Swaminarayan (Gujarati: સ્વામિનારાયણ, Devanagari: स्वामीनारायण, IAST: Svāmīnārāyaṇa) (3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, is the central figure in a modern sect of Hinduism known as the Swaminarayan Faith, a form of Vaishnavism.[2] Within the faith, Swaminarayan is equated with the Supreme Being, Purushottama, or is venerated as an incarnation of Narayana from the Nara-Narayana deity pair.
Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1781. In 1792, he began a seven year pilgrimage across India, adopting the name Nilkanth Varni. He settled in the state of Gujarat around 1799. In 1800, he was initiated into the Uddhav Sampraday by his guru, Ramanand Swami, and was given the name Sahajanand Swami. In 1802, his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him before his death. Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and taught the Swaminarayan mantra. From this point onwards, he was known as Swaminarayan and regarded as an incarnation of God by his followers. The Uddhav Sampraday became known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday.
Swaminarayan developed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government. He had followers not only from Hindu denominations, but also from Islam and Zoroastrianism. He built six temples in his lifetime and appointed 500 paramhansas to spread his philosophy. In 1826, Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri, a book of social principles. He died on 1 June 1830 and was cremated according to Hindu rites in Gadhada, Gujarat. Before his death, Swaminarayan appointed his nephews as acharyas to head the two dioceses of Swaminarayan Sampraday.
Swaminarayan is also remembered within the faith for undertaking reforms for women and the poor, performing yagnas or fire sacrifices on a large scale as well as performing miracles. He has, however, been criticised by religious leaders such as Swami Dayananda who questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as God. Swaminarayan had an estimated 1.8 million followers when he died. Currently, his following is estimated between 5 and 20 million.
Dharmadev teaching Ghanshyam from Hindu
shastras
Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 (Chaitra Sud 9, Samvat 1837) in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, a village near Ayodhya, in a Hindi speaking region in India.[1] Born in the Brahmin or priest caste of Sarvariya, Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati Pande (mother, also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi).[1] The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami, celebrating the birth of Rama. The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of waxing moon in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March–April), is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers. This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers.[3] Swaminarayan had an elder brother, Rampratap Pande, and a younger brother, Ichcharam Pande.[4] He is said to have mastered Hindu scriptures including the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata by the age of seven.[5]
Nilkanth Varni during his travels
After the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 (Ashadh Sud 10, Samvat 1849) at the age of 11.[6] He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey. Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram, or hermitage, that practised what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Pancaratra, the four primary schools of Hindu philosophy.[7] To find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:[8]
While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga (eightfold yoga) in a span of 9 months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi.[9] In Nepal, it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness. As a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned.[10] Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath, Rameshwaram, Nashik, Dwarka and Pandharpur.[6]
In 1799, after a seven year journey, Nilkanth's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami, a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami. Muktanand Swami, who was twenty-two years older than Nilkanth, answered the five questions to Nilkanth's satisfaction.[11] Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami, whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat.[12]
Traditional iconographical portrait of Swaminarayan
According to the sect, Nilkanth's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha-tattvas (five eternal elements), together with his mental and physical discipline, inspired senior sadhus of Ramanand Swami.[13]
Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800, and with it was granted the names Sahajanand Swami and Narayan Muni to signify his new status.[14]
At the age of 21, Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the Uddhav Sampraday[14] by Ramanand Swami, prior to his death. The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday.[15] According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity, Krishna or Narayana.[16] Krishna was considered by him his own ista devata. In contrast with the Vaishnava sect known as the Radha-vallabha Sampradaya,[17] he had a more puritanical approach, rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery. While being a worshipper of Krishna, Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in Krishnology in favor of worship in the mood of majesty, alike to earlier Vaisnava teachers, Ramanuja and Yamunacarya.[18]
Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering, in Faneni, a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami.[19] He gave his followers a new mantra, known as the Swaminarayan mantra, to repeat in their rituals: Swaminarayan.[14] When chanting this mantra, some devotees went into samadhi (a form of meditation)[15][n 1] This act is also called maha-samadhi ("great samadhi") and claimed that they could see their personal gods, even though they had no knowledge of Astanga Yoga.[9][20][21] Swaminarayan also became known by the names Ghanshyam Maharaj, Shreeji Maharaj, Hari Krishna Maharaj and Shri Hari. As early as 1804, Swaminarayan, who was reported to have performed miracles, was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple, Nishkulanand Swami.[14][22] This work, the Yama Danda, was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect.[23]
Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life. Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation, Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots.[24] He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples.[25] Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat, alcohol or drugs, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals.[2][26][27][28] Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes.[29] Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple. He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation: dharma, bhakti (devotion), gnana (knowledge) and vairagya (detachment).[30] Doctrinally, Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja and was critical of Shankaracharya's concept of advaita, or monistic non-dualism. Swaminarayan's ontology maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form.[31]
After assuming the leadership of the Sampraday, Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water.[32] He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor. Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought.[33]
According to author Raymond Brady Williams, "Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women's rights without personal involvement with women".[34] To counter the practice of sati (self-immolation by a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre), Swaminarayan argued that, as human life was given by God it could be taken only by God, and that sati had no Vedic sanction. He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide. Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide, calling infanticide a sin.[35][36]
At that time, influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects. Within the faith, Swaminarayan is considered a pioneer of education of females in India.[35][36][37][38][39]
Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices as carried out by Brahmin priests during Vedic rituals, such as yajnas (fire sacrifices), influenced by the Kaula and Vama Marg cults.[40] The priests consumed "sanctified" prasad in the form of meat of these animals. To solve this problem, Swaminarayan conducted several large scale yajnas involving priests from Varanasi. These did not have animal sacrifices and were conducted in strict accordance with Vedic scriptures. Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large scale yajnas. Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption.[29][39][41][42]
Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals.[43][44] Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers.[45] He conducted the festivals of Vasant Panchami, Holi, and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas.[9]
Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system, allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampraday. However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him.[29] A political officer in Gujarat, Mr. Williamson reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had "Destroyed the yoke of caste."[34] He instructed his paramhansas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants. He ate along with lower castes. Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status.[2][39] It is said that Swaminarayan dispelled the myth that moksha (liberation) was not attainable by everyone.[46] He taught that the soul is neither male nor female and that everyone was equal in the eyes of God.[2][47]
Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several Hindu temples and installed the images of various deities such as Nara-Narayana, Laxminarayan, Radha Krishna, Radha Ramana and Revati-Baldevji. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna.[48][49]
The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822, with the land for construction gifted by the British Imperial Government.[50][51] Following a request of devotees from Bhuj, Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand Swami to build a temple there. Following planning, construction commenced in 1822, and the temple was built within a year.[50] A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824,[50] a temple in Dholera in 1826,[50] a temple in Junagadh in 1828[50] and a temple in Gadhada, also in 1828.[50] By the time of his death, Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli, Dholka and Jetalpur.[52]
From early on, ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan faith. They contribute towards growth and development of the movement, encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life.[53] Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramhansas in a single night. Paramhansa is a title of honor sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramhansas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect.[54] Prominent paramhansas initiated by Swaminarayan include Muktanand Swami, Gunatitanand Swami, Gopalanand Swami, Brahmanand Swami, Premanand Swami, Nishkulanand Swami, and Nityanand Swami.[55]
Illustration of Swaminarayan writing the Shiskhapatri
Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts.[24] He held the Bhagavata Purana in high authority.[56] However, there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan faith. Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut. Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, the Muktanand Kavya, the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani.[57]
Main article:
ShikshapatriSwaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri on 11 February 1826.[58] While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available, it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect.[29] The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow.[59] A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma, it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses, outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well-disciplined and moral life.[57]
Main article:
VachanamrutSwaminarayan's philosophical, social and practical teachings are contained in the Vachanamrut, a collection of dialogues recorded by five followers from his spoken words. The Vachanamrut is the scripture most commonly used in the Swaminarayan sect. It contains views on dharma (moral conduct), jnana (understanding of the nature of the self), vairagya (detachment from material pleasure), and bhakti (pure, selfless devotion to God), the four essentials Hindu scriptures describe as necessary for a jiva (soul) to attain moksha (salvation).[60]
Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions, sometimes meeting prominent leaders. His followers cut across religious boundaries, including people of Muslim and Parsi backgrounds.[9][61] Swaminarayan's personal attendants included Khoja Muslims.[9] In Kathiawad, many Muslims wore kanthi necklaces given by Swaminarayan.[62] He also had a meeting with Reginald Heber, Lord Bishop of Calcutta and a leader of Christians in India at the time.[48] Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses carried Matchlocks and swords. Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him (fifty horses and fifty muskets) and mentioned that it was humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies, his being the smaller contingent.[63][64] As a result of the meeting, both leaders gained mutual respect for one another.[64]
Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government. The first temple he built, in Ahmedabad, was built on 5,000 acres (20 km2) of land gifted by the government. The British officers gave it a 101 gun salute when it was opened.[51][52] It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God Supreme.[48] In 1830, Swaminarayan had a meeting with Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay (1827 to 1830). According to Malcolm, Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a lawless region.[65] During the meeting with Malcolm, Swaminarayan gifted him a copy of the Shikshapatri. This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the Bodleian Library at University of Oxford.[66] Swaminarayan also encouraged the British Governor James Walker to implement strong measures to stop the practice of sati.
Madan Mohan and Radha (centre and right) with Swaminarayan in the form of Hari Krishna (left), installed by Swaminarayan on the central altar in
Dholera (1826)
In 1830, Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure. He later died on 1 June 1830 (Jeth sud 10, Samvat 1886),[52] and it is believed by followers that, at the time of his death, Swaminarayan left Earth for Akshardham, his abode.[9][67] He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in Gadhada.[68]
Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas or preceptors, as his successors.[69] He established two gadis (seats of leadership). One seat was established at Ahmedabad (Nar Narayan Dev Gadi) and the other one at Vadtal (Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi) on November 21, 1825. Swaminarayan appointed an acharya to each of these gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, the Swaminarayan Sampraday. These acharyas came from his immediate family. He formally adopted a son from his brothers and appointed them to the office of acharya. Ayodhyaprasad, the son of Swaminarayan's elder brother Rampratap and Raghuvira, the son of his younger brother Ichcharam, were appointed acharyas of the Ahmedabad Gadi and the Vadtal Gadi respectively.[70] Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family.[71] The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhaag Lekh.[8] The current acharyas of the Swaminarayan Sampraday are Acharya Shree Koshalendraprasad Pande, of the Ahmedabad Gadi, and Acharya Shree Rakeshprasad Pande, of the Vadtal Gadi.[72][73]
Decades after his death, several divisions occurred with different understandings of succession. This included the establishment of Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS), the founder of which left the Vadtal Gadi in 1905, and Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan, the founder of which left the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s. The followers of BAPS hold Gunatitanand Swami as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan, asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest. Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given administrative leadership of the faith while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan.[74] The current leader of BAPS is Shastri Narayanswarupdas. The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold Gopalanand Swami as the successor to Swaminarayan.[75][76]
Nara Narayana installed by Swaminarayan in the first Swaminarayan Temple, Ahmedabad.
According to the biographer Raymond Williams, when Swaminarayan died, he had a following of 1.8 million people. In 2001, Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents, and the congregation was recorded to be five million, the majority in the homeland of Gujarat.[77][78][79] The newspaper Indian Express estimated members of the Swaminarayan faith to number over 20 million (2 crore) worldwide in 2007.[80]
In his discourses recorded in the Vachanamrut, Swaminarayan mentions that humans would not be able to withstand meeting god in his divine form, hence God takes human form (simultaneously living in his abode) so people can approach, understand and love him in the form of an Avatar.[30] While no detailed statistical information is available, most of the followers of Swaminarayan share a belief that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or Purushottam Narayana - the Supreme Being and superior to other avatars.[14] A Swaminarayan sectarian legend tells how Narayana from the Nara Narayana pair, was cursed by sage Durvasa to incarnate on the Earth as Swaminarayan.[81]
Some of Swaminarayan's followers believe he was an incarnation of god Krishna.[30] The images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna have coincided in the liturgy of the sect. The story of the birth of Swaminarayan parallels that of Krishna's birth from the scripture Bhagavata Purana.[14] Swaminarayan himself is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God in a meeting with Reginald Heber, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, in 1825.[48]
- Notes
- ^ The word samadhi has different meanings in Hinduism. It may refer to a form yogic deep meditation. As a cause of death, it refers to the act of consciously and intentionally leaving one's body at the time of death.[15]
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- ^ a b c d Rohit Barrot (1987). Richard Burghart. ed. Caste and sect in Swaminaran Movement. Hinduism in Great Britain. Routledge. pp. 67–70. ISBN 978-0-422-60910-4. http://books.google.com/?id=nUsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA67. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 141
- ^ Makarand R. Paranjape (2005). Dharma and development: the future of survival. Samvad India. p. 111. ISBN 978-81-901318-3-4. http://books.google.com/?id=SorXAAAAMAAJ&dq=&q=#search_anchor. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ M. Gupta (2004). Let's Know Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Star Publications. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-7650-091-3. http://books.google.com/?id=uscjONr3_MUC&pg=PT26&dq=poor+sahajanand+swami. Retrieved May 15, 2009.
- ^ a b "Sampradat history: Nilkanth Varni". Harrow, England: Shree Kutch Satsang Swaminarayan Temple. http://www.sksst.org/sampraday/index.asp. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 15
- ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 36
- ^ a b c d e f Dinkar Joshi, Yogesh Patel (2005). Glimpses of Indian Culture. Star Publications. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-81-7650-190-3. http://books.google.com/?id=-fw-0iBvmMAC&pg=PA93&dq=satsangi+jivan. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
- ^ Gujarat (India) (1969). Gujarat State Gazetteers: Bhavnagar. Directorate of Govt. Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State. p. 577. http://books.google.com/?id=ySkbAAAAIAAJ&q=nepal+king+swaminarayan&dq=nepal+king+swaminarayan. Retrieved May 15, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 75
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 16, 17
- ^ "Bhagwan Swaminarayan: Life". Shri Swaminarayan Mandir - Somerset, NJ (Vadtaldham). http://www.vadtaldhamnj.info/My_Final_Webdesign/PDF%27s/Articles/Bhagwan%20Swaminarayan.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-06. [dead link]
- ^ a b c d e f Williams 2001, p. 17
- ^ a b c Williams 2001, p. 240
- ^ Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India. 1. Asian Educational Services,India. 1995. p. 326. ISBN 81-206-0833-X. http://books.google.com/?id=P_t3zmwNQVwC&pg=PA326&dq=%22Krishna%22++%22Swami+Narayan%22#v=onepage&q=%22Krishna%22%20%20%22Swami%20Narayan%22&f=false.
- ^ Guy Beck has studied and published a detail study of it in (2005) Alternative Krishnas: Regional And Vernacular Variations On A Hindu Deity SUNY Press
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- ^ Anil Kumar Sarkar (1997). Yoga, mathematics, and computer sciences: in change confronting the dawn of the twenty-first century. South Asian Publishers. p. 53. ISBN 81-7003-204-0. http://books.google.com/?id=NNXWAAAAMAAJ&q=&dq=. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Kirin Narayan (1992). Storytellers, Saints and Scoundrels. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p. 141. ISBN 81-208-1002-3. http://books.google.com/?id=rmfR4nQvbSsC&pg=PA141&dq=sahajanand+samadhi. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 21
- ^ Takashi Shinoda (2002). The other Gujarat. Popular Prakashan. p. 9. ISBN 81-7154-874-1. http://books.google.com/?id=KZNfS7mikMoC&dq=. Retrieved June 27, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 17, 76, 189
- ^ a b Cybelle Shattuck, Nancy D. Lewis (2003). The pocket idiot's guide to Hinduism. Alpha Books. pp. 163–165. ISBN 0-02-864482-4. http://books.google.com/?id=73DZBQLjgn0C&dq=. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Robert Vane Russell (2009) [1916]. The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India. BiblioBazaar. p. 404. ISBN 0-559-11371-4. http://books.google.com/?id=AHIk_afStI0C&dq=. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 162
- ^ David Gordon White (2001). Tantra in practice. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p. 269. ISBN 81-208-1778-8. http://books.google.com/?id=hayV4o50eUEC&dq=. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 77, 165
- ^ a b c d S Golwalkar (1997). "Swaminarayan , Pramod Mahajan , Bal Thackeray". In M. G. Chitkara. Hindutva. APH Pub. Corp. pp. 227–228. ISBN 81-7024-798-5.
- ^ a b c Carl Olson (2007). The many colors of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction. Rutgers University Press. p. 336. ISBN 0-8135-4068-2. http://books.google.com/?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&dq=. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 79
- ^ "Times Music cassette on Swaminarayan serial launched". Times of India. 2006-01-19. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1742150037.cms. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
- ^ "Food and Water for the Needy". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. http://www.vadtal.com/lord-swaminarayan.html#9. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 169
- ^ a b Williams 2001, pp. 165, 167
- ^ a b Martha Craven Nussbaum (2007). The clash within. Harvard University Press. pp. 322, 323. ISBN 978-0-674-02482-3. http://books.google.com/?id=JLMQh4oc38gC&dq=swaminarayan+malcolm+law. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
- ^ "education of females". Shree Swaminarayan Temple: Sansthan Vadtal. http://vadtal.com/lord-swaminarayan.html#12. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ "Swaminarayan's Life - Biography: Uplift of Women". www.swaminarayan.org. http://www.swaminarayan.org/lordswaminarayan/biography/4.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
- ^ a b c M M Rahman (2006). Encyclopaedia of Historiography. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. pp. 145, 146. ISBN 978-81-261-2305-6. http://books.google.com/?id=RZCv3d2XUeUC&dq=. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
- ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The camphor flame. Princeton University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5. http://books.google.com/?id=To6XSeBUW3oC&pg=PA171&dq=incarnation+of+swaminarayan. Retrieved May 8, 2009.
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 24, 159
- ^ Prema A. Kurien (2007). A place at the multicultural table: the development of an American Hinduism. Rutgers University Press. pp. 105. ISBN 978-0-8135-4056-6. http://books.google.com/?id=ONMxZc5_saYC&pg=PA105. Retrieved May 8, 2009. Page 105
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 189
- ^ Mohan Lal (1992). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 4255. ISBN 81-260-1221-8. http://books.google.com/?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C.
- ^ Williams 2004, p. 162
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 162
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 57, 77
- ^ a b c d Raymond Brady Williams (2004). Williams on South Asian religions and immigration. ISBN 978-0-7546-3856-8. http://books.google.com/?id=nkVBOfE1KkAC&dq=swaminarayan+mandir+bhuj. Retrieved May 7, 2009. Page 81
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 96
- ^ a b c d e f "Swaminarayan temples". Shri Swaminarayan Temple (ISSO OF CHICAGO). http://www.shriswaminarayan.org/Temples.php. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
- ^ a b "The foundations of devotion". Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, Financial Times. 2003-03-04. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-22598178_ITM. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ a b c Williams 2001, p. 29
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 107
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- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 187, 189
- ^ Julius Lipner (1998). Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. pp. 124. ISBN 978-0-415-05182-8. http://books.google.com/?id=I5iVWq7WJ5gC&dq=. Retrieved September 12, 2009.
- ^ a b Williams 2001, pp. 187–190
- ^ "Shikshapatri". BAPS Swamiranayan Sanstha. http://www.swaminarayan.org/scriptures/shikshapatri/index.htm. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
- ^ M. G. Chitkara (1997). Hindutva. APH. p. 230. ISBN 978-81-7024-798-2. http://books.google.com/?id=zqkBNr4U7cwC&printsec=copyright&dq=swaminarayan+ahmedabad. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
- ^ K. Ayyappapanicker, Sahitya Akademi (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. 1. Sahitya Akademi. pp. 130–131. ISBN 81-260-0365-0. http://books.google.com/?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=RA1-PA132&dq=vachanamrut. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
- ^ J. J. Roy Burman (2005). Gujarat Unknown. Mittal Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-8324-052-9. http://books.google.com/?id=VemsIky3QzEC. Retrieved June 13, 2009.
- ^ Behramji Merwanji Malabari, Krishnalal M. Jhaveri, Malabari M. B (1997). Gujarat and the Gujaratis. Asian Educational Services. pp. 263–269. ISBN 81-206-0651-5. http://books.google.com/?id=Lyd8jPbN218C&dq=muktanand+swami. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
- ^ R.V. Russell, R.B.H. Lai (1916). Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India. Asian Educational Services. pp. 328, 329. ISBN 978-81-206-0833-7. http://books.google.com/?id=P_t3zmwNQVwC&printsec=copyright&dq=swami+meeting+with+heber. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
- ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 69
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 7
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 57
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 93
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 34–36
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 34
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 35–37
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 35
- ^ "Narnarayan Devgadi DevGadi Acharyas". Ahmedabad Gadi Official site. 2008. http://www.swaminarayan.info/AcharyaShri.aspx. Retrieved 2009-09-14. [dead link]
- ^ "Vadtal Acharyas". Vadtal Gadi Official site. 2007. http://www.vadtal.com/our-acharyas.html. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
- ^ "Swaminarayan". http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/swamin.html. Retrieved 2010-02-15.
- ^ The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 2004. p. 172. ISBN 0-691-12048-X.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 52
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 68
- ^ Rinehart, Robin (2004). Contemporary Hinduism. ABC-CLIO. p. 215. ISBN 978-1-57607-905-8. http://books.google.com/?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PP1&dq=Contemporary+Hinduism. Retrieved May 10, 2009.
- ^ Marcus J. Banks (1985). Review: A New Face of Hinduism: The Swaminarayan Religion. By Raymond Brady Williams. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1984. Pp. xiv, 217. Modern Asian Studies 19 pp 872-874
- ^ "Niche Faiths". Indian Express. 2007-05-26. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/niche-faiths/31939/4. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
- ^ "Bhagwan Swaminarayan Introduction: Badrikashram Sabha". Ahmedabad Gadi Official site. 2008. http://www.swaminarayan.info/Detail.aspx?ID=JgBJAEQAPQAxADUA-fvGNVxmMIs0%3d. Retrieved 2009-09-14. [dead link]
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