently 136 potencies in Cuba; the 136th been recently created named Efí Masongo Obane.

Music[link]

Afro-Cuban music involves two main categories of music, religious and profane. Religious music includes the chants, rhythms and instruments used in rituals of the above-mentioned religious currents, while profane music focuses largely on rumba, guaguanco and comparsa (carnival music) as well as several lesser styles such as the tumba francesa. Virtually all Cuban music has been influenced by African rhythms. Cuban popular music, and quite a lot of the art music, has strands from both Spain and Africa, woven into a unique Cuban cloth. The son is a typical example of this.

Language[link]

Other cultural elements considered to be Afro-Cuban can be found in language (including syntax, vocabulary, and style of speech) and generally held stereotypes of Afro-Cuban culture such as male and female behavior, family structure or general habits. The term Afro-Cuban is rarely taken into the economic sphere, despite the fact that, as in most of the Americas, black Cubans are generally poorer than whites, which translates into class phenomenon along racial lines. The political situation, however, forbids public acknowledgment of the existence of social classes and of racial problems of any kind.

Racial Consciousness[link]

According to anthropologists dispatched by the European Union, racism is entrenched in Cuba.^[13] Black people are systematically excluded from positions in tourism related jobs, where they could earn tips in hard currencies.^[13] According to the EU study, black people are relegated to poor housing, and black Cubans are excluded from managerial positions.^[13]

Enrique Patterson describes race as a "social bomb" and says that "If the Cuban government were to permit black Cubans to organize and raise their problems before [authorities] . . . totalitarianism would fall".^[12] Esteban Morales Domínguez, a professor in the University of Havana, says that "The absence of the debate on the racial problem already threatens . . . the revolution's social project".^[12] Carlos Moore, who has authored extensive on the issue, says that "There is an unstated threat, blacks in Cuba know that whenever you raise race in Cuba, you go to jail. Therefore the struggle in Cuba is different. There cannot be a civil rights movement. You will have instantly 10,000 black people dead. [...] The government is frightened to the extent to which it does not understand black Cubans today. You have a new generation of black Cubans who are looking at politics in another way."^[12] Barack Obama's victory has raised disturbing questions about the institutional racism in Cuba.^[13] The Economist noted "The danger starts with his example: after all, a young, black, progressive politician has no chance of reaching the highest office in Cuba, although a majority of the island’s people are black"^[14]

In the years between the triumph of the revolution and the victory at Playa Girón the Cuban government was one of the world’s most proactive regimes in the fight against discrimination. It achieved significant gains in racial equality through a series of egalitarian reforms early in the 1960s. Fidel Castro’s first public address on racism after his rise to power was on March 23, 1959 at a labor rally in Havana, less than three months after he defeated Fulgencio Batista. He is quoted as saying: “one of the most just battles that must be fought, a battle that must be emphasized more and more, which I might call the fourth battle--the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers. I repeat: the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers. Of all the forms of racial discrimination the worst is the one that limits the colored Cuban's access to jobs .“^[15] Castro pointed to the distinction between social segregation and employment, while placing great emphasis on correcting the latter. In response to the large amount of racism that existed in the job market, Castro issued anti-discrimination laws. In addition, he attempted to close the class gap between wealthy white Cubans and Afro-Cubans with a massive literacy campaign among other egalitarian reforms in the early and mid 1960s ^[16] Two years after his 1959 speech at the Havana Labor Rally, Castro declared that the age of racism and discrimination was over. In a speech given at the Confederation of Cuban Workers in observance of May Day, Castro declared that the “ just laws of the revolution ended unemployment put an end to villages without hospitals and schools, enacted laws which ended discrimination, control by monopolies, humiliation, and the suffering of the people.”^[17] Although inspiring, many would consider the claim to be premature.”^[18]

Research conducted by PH.D researchers Yesilernis Peña, Jim Sidanius and Mark Sawyer in 2003, suggest that social discrimination is still prevalent, despite the low levels of economic discrimination.^[19] After considering the issue solved, the Cuban government moved beyond the issue of racism. His message marked a shift in Cuban society’s perception of racism that was triggered by the change in government focus. ”^[18] The government’s announcement easily allowed the Cuban public to deny discrimination without first correcting the stereotypes that remained in mind of those who grew up in a Cuba that was racially and economically divided. Many who argue that racism does not exist in Cuba base their claims on the idea of Latin American Exceptionalism. According to the argument of Latin American Exceptionality, a social history of intermarriage and mixing of the races is unique to Latina America. The large mestizo populations that result from high levels of interracial union common to Latin America are often linked to racial democracy. For many Cubans this translates into an argument of “racial harmony”, often referred to as racial democracy. In the case of Cuba, ideas of Latin American Exceptionalism have delayed the progress of true racial harmony.^[20]

Most of the Latin population of Tampa in the 1950s was working class and lived in restricted areas, ethnic enclaves in the vicinity of Tampa’s hundreds of cigar factories. Black Cubans were tolerated to an extent in the Latin quarter (where most neighborhoods and cigar factories were integrated), Ybor City and its counterpart, West Tampa, were areas that bordered on other restricted sections-areas for U.S. blacks or whites only. In this Latin qurtet, there existed racial discrimination despite its subtleness.^[21]

Haitian Cubans[link]

Haitian Creole and culture first entered Cuba with the arrival of Haitian immigrants at the start of the 19th century. Haiti was a French colony, and the final years of the 1791-1804 Haitian Revolution brought a wave of French settlers fleeing with their Haitian slaves to Cuba. They came mainly to the east, and especially Guantanamo, where the French later introduced sugar cultivation, constructed sugar refineries and developed coffee plantations. By 1804, some 30,000 French were living in Baracoa and Maisí, the furthest eastern municipalities of the province. Later, Haitians continued to come to Cuba to work as braceros (hand workers, from the Spanish word brazo, meaning "arm") in the fields cutting cane. Their living and working conditions were not much better than slavery. Although they planned to return to Haiti, most stayed on in Cuba. For years, many Haitians and their descendants in Cuba did not identify themselves as such or speak Creole. In the eastern part of the island, many Haitians suffered discrimination. But according to the Castro regime, since 1959, when he took over, this discrimination has stopped.

After Spanish, Creole is the second most-spoken language in Cuba. In addition to the eastern provinces, there are also communities in Ciego de Ávila and Camagüey provinces where the population still maintains Creole, their mother tongue. Classes in Creole are offered in Guantanamo, Matanzas and the City of Havana. There is a Creole-language radio program.

List of Famous Afro-Cubans[link]

• Andres Serrano - Artist
• Antonio Maceo - Second-in-command of the Cuban Army of Independence
• Martín Morúa Delgado,President of the Cuban Senate
• Juan Gualberto Gómez, 1890s revolutionary leader, close collaborator of Martí's, served as part of the committee of consultations that drafted and amended the Constitution of 1901, and as a Representative and Senator
• Víctor Dreke - Cuban Revolutionary and Second-in-Command to Ché Guevara in the Congo
• Rita Marley - Singer, Humanitarian, and widowed wife of Bob Marley
• Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés, "Plácido" - Poet
• Nicolás Guillén - Poet
• Regino Pedroso - Poet
• Georgina Herrera - Poet
• Nancy Morejón - Poet
• Domingo Alfonso - Poet
• Angel Escobar - Poet
• Soleida Ríos - Writer
• Alberto Guerra Naranjo - Writer
• Ariel Ribeaux Diago - Writer
• Ahmel Echevarría - Writer
• Víctor Fowler - Writer
• Salvador Redonet Cook - Professor
• Wifredo Lam - Artist
• Roberto Diago - Artist
• Ibrahim Ferrer - Singer (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Omara Portuondo - Singer (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Compay Segundo - Singer (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Pío Leyva - Singer (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Rubén González - Pianist (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Orlando "Cachaito" López - Bass player (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Juan de Marcos González - Musical director (Buena Vista Social Club)
• Afro-Cuban All Stars
• Fats Navarro - Jazz musician
• Mario Bauzá - Jazz musician
• Chano Pozo - Jazz percusionist
• Arsenio Rodríguez - Bandleader
• Ignacio Piñeiro - Musician
• Machito - Musician
• Mongo Santamaría - Jazz musician
• Benny Moré - Singer
• Bola de Nieve - Singer and pianist
• Pedro "Peruchín" Jústiz - Pianist
• Chocolate Armenteros - Trumpetist
• Félix Chapottín - Trumpetist
• Armando Peraza - Percusionist
• Orestes Vilató - Timbalero
• Barbarito Diez - Singer
• Pello el Afrokán - Percusionist and creator of mozambique (music)
• Bebo Valdés - Pianist
• Israel "Cachao" López - Bass player
• Orestes López - Bass player
• Dámaso Pérez Prado - The King of Mambo
• Carlos "Patato" Valdes - Conga player
• Richard Egües - Flute player, a member of the Orquesta Aragón
• Enrique Jorrín - Violinist and inventor of cha-chá-chá
• Guillermo Barreto - Percusionist
• Generoso Jimenez - Trombonist
• Chucho Valdés - Pianist and leader of Irakere
• Jorge Varona - Trumpetist
• Carlos del Puerto - Bass player
• Jorge Alfonso, el Niño - Percusionist
• Anga Díaz - Percusionist and former member of Irakere
• Germán Velazco - Sax player
• Orlando Valle, "Maraca" - Flutist
• Lázaro "el Fino" Rivero - Bass player
• Tata Güines - Percusionist
• Changuito - Percusionist and former member of Los Van Van
• Ignacio Berroa - Drummer
• Lázaro Ros - Singer
• Pablo Milanés - Singer
• Gerardo Alfonso - Singer
• Carlos Alfonso - Bass player and leader of Síntesis
• X Alfonso - Singer
• Yusa - Female bass player
• Peruchín Jr. - Guitarist
• Gonzalo Rubalcaba - Jazz pianist
• Sammy Davis Jr. - Actor, Singer, and Dancer
• Celia Cruz - Singer
• Pedro Knight - Musician
• Addys D'Mercedes - Singer
• Yotuel Romero - Singer
• Jon Secada - Singer
• Sen Dog - Rapper and Member of Cypress Hill
• Mellow Man Ace - Rapper
• Teófilo Stevenson - Amateur boxer
• Félix Savón - Amateur boxer
• Alexis Rubalcaba - Amateur boxer
• Kid Chocolate - Boxer (Former World Featherweight & Junior Lightweight Champion)
• José Nápoles - Boxer (Former World Welterweight Champion; also known as 'Mantequilla' Nápoles).
• Joel Casamayor - Boxer (WBC Lightweight Champion)
• Sugar Ramos - Boxer (Former WBA Featherweight Champion)
• Sergio Oliva - Body builder (Only bodybuilder to have ever beaten Arnold Schwarzenegger in a Mr Olympia competition)
• Tony Oliva - Three-Time batting champion
• Javier Sotomayor - Holds world record in high jump
• Ana Fidelia Quirot - Athlete
• Gipsy Moreno - Athlete
• Regla Torres - Volleyball player
• Gilbert Arenas - NBA
• Cristóbal Torriente - Negro League Baseball Hall of Fame
• Martín Dihigo - Negro League Baseball Hall of Fame
• Orestes Kindelán - The most prolific home run hitter in the history of amateur Cuban baseball
• José Contreras - MLB
• Orlando Hernández - MLB
• Liván Hernández - MLB
• Alexei Ramirez - MLB
• Brayan Peña - MLB
• Tony Pérez - MLB (Hall of Fame)
• Laz Alonso - Actor
• Christina Milian - Actress
• Gina Torres - Actress
• Rosario Dawson - Actress
• Faizon Love - Actor
• Lola Falana - Actress, Singer, and Dancer
• Luis Moro - Actor/Filmmaker
• Matt Cedeño - Actor/Model
• Renny Arozarena - Actor
• Juan Almeida Bosque - Politician and composer
• Esteban Lazo Hernández - Politician
• Juan Gomez Gonzalez Garcia Hernandez - Luchador (Masked Wrestler)
• Pia Conde - Swedish journalist and TV-personality
• La Lupe - Singer
• Gerry Zaragemca - Master Percussionists
• Rozonda Thomas- Singer/songwriter
• Rey Papi - Singer/Poet/Activist

Human rights and democracy activists[link]

• Jorge Luis García Pérez - the famous democracy activist spent 17 years in jail
• Guillermo Fariñas
• Oscar Elías Biscet
• Orlando Zapata Tamayo - Famous prisoner who died fasting to protest unjust imprisonment and torture of political prisoners. Has become a martyr among human right activists.

See also[link]

Cuba portal

• Afro-Latin American - Central and South America
• Black Hispanic and Latino Americans - the United States
• Cabildo (Cuba)
• Emancipados
• MPLA
• Angolan Civil War

References[link]

• Duno-Gottberg, Luis, Solventando las diferencias: la ideología del mestizaje en Cuba. Madrid, Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main, Vervuert, 2003
• Arnedo-Gómez, Miguel. “Introduction,” Writing Rumba: The Afrocubanista Movement in Poetry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. 2006: 1-170.
• “Afrocubanismo,” Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20thCentury. Ed. Lenard S. Klein. 2nd ed. 4thvol. Continuum: Continuum Publishing Company, 1989: 20-21.
• García, Cristina. “Introduction,” Cubanismo! New York: Vintage Books, 2002: 1-364.
• “Literature of the Recolutionary Era,” Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, history, culture. Ed. Luis Martinez Ternandez 1st Vol. Wesport: Greenwood Press, 2003: 345-346.
• Henken, Ted. “Cuban Literature-The Avant-Garde vs the Vanguard: Colonial Literature,” Cuba: A Global Studies Handbook Global Studies :Latin America & The Caribbean. Santa Barbara: ABC_CLIO, 2008: 363-385.
• Moore, Robin D. “The Minorista vanguard: Moderism and Afrocubanismo” Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubansimo and artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920-1940.Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press, 1997: 195-200.
• Ródriguez-Mangual, Edna M. “Introduction” Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro Cuban Cultural Identity. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004: 1-167.

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