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Year 1878 (MDCCCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar.

Events[link]

January–March[link]

January – Cleopatra's Needle.

• January – Cleopatra's Needle arrives in London.
• January 5 – Battle of Shipka Pass IV: Russian and Bulgarian forces defeat the Ottoman Empire.
• January 9 – Humbert I becomes King of Italy.
• January 17 – Battle of Philippopolis: Russian troops defeat the Turks.
• January 23 – Benjamin Disraeli orders the British fleet to the Dardanelles.
• January 24 – The revolutionary Vera Zasulich shoots at Fyodor Trepov, the Governor of Saint Petersburg.
• January 28 – The Yale News becomes the first daily college newspaper in the United States.
• January 31 – Turkey agrees to an armistice at Adrianople.
• February 2 – Greece declares war on Turkey.
• February 7 – Pope Pius IX dies after a 31½ year reign (the longest definitely confirmed).
• February 8 – The British fleet enters Turkish waters and anchors off Istanbul; Russia threatens to occupy Istanbul but does not carry out the threat.
• February 18 – The Lincoln County War begins in Lincoln County, New Mexico.
• February 19 – The phonograph is patented by Thomas Edison.
• February 20 – Pope Leo XIII succeeds Pope Pius IX as the 256th pope.
• February 24 – Anti-Russian demonstrations occur in Hyde Park, London.
• February 28 – Mississippi State University is created by the Mississippi Legislature (under the name The Agricultural and Mechanical College of the State of Mississippi).
• March 3
  • Bulgaria regains its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
  • The Treaty of San Stefano concludes the Russo-Turkish War

Year 1878

• March 24 – The UK frigate Eurydice sinks, killing 300.
• March 25 – Russia rejects a British proposal to lay the San Stefano treaty before a European congress.
• March 27 – In anticipation of war with Russia, Disraeli mobilizes the reserves and calls up Indian troops to Malta.

April–June[link]

• April 20 – The Stawell Gift is run for the first time.
• May 2 – The Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis, Minnesota explodes, killing 18.
• May 15 – The Tokyo Stock Exchange is established
• June 1 – Universal Postal Union (UPU)
• June 4 – Cyprus Convention: The Ottoman Empire cedes Cyprus to the United Kingdom but retains the nominal title.
• June 10 – The League of Prizren is established.
• June 12 – July 12 – The Congress of Berlin convenes to discuss the Ottoman Empire.
• June 20 – U.S. Coastal Survey renamed U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
• June 22 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld leaves Karlskrona on a voyage that will make him the first to navigate the Northern Sea Route, a shipping lane from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean along the Siberian coast.

July–September[link]

• July 4 – A match race between champion thoroughbred racehorses Ten Broeck and Mollie McCarty draws more than 30,000 fans to Louisville and insprires the folk song, Molly and Tenbrooks.
• July 13 – The Treaty of Berlin makes Serbia, Montenegro and Romania completely independent.
• July 26 – In California, the poet and American West outlaw calling himself "Black Bart" makes his last clean getaway when he steals a safe box from a Wells Fargo stagecoach. The empty box is found later with a taunting poem inside.
• August 7 – The Salvation Army "foundation deed" is signed.^[1]
• August 9 – The Wallingford Tornado of 1878, the deadliest tornado in Connecticut history, destroys the town of Wallingford, killing 34 people and injuring 70 or more.
• August 26 – Uyedineniya Island is discovered in the Kara Sea by Norwegian explorer Captain Edvard Holm Johannesen.
• September 3 – Over 640 die when the crowded pleasure boat Princess Alice collides with the Bywell Castle in the River Thames.
• September 20 – The Hindu, an Indian newspaper, is founded.
• September 30 – The ship Priscilla arrives in Hawaii from Funchal, Madeira, marking the beginning of the Portuguese immigration to the Hawaiian Islands (1878–1913).

October–December[link]

• October 1 – Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) opens as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College.
• October 14 – The world's first recorded floodlit football fixture is played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield.
• October 17 – John A. Macdonald returns to office as Prime Minister of Canada.
• November 17 – The first assassination attempt is made against Umberto I of Italy by anarchist Giovanni Passannante, armed with a dagger. The King survived with a slighty wound in a arm. Prime minister Benedetto Cairoli blocked the aggressor, receiving an injury in a leg.
• November 21 – The Second Afghan War commences when the British attack Ali Masjid in the Khyber Pass.

Date unknown[link]

• U.S. arbitration rejects Argentine claims to Paraguay's part of the Chaco region.
• Otto von Bismarck abandons his Kulturkampf and forces through legislation outlawing the Social Democrats.
• 10-year Nauruan Tribal War breaks out.
• Yellow fever in the Mississippi Valley kills over 13,000.
• Foundation of:
  • Nainital Cantonment.
  • The Buchan School, Isle of Man.
  • The Johns Hopkins University Press, America's oldest university press.
  • Geiger (Corporation), formed as Geiger Brothers.
  • The following English Association football clubs:
    • Everton Football Club, formed as St Domingo.
    • Grimsby Town FC, formed as Grimsby Pelham.
    • Ipswich Town Football Club, formed as amateur club Ipswich A.F.C. They will not turn professional until 1936.
    • Newton Heath Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Football Club, the team that will become Manchester United.
    • West Bromwich Albion F.C..
• Lester Allan Pelton produces the first operational Pelton wheel.
• Death of last confirmed Cape Lion.^[2]

Births[link]

January–June[link]

• January 6 – Carl Sandburg, American poet and historian (d. 1967)
• January 12 – Ferenc Molnár, author (d. 1952)
• January 20 – Finlay Currie, Scottish actor (d. 1968)
• January 22 – Constance Collier, stage & screen actress (d. 1955)
• January 25 – Ernst Alexanderson, Swedish-born television pioneer (d. 1975)
• February 1 – Milan Hodža, Slovak politician, champion of regional integration in Europe (d. 1944)
• February 2 – Alfréd Hajós, Hungarian swimmer and architect (d. 1955)
• February 5 – André Citroën, French automobile manufacturer (d. 1935)
• February 8 – Martin Buber, Austrian philosopher (d. 1965)
• February 14 – Hirota Koki, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)
• February 21 – The Mother (Mirra Alfassa), multi-origined spiritual leader and founder of Auroville in India (d. 1973)
• February 26 – Emmy Destinn, Czech soprano (d. 1930)
• February 28 – Pierre Fatou, French mathematician (d. 1929)
• March 4
  • Egbert Van Alstyne, United States songwriter and pianist (d. 1951)
  • Peter D. Ouspensky, Russian philosopher (d. 1947)
  • Arishima Takeo, Japanese novelist, short-story writer and essayist (d. 1923)
• March 16 – Clemens August Graf von Galen, German Catholic cardinal (d. 1946)
• March 22 – Michel Théato, Luxembourg athlete (d. 1919)
• March 31 – Jack Johnson, American boxer (d. 1946)
• April 6 – Erich Mühsam, German author (d. 1934)
• April 24 – Jean Crotti, Swiss artist (d. 1958)
• April 28
  • Lionel Barrymore, American actor (d. 1954)
  • Willem Mengelberg, Dutch conductor (d. 1951)
• May 3 – Cruz Hernandez, unverified claimant to be world's oldest person (d. 2007)
• May 10 – Gustav Stresemann, Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1929)
• May 25 – Bill Robinson, African American tap dancer (d. 1949)
• May 26 – Isadora Duncan, American dancer (d. 1927)
• May 28 – Paul Pelliot, French sinologist (d. 1945)
• June 1 – John Masefield, English poet and novelist (d. 1967)
• June 3 – Barney Oldfield, American automobile racer and pioneer (d. 1946)
• June 5 – Pancho Villa, Mexican revolutionary (d. 1923)
• June 12 – James Oliver Curwood, American writer and conservationist (d. 1927)

July–December[link]

• July 4 – George M. Cohan, American singer, dancer, composer, actor, and writer (d. 1942)
• July 12 – Peeter Põld, Estonian pedagogical scientist and politician (d. 1930)
• July 24 – Edward Plunkett, Baron Dunsany, Irish author (d. 1957)
• August 10 – Alfred Döblin, German writer (d. 1957)
• August 28 – George Whipple, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1976)
• August 31 – Frank Jarvis, American athlete (d. 1933)
• September 2 – Werner von Blomberg, German field marshal (d. 1946)
• September 5 – Robert von Lieben, Austrian physicist (d. 1913)
• September 13 – Matilde Moisant, American pilot (d. 1964)
• September 14 – Ion Farris, American politician, former Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives (d. 1934)
• September 20 – Upton Sinclair, American writer (d. 1968)
• September 22 – Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1967)
• September 24 – C. F. Ramuz, Swiss writer (d. 1947)
• October 1 – Othmar Spann, Austrian philosopher and economist (d. 1950)
• October 9 – Robert Warwick, American stage & screen actor (d. 1964)
• October 16 – Maxie Long, American athlete (d. 1959)
• November 1 – Carlos Saavedra Lamas, Argentine politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1959)
• November 14
  • Inigo Campioni, Italian admiral (d. 1944)
  • Julie Manet, French painter (d. 1966)
  • Leopold Staff, Polish poet (d. 1957)
• November 17 – Grace Abbott, American social worker and activist (d. 1939)
• November 23 – Ernest Joseph King, Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations (COMINCH-CNO) during World War II (d. 1956)
• December 10 – C. Rajagopalachari, Indian politician and freedom-fighter. (d. 1972)
• December 18 – Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union (d.1953)
• December 25
  • Louis Chevrolet, Swiss-born race driver and automobile builder (d. 1941)
  • Joseph Schenck, Russian-born film executive (d. 1961)
• December 28 – Nikolai Bryukhanov, Soviet statesman and political figure who served as People's Commissar of Finances (d. 1938)
• December 31 – Elizabeth Arden, Canadian-born beautician and cosmetics entrepreneur (d. 1966)
• December 31 – Horacio Quiroga, Argentinian writer (d. 1937)

Deaths[link]

January–June[link]

• January 8 – Nikolay Nekrasov, Russian poet (b. 1821)
• January 9 – King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (b. 1820)
• January 18 – Antoine César Becquerel, French scientist (b. 1788)
• February 7 – Pope Pius IX (b. 1792)
• February 11 – Gideon Welles, American politician (b. 1802)
• February 19 – Charles-Francois Daubigny, French painter (b. 1817)
• February 26 – Angelo Secchi, Italian astronomer (b. 1818)
• March 8 – Archduke Franz Karl of Austria (b. 1802)
• April 8 – Henrietta Treffz, soprano, first wife of Johann Strauss II (b. 1818)
• April 12 – William Marcy Tweed, American politician (b. 1823)
• April 25 – Anna Sewell, English author (b. 1820)
• May 13 – Joseph Henry, American scientist (b. 1797)
• May 28 – John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1792)
• June 6
  • Robert Stirling, Scottish clergyman and inventor (b. 1790)
  • Achille Baraguey d'Hilliers, Marshal of France (b. 1795)
  • Porter Rockwell, Mormon bodyguard (b. 1815)
• June 12
  • George V of Hanover (b. 1819)
  • Hendrik Jut, Dutch murderer (b. 1851)

July–December[link]

• July 1 – Catherine Winkworth, English translator of hymns (b. 1827)
• July 17 – Aleardo Aleardi, Italian poet (b. 1812)
• July 23 – Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Bohemian pathologist, philosopher and politician (b. 1804)
• August 30 – James Geiss, English businessman (b. 1820)
• October 20 – Hiram Paulding, American admiral (b. 1797)
• November 20 – William Thomas (Islwyn), Welsh poet (b. 1832)
• November 28 – Orson Hyde, American religious leader (b. 1805)
• December 10 – Henry Wells, American businessman (b. 1805)
• December 14 – Princess Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine (b. 1843)

In fiction[link]

• The Doctor Who novel Imperial Moon takes place in this year.

References[link]

Eadweard Muybridge
Birth name	Edward James Muggeridge
Born	(1830-04-09)9 April 1830 Kingston upon Thames, UK
Died	8 May 1904(1904-05-08) (aged 74) Kingston upon Thames, UK
Nationality	British
Field	Photography
Influenced	Filmmaking

Eadweard James Muybridge ( /ˌɛdwərd ˈmaɪbrɪdʒ/; 9 April 1830 – 8 May 1904) was a British photographer who spent much of his working life in California, and traveling in other parts of the United States. He is known for his pioneering work on animal locomotion in 1877 and 1878, which used multiple cameras to capture motion in stop-action photographs, and his zoopraxiscope, a device for projecting motion pictures that pre-dated the flexible perforated film strip used in cinematography.^[1]

In his earlier years in San Francisco, Muybridge had become known for his landscape photography, particularly of the Yosemite Valley. He also photographed the Tlingit people in Alaska, and was commissioned by the United States Army to photograph the Modoc War in 1873. In 1874 he shot and killed Major Harry Larkyns, his wife's lover, and was acquitted in a jury trial on the grounds of justifiable homicide. He traveled for more than a year in Central America on a photographic expedition in 1875.

In the 1880s, Muybridge entered a very productive period at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, producing over 100,000 images of animals and humans in motion, capturing what the human eye could not distinguish as separate movements. He spent much of his later years giving public lectures and demonstrations of his photography and early motion picture sequences. He also edited and published compilations of his work, which greatly influenced visual artists and the developing fields of scientific and industrial photography.

Names[link]

Born Edward James Muggeridge, he was of partial Dutch descent. As an adult in the United States, Muggeridge changed his name several times, starting with "Muggridge". In the 1850s in the United States, he used the surname "Muygridge".^[2]

After he returned to the United States from Great Britain in 1867 he used the surname "Muybridge". In addition, he used the pseudonym Helios (Greek god of the sun) to sign many of his photographs. He also used this as the name of his studio and made it the middle name for his only son, Florado Muybridge, born in 1874.^[3]

While traveling on a photography expedition in the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America in 1875, the photographer advertised his works under the name "Eduardo Santiago Muybridge" in Guatemala.^[4] After an 1882 trip to England, he changed the spelling of his first name to "Eadweard," the Old English form of his name. The spelling was likely derived from the spelling of King Edward's Christian (first) name as shown on the plinth of the Kingston coronation stone, which had been re-erected in the town in 1850. He used "Eadweard Muybridge" for the rest of his career.^[5][6] But his gravestone carries his name as "Eadweard Maybridge".

Early life and career[link]

Muybridge was born in Kingston upon Thames, England on 9 April 1830 to John and Susan Muggeridge; he had three brothers. His father was a grain and coal merchant, with business spaces on the ground floor of their house, and family living spaces above. After his father died in 1843, his mother carried on the business.

Muggeridge emigrated to the United States at the age of 25, arriving in San Francisco in 1855, a few years after California became a state, and while the city was still the "capital of the Gold Rush."^[7] He started a career as a publisher's agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company, and as a bookseller. At the time, the city was booming, with 40 bookstores, nearly 60 hotels and a dozen photography studios.^[8] Later in his life he wrote about also having spent time in New Orleans and New York City during his early years in the United States.^[9]

Serious accident and recuperation[link]

By 1860, Muybridge was a successful bookseller. He left his bookshop in care of his brother, and prepared to sail to England to buy more antiquarian books. However, Muybridge missed the boat and instead left San Francisco in July 1860 to travel overland by the southern route to the East Coast and then by ship back to Great Britain.^[10]

In central Texas, Muybridge suffered severe head injuries in a violent runaway stagecoach crash which injured every passenger on board, and killed one of them.^[11][12] Muybridge was bodily ejected from the destroyed vehicle, and hit his head on a rock or other hard object. He was taken 150 miles to Fort Smith, Arkansas for treatment (his earliest memories post-accident were there), where he stayed three months, trying to recover from symptoms of double vision, confused thinking, impaired sense of taste and smell, and other problems. He next went to New York City, where he continued in treatment for nearly a year before being able to sail to England.

Arthur P. Shimamura, a neurologist at the University of California Berkeley, has speculated that Muybridge suffered orbitofrontal cortex injuries, which may have led to some of the emotional, eccentric behavior reported by friends in later years, as well as freeing his creativity from conventional social inhibitions. Today, there still is little effective treatment for this kind of injury.^[13][10]

While recuperating in England and receiving treatment from Sir William Gull, Muybridge took up the new field of professional photography sometime between 1861 and 1866.^[14] Muybridge later stated that he had changed his vocation at the suggestion of his physician.^[10] He learned the wet-plate collodion process in England, and may have been influenced by some of the great English photographers of those years, such as Julia Margaret Cameron.^[15][16][17] Also during this period, Muybridge secured at least two British patents for his inventions.^[10]

Photographing the West[link]

Muybridge had left San Francisco in 1860 as a merchant, but returned in 1867 as a professional photographer, with highly proficient technical skills and an artist's eye. He would use the surname "Muybridge" for the rest of his life. He rapidly became successful in photography, focusing principally on landscape and architectural subjects, as did other prominent men, when the West was the land of imagination. He converted a light carriage vehicle into a portable darkroom to carry out his work.^[18] His business cards also advertised his services for portraiture.^[19] His stereographs, the popular format of the time, were sold by various galleries and photographic entrepreneurs (most notably the firm of Bradley & Rulofson) on Montgomery Street, San Francisco's main commercial street during those years.

Muybridge established his reputation in 1867 with photos of the Yosemite Valley wilderness (some of which used the same scenes taken by his contemporary Carleton Watkins) and areas around San Francisco. Muybridge quickly gained notice for his landscape photographs, which showed the grandeur and expansiveness of the West; if human figures were portrayed, they were dwarfed by their surroundings, as in Chinese landscape paintings. He signed and published his work under the pseudonym Helios, which he also used as the name of his studio.^[20]

Muybridge took enormous physical risks to make his photographs, using a heavy view camera and stacks of glass plate negatives. A spectacular stereograph he published in 1872 shows him sitting casually on a projecting rock over the Yosemite Valley, with 2000 feet of empty space yawning below him.^[10]

In 1868, Muybridge traveled to the newly-acquired territory of Alaska to photograph the Tlingit Native Americans, occasional Russian inhabitants, and dramatic landscapes for the US government.^[21] In 1871, the Lighthouse Board hired Muybridge to photograph lighthouses of the American west coast. From March to July, he traveled aboard the Lighthouse Tender Shubrick to document these structures.^[22] In 1873, Muybridge was commissioned by the US Army to photograph the Modoc War against the Native Americans in northern California and Oregon. Many of his stereoscopic photos were published widely, and can still be found today.^[23]

During the construction of the San Francisco Mint in 1870–1872, Muybridge made a sequence of images of the building's progress, using the power of time-lapse photography to document changes over time.^[24]

In 1878, Muybridge made a famous 13-part 360° photographic panorama of San Francisco, to be presented to the wife of Leland Stanford. Today, it can be viewed on the Internet as a panorama or as a QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) panorama.^[25]

Stanford and horse gaits[link]

Muybridge's The Horse in Motion, 1878

In 1872, the former governor of California Leland Stanford, a businessman and race-horse owner, hired Muybridge for some photographic studies. He had taken a position on a popularly-debated question of the day — whether all four feet of a horse were off the ground at the same time while trotting. The same question had arisen about the actions of horses during a gallop. The human eye could not break down the action at the quick gaits of the trot and gallop. Up until this time, most artists painted horses at a trot with one foot always on the ground; and at a full gallop with the front legs extended forward and the hind legs extended to the rear, and all feet off the ground.^[26] Stanford sided with the assertion of "unsupported transit" in the trot and gallop, and decided to have it proven scientifically. Stanford sought out Muybridge and hired him to settle the question.^[27]

Galloping horse, animated in 2006, using photos by Eadweard Muybridge.

In 1872, Muybridge settled Stanford's question with a single photographic negative showing his Standardbred trotting horse Occident airborne at the trot. This negative was lost, but the image survives through woodcuts made at the time (the technology for printed reproductions of photographs was still being developed). He later did additional studies, as well as improving his camera for quicker shutter speed and faster film emulsions. By 1878, spurred on by Stanford to expand the experiments, Muybridge had successfully photographed a horse at a trot;^[28] lantern slides have survived of this later work.^[29] Scientific American was among the publications at the time that carried reports of Muybridge's groundbreaking images.^[29]

Stanford also wanted a study of the horse at a gallop. Muybridge planned to take a series of photos on June 19, 1878 at Stanford's Palo Alto Stock Farm. He placed numerous large glass-plate cameras in a line along the edge of the track; the shutter of each was triggered by a thread as the horse passed. The path was lined with cloth sheets to reflect as much light as possible. (In later studies he used a clockwork device to set off the shutters and capture the images.) He copied the images in the form of silhouettes onto a disc to be viewed in a machine he had invented, which he called a zoopraxiscope. This device was later regarded as an early movie projector, and the process as an intermediate stage toward motion pictures or cinematography.

The study is called Sallie Gardner at a Gallop or The Horse in Motion; it shows images of the horse with all feet off the ground. This did not take place when the horse's legs were extended to the front and back, as imagined by contemporary illustrators, but when its legs were collected beneath its body as it switched from "pulling" with the front legs to "pushing" with the back legs.^[27]

Murder, acquittal and paternity[link]

In 1872, Muybridge married Flora Shallcross Stone, a divorcee 21 years old, and half his age. In 1874, Muybridge discovered that his young wife Flora's friend, a drama critic known as Major Harry Larkyns, might have fathered their seven-month-old son Florado.^[27] On 17 October, he traveled north of San Francisco to Calistoga to track down Larkyns. Upon finding him, Muybridge said, "Good evening, Major, my name is Muybridge and here's the answer to the letter you sent my wife," and shot him pointblank. Larkyns died that night, and Muybridge was arrested without protest and put in the Napa jail.^[30]

He was tried for murder. His defense attorney pleaded insanity due to the severe head injury which Muybridge had suffered in the 1860 stagecoach accident. At least four long-time acquaintances testified under oath that the accident had dramatically changed Muybridge's personality, from genial and pleasant to unstable and erratic.^[10] During the trial, Muybridge undercut his own insanity case by indicating that his actions were deliberate and premeditated, but he also showed impassive indifference and uncontrolled explosions of emotion.^[10] The jury dismissed the insanity plea, but acquitted the photographer on the grounds of "justifiable homicide", disregarding the judge's instructions. The episode interrupted his horse photography studies, but not his relationship with Stanford, who had arranged for his criminal defense.^[10]

Today, the court case and transcripts are important to historians and forensic neurologists, because of the sworn testimony from multiple witnesses regarding Muybridge's state of mind and past behavior.^[10] The modern American composer Phillip Glass also found the story fascinating, and composed an opera, The Photographer, with a libretto based in part on court transcripts from the case.

Shortly after his acquittal in 1875, Muybridge left the United States on a previously planned 9-month photography trip to Central America, as a "working exile".^[27] By 1877, he had resumed work for Leland Stanford, as described above.

Flora tried to get a divorce, but was unsuccessful.^{[dubious – discuss]} Five months after the trial, while Muybridge was in Central America, she became ill and died in 1875 at the age of 24.^[10] She had placed their son Florado Helios Muybridge (nicknamed "Floddie" by friends) with a French couple. When Muybridge returned, he had the boy moved from a Catholic orphanage to a Protestant one, but otherwise had little to do with him. Photographs of Florado Muybridge as an adult show him to have strongly resembled Muybridge. Put to work on a ranch as a boy, he worked all his life as a ranch hand and gardener. In 1944, Florado was hit by a car in Sacramento and killed, at approximately the age of 70.^[31]

Later work[link]

American bison cantering – set to motion in 2006 using photos by Eadweard Muybridge

Muybridge often travelled back to England and Europe to publicize his work. The opening of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, and the development of steamships made travel much faster and less arduous than it was in 1860. On 13 March 1882 he lectured at the Royal Institution in London in front of a sell-out audience, which included members of the Royal Family, notably the future King Edward VII.^[32] He displayed his photographs on screen and showed moving pictures projected by his zoopraxiscope.^[32]

Muybridge and Stanford had a major falling-out concerning his research on equine locomotion. Stanford had asked his friend and horseman Dr. J. B. D. Stillman to write a book analyzing The Horse in Motion, which was published in 1882.^[29] Stillman used Muybridge's photos as the basis for his 100 illustrations, and the photographer's research for the analysis, but he gave Muybridge no prominent credit. The historian Phillip Prodger later suggested that Stanford considered Muybridge as just one of his employees, and not deserving of special recognition.^[33]

However, as a result of Muybridge not being credited in the book, the Royal Society of Arts withdrew an offer to fund his stop-motion studies in photography, and refused to publish a paper he had submitted, accusing him of plagiarism.^[10] Muybridge filed a lawsuit against Stanford to gain credit, but it was dismissed out of court.^[27] However, Stillman's book did not sell as expected. Muybridge, looking elsewhere for funding, was more successful.^[10] The Royal Society later invited Muybridge back to show his work.^[27]

In the 1880s, the University of Pennsylvania sponsored Muybridge's research using banks of cameras to photograph people in a studio, and animals from the Philadelphia Zoo to study their movement. The human models, either entirely nude or very lightly clothed, were photographed against a measured grid background in a variety of action sequences, including walking up or down stairs, hammering on an anvil, carrying buckets of water, or throwing water over one another. Muybridge produced sequences showing farm, industrial, construction, and household work, military maneuvers, and everyday activities. He also photographed athletic activities such as baseball, cricket, football, boxing, wrestling, fencing, rowing, discus throwing, and a ballet dancer performing. Showing a single-minded dedication to scientific accuracy and artistic composition, Muybridge himself posed nude for some of the photographic sequences, such as one showing him swinging a miner's pick.^[27][10]

Between 1883 and 1886, Muybridge made more than 100,000 images, working obsessively in Philadelphia under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania. During 1884, the painter Thomas Eakins worked as one of his assistants, to learn more about the application of photography to the study of human and animal motion. Eakins later favored the use of multiple exposures on a single photographic negative to study motion more precisely, while Muybridge continued to use multiple cameras to produce separate images which could also be projected by his zoopraxiscope. The vast majority of Muybridge's work at this time was done in a special sunlit outdoor studio, due to the bulky cameras and slow photographic emulsion speeds then available. Towards the end of this period, Muybridge spent much of his time selecting and editing his photos in preparation for publication.

In 1887, the photos were published as a massive portfolio, with 781 plates comprising 20,000 of the photographs, in a groundbreaking collection titled Animal Locomotion: an Electro-Photographic Investigation of Connective Phases of Animal Movements.^[34] Muybridge's work contributed substantially to developments in the science of biomechanics and the mechanics of athletics. Some of his books are still published today, and are used as references by artists, animators, and students of animal and human movement.

A phenakistoscope disc by Muybridge (1893)

The phenakistoscope – a couple waltzing

Recent scholarship has noted that in his later work, Muybridge was influenced by the French photographer Étienne-Jules Marey. Muybridge visited Marey's studio in France^[when?] and viewed stop-motion studies before returning to the US to further his own work in the same area. While Marey's scientific achievements in the realms of cardiology and aerodynamics (as well as pioneering work in photography and chronophotography) are indisputable, Muybridge's efforts were to some degree more artistic rather than scientific. As Muybridge explained, in some of his published sequences he had substituted images where original exposures had failed, in order to illustrate a representative movement (rather than producing a strictly scientific recording of a particular sequence).^{[citation needed]}

Today, similar setups of carefully timed multiple cameras are used in modern special effects photography but they have the opposite goal of capturing changing camera angles, with little or no movement of the subject. This is often dubbed "bullet time" photography.

After his work at the University of Pennsylvania, Muybridge traveled widely and gave numerous lectures and demonstrations of his still photography and primitive motion picture sequences. At the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, Muybridge presented a series of lectures on the "Science of Animal Locomotion" in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose in the "Midway Plaisance" arm of the exposition. He used his zoopraxiscope to show his moving pictures to a paying public, making the Hall the first commercial movie theater.^[35]

Retirement and death[link]

Eadweard Muybridge returned to his native England permanently in 1894. He published two popular books of his work, Animals in Motion (1899) and The Human Figure in Motion (1901), both of which remain in print over a century later. He died on 8 May 1904 in Kingston upon Thames while staying at the home of his cousin Catherine Smith. Muybridge was cremated, and his ashes were interred at Woking in Surrey. For unknown reasons, his headstone is engraved with the name "Eadweard Maybridge".^[27]

In 2004 a British Film Institute commemorative plaque was installed on the outside wall of the former Smith house, at Park View, 2 Liverpool Road.^[36] Many of his papers and collected artifacts were donated to the Kingston Library, and eventually passed to the Kingston Museum in his place of birth.

Legacy and representation in other media[link]

Many of Muybridge's photographic sequences have been published since the 1950s as artists' reference books.^{[citation needed]} Cartoon animators often use Muybridge's photos as a reference when drawing their characters in motion. Since 1991, the company Optical Toys has published Muybridge sequences in the form of movie flipbooks.

The filmmaker Thom Andersen made a 1974 documentary titled Eadweard Muybridge, Zoopraxographer, describing his life and work.

The composer Philip Glass's opera The Photographer (1982) is based on Muybridge's murder trial, with a libretto including text from the court transcript. A promotional music video featured an excerpt of the opera and numerous Muybridge images.

The play Studies in Motion: The Hauntings of Eadweard Muybridge (2006) was a co-production between Vancouver's Electric Company Theatre and the University of British Columbia Theatre. While blending fiction with fact, it conveys Muybridge's obsession with cataloguing animal motion. The production started touring in 2010.

The Canadian poet Rob Winger wrote Muybridge's Horse: A Poem in Three Phases (2007). The long poem won the CBC Literary Award for Poetry and was nominated for the Governor General's Award for Literature, the Trillium Book Award for Poetry, and the Ottawa Book Award. It expressed his life and obsessions in a 'poetic-photographic' style.

In 1985, the music video for Larry Gowan's single "(You're a) Strange Animal" prominently featured animation rotoscoped from Muybridge's work. In 1986, a galloping horse sequence was used in the background of the John Farnham music video for the song "Pressure Down". In 1993, the rock band U2 made a video of their song "Lemon" into a tribute to Muybridge's techniques. In 2004, the electronic music group The Crystal Method made a music video to their song "Born Too Slow", which was based on Muybridge's work, including a man walking in front of a background grid.

Kingston University's Eadweard Muybridge Building is named in honour of Muybridge, who was born in nearby Kingston upon Thames, England.

His work has influenced the following:

• Étienne-Jules Marey — recorded the first series of live action photos with a single camera by a method of chronophotography
• Thomas Eakins — American artist who worked with and continued Muybridge's motion studies, and incorporated the findings into his own artwork
• William Dickson — credited as inventor of the motion picture camera
• Thomas Edison — developed and owned patents for motion picture cameras
• Marcel Duchamp — artist, painted Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2
• Harold Eugene Edgerton — pioneered stroboscopic and high speed photography and film, producing an Oscar-winning short movie and many striking photographic sequences
• Francis Bacon — artist who made numerous paintings from photographs by Muybridge
• John Gaeta — used the principles of Muybridge's photography to create the bullet time slow-motion technique of the 1999 movie The Matrix.^[37]
• Steven Pippin — so-called Young British Artist who converted a row of laundromat washing machines into sequential cameras in the style of Muybridge
• Wayne McGregor - UK choreographer collaborated with composer Mark-Anthony Turnage and artist Mark Wallinger on a piece entitled Undance, inspired by Muybridge's 'action verbs'^[38]

On 9 April 2012, the 182nd birthday of Muybridge, Google honored him in a Google Doodle with an animation based on the photographs of the "horse in motion."^[39]

Exhibitions and collections[link]

A collection of Muybridge's equipment, including his original biunial slide lantern^[40] and zoopraxiscope projector, can be viewed at the Kingston Museum in Kingston upon Thames, South West London. The University of Pennsylvania Archives in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania hold a large collection of Muybridge's photographs, equipment, and correspondence.^[41] Stanford University also holds numerous photographs of his work.^{[citation needed]}

In 1991, the Addison Gallery of American Art at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts hosted a major exhibition of Muybridge's work, which later traveled to other venues. A book-length exhibition catalogue was also published.^[42] The Addison Gallery has significant holdings of Muybridge's photographic work.^[43]

In 2000–2001, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History presented the exhibition Freeze Frame: Eadweard Muybridge's Photography of Motion, plus an online virtual exhibit.^[44]

From 10 April through 18 July 2010, the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, DC mounted a major retrospective of Muybridge's work entitled Helios: Eadweard Muybridge in a Time of Change. The exhibit received favorable reviews from major publications including The New York Times.^[45] The exhibition traveled in autumn 2010 to the Tate Britain, Millbank, London.^[46], and also appeared at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA).

An exhibition of important items bequeathed by Muybridge to his birthplace of Kingston upon Thames, entitled Muybridge Revolutions, opened at the Kingston Museum on 18 September 2010 (exactly a century since the first Muybridge exhibition at the Museum) and ran until 12 February 2011.^[47]

See also[link]

• History of film
• The Photographer

References[link]

Sources[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Eadweard Muybridge

• Eadweard Muybridge at the Internet Movie Database
• article on discovered Muybridge photos, March 2012
• Time Stands Still, exhibit on Eadward Muybridge and contemporaries, February-May 2003, Cantor Center, Stanford University
• Eadweard Muybridge's Animal Locomotion, via Boston Public Library's Flickr collections
• Eadweard Muybridge at Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
• The Eadweard Muybridge Online Archive, access to most of Muybridge's motion studies, at printable resolutions, along with a growing number of animations.
• "Tesseract", 20-Min experimental film expressing Eadweard Muybridge's obsession with time and its images at the turn of the century.
• Eadweard Muybridge, Valley of the Yosemite, Sierra Nevada Mountains, and Mariposa Grove of Mammoth Trees, 1872, online photo collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
• Muybridge, 1872, Yosemite American Indian Life, The Hive
• "The Muybridge Collection", Kingston Museum, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey
• Muybridge's 11-volume Animal Locomotion Studies and similar publications by E.-J. Marey, The University of South Florida Tampa Library's Special Collections Department
• Freezing Time, Film Website, the life of Muybridge, directed by Andy Serkis and written by Keith Stern
• "Eadweard Muybridge". Photography. Victoria and Albert Museum. http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/photography/photographerframe.php?photographerid=ph043. Retrieved 11 November 2007. 
• Eadweard Muybridge stereoscopic photographs of the Modoc War, via Calisphere, California Digital Library, University of California, Berkeley
• Human and Animal Locomotion, via SC Digital Library, University of Southern California.
• Teacher's Guide: Eadweard Muybridge, Harold Edgerton, and Beyond: A Study of Motion and Time, 2-part introduction to the work of Muybridge and Edgerton, for high school level, Addison Museum
• The short film It Started With Muybridge (1965) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
• David Levy, "Muybridge and the Movies", Early American Cinema
• Carola Unterberger-Probst, Animation of the first moving pictures in film history, Rhizome
• Burns, Paul. The History of the Discovery of Cinematography: An Illustrated Chronology, Pre-cinema history
• The Compleat Eadweard Muybridge, extensive illustrated bibliography and links

Pablo Sarasate
Pablo de Sarasate
Background information
Birth name	Pablo Martín Melitón de Sarasate y Navascués
Born	(1844-03-10)10 March 1844 Pamplona, Spain
Died	20 September 1908(1908-09-20) (aged 64) Biarritz, France
Genres	Classical
Occupations	Composer, conductor, violinist
Years active	1852–1904
Notable instruments
Violin Boissier Stradivarius 1713 Sarasate Stradivarius 1724

Pablo Martín Melitón de Sarasate y Navascués (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈpaβlo saɾaˈsate]; 10 March 1844 – 20 September 1908) was a Spanish violinist and composer of the Romantic period.

Career[link]

Pablo Sarasate was born in Pamplona, Navarre, the son of an artillery bandmaster. He began studying the violin with his father at the age of five and later took lessons from a local teacher but his musical talent became evident early on and he appeared in his first public concert in La Coruña at the age of eight. His performance was well-received, and caught the attention of a wealthy patron who provided the funding for Sarasate to study under Manuel Rodríguez Saez in Madrid where he gained the favor of Queen Isabel II. Later, as his abilities developed, he was sent to study under Jean-Delphin Alard at the Paris Conservatoire at the age of twelve. There, at seventeen, Sarasate entered a competition for the Premier Prix and won his first prize, the Conservatoire's highest honour.

Sarasate, who had been playing in public since childhood, made his Paris debut as a concert violinist in 1860, and played in London the following year. Over the course of his career, he toured many parts of the world, performing in Europe, North America, and South America. His artistic pre-eminence was due principally to the purity of his tone, which was free from any tendency towards the sentimental or rhapsodic, and to that impressive facility of execution that made him a virtuoso. In his early career, Sarasate performed mainly opera fantasies, most notably the Carmen Fantasy, and various other pieces that he had composed. The popularity of Sarasate's Spanish flavor in his compositions is reflected in the work of his contemporaries. For example, the influences of Spanish music can be heard in such notable works as Édouard Lalo's Symphonie Espagnole which was dedicated to Sarasate, Georges Bizet's Carmen, and Camille Saint-Saëns' Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso, written expressly for Sarasate and dedicated to him.

Of Sarasate's idiomatic writing for his instrument, the playwright and music critic George Bernard Shaw once declared that though there were many composers of music for the violin, there were but few composers of violin music. Of Sarasate's talents as performer and composer, Shaw said that he "left criticism gasping miles behind him." Sarasate's own compositions are mainly show-pieces designed to demonstrate his exemplary technique (bias shown, needs reference). Perhaps the best known of his works is Zigeunerweisen (1878), a work for violin and orchestra. Another piece, the Carmen Fantasy (1883), also for violin and orchestra, makes use of themes from Georges Bizet's opera Carmen. Probably his most performed encores are his two books of Spanish dances, brief pieces designed to please the listener's ear and show off the performer's talent. He also made arrangements of a number of other composers' work for violin, and composed sets of variations on "potpourris" drawn from operas familiar to his audiences, such as his Fantasia on La forza del destino (his Opus 1), his "Souvenirs of Faust", or his variations on themes from Die Zauberflöte. In 1904 he made a small number of recordings. In all his travels Sarasate returned to Pamplona each year for the San Fermín festival.^[1]

The familiar figure of Sarasate caricatured as a "Man of the Day" for Vanity Fair, 1889

Sarasate died in Biarritz, France on September 20, 1908 from chronic bronchitis. He bequeathed his violin, made by Antonio Stradivari in 1724, to the Musée de la Musique. The violin now bears his name as the Sarasate Stradivarius in his memory. His second Stradivari violin, the Boissier of 1713, is now owned by Real Conservatorio Superior de Música, Madrid. Among his violin pupils was Alfred De Sève. The Pablo Sarasate International Violin Competition is held in Pamplona.

A number of works for violin were dedicated to Sarasate, including Henryk Wieniawski's Violin Concerto No. 2, Édouard Lalo's Symphonie Espagnole, Camille Saint-Saëns' Violin Concerto No. 3 and his Introduction and Rondo capriccioso, Max Bruch's Scottish Fantasy, and Alexander Mackenzie's Pibroch Suite. Also inspired by Sarasate is William H. Potstock's Souvenir de Sarasate.

Appearance in other art forms[link]

• Noted painter James Whistler's Arrangement in Black: Pablo de Sarasate (1884) is a portrait of Pablo Sarasate.
• In Arthur Conan Doyle's short story The Red-Headed League (1891), Sherlock Holmes and Dr. John H. Watson attend a concert by Sarasate.
• In Edith Wharton's 1920 novel The Age of Innocence set in 1870s New York, the main protagonist is invited to a private recital to be given by Sarasate.
• Sarasate is a major figure in "Murder to Music", a Sherlock Holmes pastiche by Anthony Burgess.^[2] Holmes is also mentioned as attending a Sarasate concert in "The Treasure Train" by "Frank Thomas".
• Zigeunerweisen is the title of Seijun Suzuki's 1980 movie, the first of the so-called Taisho Trilogy. A recording of this air by Sarasate, and mostly Sarasate's voice that can be heard on the recording, are one of the theme of the movie.

[edit] List of compositions^[3]

	Romanza Andaluza Performed by Carrie Rehkopf Navarra Op. 33 Performed by Roxana Pavel Goldstein and Elias Goldstein (violins) with the Depaul Symphony (Chicago) conducted by Cliff Colnot
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