- published: 21 Jan 2011
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- Martin Luther King, Jr.
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- Vater unser im Himmelreich (Motettenchor St. Matthäus feat. conductor: Hans Rudolf Zöbeley)
Born: 1483-11-10
Died: 1546-02-18
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Martin Luther King - I Have A Dream Speech - August 28, 1963
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:28
- Updated: 18 May 2013
I Have a Dream Speech Martin Luther King's Address at March on Washington August 28, 1963. Washington, D.C. When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring fro...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_I_Have_A_Dream_Speech_August_28,_1963
I Have a Dream Speech Martin Luther King's Address at March on Washington August 28, 1963. Washington, D.C. When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring fro...
Martin Luther King, Jr. - Mini Bio
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:48
- Updated: 17 May 2013
A short biography of Martin Luther King, Jr.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_Mini_Bio
A short biography of Martin Luther King, Jr.
- published: 08 Jan 2010
- views: 270535
- author: BiographyChannel
Martin Luther King Jr Interview (Part 1 of 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:24
- Updated: 16 May 2013
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Interview_Part_1_of_3
Martin Luther King Jr. on The Mike Douglas Show.
- published: 30 May 2009
- views: 162506
- author: gregorija1
Martin Luther King, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:48
- Updated: 17 May 2013
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio. This speech was released by Black Forum...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Why_I_Am_Opposed_to_the_War_in_Vietnam
Speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. against the "triple evils of racism, economic exploitation, and militarism." Audio. This speech was released by Black Forum...
- published: 11 Jan 2007
- views: 1470279
- author: noncorporatenews
1968 King Assassination Report (CBS News)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 02 May 2013
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the ...
http://wn.com/1968_King_Assassination_Report_CBS_News
Walter Cronkite had almost finished broadcasting the "CBS Evening News" when he received word of Martin Luther King's assassination. His report detailed the ...
- published: 03 Apr 2008
- views: 1095006
- author: CBS
Martin Luther King, Jr.'s last speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr's_last_speech
Prophetic words, he was assassinated the next day.
- published: 27 Apr 2007
- views: 2696418
- author: ct91rs
Gandhi vs Martin Luther King Jr. Epic Rap Battles of History Season 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Download this song on iTunes: http://bit.ly/VHj4Sx Youtube.com/ERB - new battles every 2 weeks. Tweet this Vid-ee-oh! http://clicktotweet.com/xX6Sd ERB Merch...
http://wn.com/Gandhi_vs_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Epic_Rap_Battles_of_History_Season_2
Download this song on iTunes: http://bit.ly/VHj4Sx Youtube.com/ERB - new battles every 2 weeks. Tweet this Vid-ee-oh! http://clicktotweet.com/xX6Sd ERB Merch...
- published: 25 Feb 2013
- views: 19091607
- author: ERB
(BEST QUALITY) Martin Luther King Jr.'s Last Speech: "I Have Been to the Mountaintop" (Before Death)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 17 May 2013
The last and final speech ever given by Martin Luther King Jr. We all honor this man for what he has done to this country, and all over the world. Here is hi...
http://wn.com/BEST_QUALITY_Martin_Luther_King_Jr's_Last_Speech_I_Have_Been_to_the_Mountaintop_Before_Death
The last and final speech ever given by Martin Luther King Jr. We all honor this man for what he has done to this country, and all over the world. Here is hi...
- published: 15 Jan 2013
- views: 14745
- author: iSeeB1urry
Martin Luther King Jr., "The Drum Major Instinct" Sermon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:41
- Updated: 15 May 2013
This is one of my absolute favorite of King's speeches: his final sermon before he was assassinated. I can't listen to this without shedding tears. TEXT: htt...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr,_The_Drum_Major_Instinct_Sermon
This is one of my absolute favorite of King's speeches: his final sermon before he was assassinated. I can't listen to this without shedding tears. TEXT: htt...
- published: 09 Jan 2012
- views: 104659
- author: Sean Frenette
The Life of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:53
- Updated: 10 May 2013
This is a story book that that talks about the history and life of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
http://wn.com/The_Life_of_Dr_Martin_Luther_King_Jr
This is a story book that that talks about the history and life of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
- published: 19 Jan 2008
- views: 31004
- author: Laura1115
Martin Luther King Jr. on NBC's Meet the Press in 1965 | When Meet the Press Met Martin Luther King
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:20
- Updated: 09 May 2013
Martin Luther King Jr. on NBC's Meet the Press in 1965 | When Meet the Press Met Martin Luther King Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 15, 1929 in At...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_on_NBC's_Meet_the_Press_in_1965_|_When_Meet_the_Press_Met_Martin_Luther_King
Martin Luther King Jr. on NBC's Meet the Press in 1965 | When Meet the Press Met Martin Luther King Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 15, 1929 in At...
- published: 20 Jan 2013
- views: 2785
- author: InspirationalChatter
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Speech(I Have A Dream)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:19
- Updated: 18 May 2013
I love and Respect Martin Luther King Strongly.
http://wn.com/Dr_Martin_Luther_King_Jr_SpeechI_Have_A_Dream
I love and Respect Martin Luther King Strongly.
- published: 14 May 2011
- views: 1266260
- author: CurtHenniganImpact
Martin Luther King and Malcolm X Debate
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:49
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Watch my girlfriend's video called "Yes I'm Black" http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhPdsDDfCTo&feature;=plcp Martin Luther King and Malcolm X Debate @Rfisherca...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_and_Malcolm_X_Debate
Watch my girlfriend's video called "Yes I'm Black" http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhPdsDDfCTo&feature;=plcp Martin Luther King and Malcolm X Debate @Rfisherca...
- published: 07 May 2011
- views: 886875
- author: Raymond Fisher
MLK's Last Speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:28
- Updated: 16 May 2013
Conclusion of Famous Mountaintop Speech.
http://wn.com/MLK's_Last_Speech
MLK's "I Have a Dream" speech is copyrighted. Share it anyway.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:59
- Updated: 17 May 2013
Help us caption and translate this video on Amara.org: http://www.amara.org/en/v/BUlr/ Today we celebrate the 1 year anniversary of the defeat of SOPA. On Mo...
http://wn.com/MLK's_I_Have_a_Dream_speech_is_copyrighted_Share_it_anyway
Help us caption and translate this video on Amara.org: http://www.amara.org/en/v/BUlr/ Today we celebrate the 1 year anniversary of the defeat of SOPA. On Mo...
- published: 18 Jan 2013
- views: 73183
- author: fightforthefutu
Martin Luther King, Jr. on War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:09
- Updated: 27 Apr 2013
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr_on_War
Amazingly relevant. Our 'moral leaders' don't seem to question much. The consequences are devastating as has been noted.
- published: 09 Apr 2007
- views: 377220
- author: ct91rs
How Long? Not Long!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Updated: 17 May 2013
Martin Luther King in Montgomery, Alabama on March 25, 1965.
http://wn.com/How_Long?_Not_Long!
Martin Luther King in Montgomery, Alabama on March 25, 1965.
- published: 15 Jan 2007
- views: 498992
- author: incogito
I Celebrate MLK! (song for kids about Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, segregation, etc.)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:15
- Updated: 18 May 2013
I CELEBRATE MLK As are all of my works, this is a children's song, but as I listen to it more, it really is a song for all ages. After all, it wasn't the chi...
http://wn.com/I_Celebrate_MLK!_song_for_kids_about_Martin_Luther_King,_Rosa_Parks,_segregation,_etc
I CELEBRATE MLK As are all of my works, this is a children's song, but as I listen to it more, it really is a song for all ages. After all, it wasn't the chi...
- published: 13 Jan 2012
- views: 137712
- author: HarryKindergarten
martin luther king, jr., "i have a dream" speech
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:52
- Updated: 17 May 2013
NOTICE: January 2013: SME (Sony Music Entertainment" has filed what's in our opinion a frivolous and or fraudulent copyright claim on this video: "Walter Cro...
http://wn.com/martin_luther_king,_jr,_i_have_a_dream_speech
NOTICE: January 2013: SME (Sony Music Entertainment" has filed what's in our opinion a frivolous and or fraudulent copyright claim on this video: "Walter Cro...
- published: 23 Oct 2012
- views: 76525
- author: wesawthat
Martin Luther King Jr: Life and Death
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:10
- Updated: 17 May 2013
He is an iconic figure in the history of African American civil rights. http://www.WatchMojo.com learns more about the life, accomplishments and assassinatio...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_Life_and_Death
He is an iconic figure in the history of African American civil rights. http://www.WatchMojo.com learns more about the life, accomplishments and assassinatio...
- published: 12 Jan 2011
- views: 35359
- author: WatchMojo
MLK- The King and His Dream
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:22
- Updated: 07 May 2013
School Project Children's story DVD drawings by: http://www.youtube.com/user/littlemew narration, editting, coloring, and script: me.
http://wn.com/MLK_The_King_and_His_Dream
School Project Children's story DVD drawings by: http://www.youtube.com/user/littlemew narration, editting, coloring, and script: me.
- published: 13 Jun 2009
- views: 144275
- author: lpsim580
Martin Luther King Jr. on Malcolm X
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:31
- Updated: 15 May 2013
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/ http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/ http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/ The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm ...
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_on_Malcolm_X
http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/ http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/ http://malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com/ The Reverend Martin Luther King responds to Malcolm ...
- published: 07 May 2007
- author: antihostile
"We Shall Overcome" - Martin Luther King, Jr.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 16 May 2013
Martin Luther King, Jr. Speech. Created as part of a lesson plan for US History - Civil Rights - MLK Jr. Day.
http://wn.com/We_Shall_Overcome_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr
Martin Luther King, Jr. Speech. Created as part of a lesson plan for US History - Civil Rights - MLK Jr. Day.
- published: 29 Jan 2008
- views: 580150
- author: trippin2billie
Send this Playlist by SMS
Avril Lavigne - When You're Gone
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 696566 (C) 2007 RCA/JIVE Label Group, a unit of Sony Music Entertain...
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_When_You're_Gone
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 696566 (C) 2007 RCA/JIVE Label Group, a unit of Sony Music Entertain...
- published: 03 Oct 2009
- views: 136283994
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_ft_Nate_Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Take A Bow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Take_A_Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_RYAN_LEWIS_THRIFT_SHOP_FEAT_WANZ_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
P!nk - Who Knew
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:33
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Who Knew. (C) 2006 Zomba Recording, LLC.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Who_Knew
Music video by P!nk performing Who Knew. (C) 2006 Zomba Recording, LLC.
- published: 25 Oct 2009
- views: 38426478
- author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:05
- Updated: 18 May 2013
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_Official_Lyric_Video
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:58
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Hate_That_I_Love_You_ft_Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Smile
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:36
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 18 May 2011
- views: 65193435
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Wish_You_Were_Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
- published: 09 Sep 2011
- views: 154933753
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
![Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130519094415im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/T6DJcgm3wNY/default.jpg "Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]")
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
http://wn.com/Man_of_Steel_Official_Trailer_3_HD_
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 39175652
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
David Guetta - Titanium ft. Sia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:06
- Updated: 19 May 2013
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it/NBTBiTunes?IQid=vevo Featuring Sia, Ne-Yo, Akon, Nicki Minaj, Flo ...
http://wn.com/David_Guetta_Titanium_ft_Sia
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it/NBTBiTunes?IQid=vevo Featuring Sia, Ne-Yo, Akon, Nicki Minaj, Flo ...
- published: 21 Dec 2011
- views: 184578697
- author: davidguettavevo
David Guetta - She Wolf (Falling To Pieces) ft. Sia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:58
- Updated: 19 May 2013
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it/NBTBiTunes?IQid=vevo Featuring Sia, Ne-Yo, Akon, Nicki Minaj, Flo ...
http://wn.com/David_Guetta_She_Wolf_Falling_To_Pieces_ft_Sia
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it/NBTBiTunes?IQid=vevo Featuring Sia, Ne-Yo, Akon, Nicki Minaj, Flo ...
- published: 28 Sep 2012
- views: 151296523
- author: davidguettavevo
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Russian_Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Tweets_About_Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 8069075
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
![MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130519094415im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/fvDQy53eldY/default.jpg "MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]")
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:05
- Updated: 19 May 2013
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_X_RYAN_LEWIS_OTHERSIDE_REMIX_FEAT_FENCES_MUSIC_VIDEO_
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Mean_Tweets_2
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
- published: 25 Jul 2012
- views: 14530938
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
Threw It On The Ground
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Download on iTunes: http://goo.gl/gcVR7 THREE T-Shirt designs!: http://goo.gl/jr4sY So many things to throw on the ground! Featuring Ryan Reynolds and Elijah...
http://wn.com/Threw_It_On_The_Ground
Download on iTunes: http://goo.gl/gcVR7 THREE T-Shirt designs!: http://goo.gl/jr4sY So many things to throw on the ground! Featuring Ryan Reynolds and Elijah...
- published: 26 Jul 2011
- views: 53442958
- author: thelonelyisland
Mortal Kombat: Legacy - Season 2 Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
http://wn.com/Mortal_Kombat_Legacy_Season_2_Trailer
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
- published: 18 Feb 2013
- views: 5367392
- author: machinima
Draw My Life - Ryan Higa
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:35
- Updated: 18 May 2013
So i was pretty hesitant to make this video... but after all of your request, here is my Draw My Life video! Check out my 2nd Channel for more vlogs: http://...
http://wn.com/Draw_My_Life_Ryan_Higa
So i was pretty hesitant to make this video... but after all of your request, here is my Draw My Life video! Check out my 2nd Channel for more vlogs: http://...
- published: 11 Apr 2013
- views: 8252035
- author: nigahiga
One Direction - One Way Or Another (Teenage Kicks)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 18 May 2013
As well as releasing the Red Nose Day single, One Direction are fundraising by doing something funny for money...and they want you to join them! Get involved...
http://wn.com/One_Direction_One_Way_Or_Another_Teenage_Kicks
As well as releasing the Red Nose Day single, One Direction are fundraising by doing something funny for money...and they want you to join them! Get involved...
- published: 20 Feb 2013
- views: 98647931
- author: OneDirectionVEVO
Send this Playlist by SMS
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_ft_Nate_Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Take A Bow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Take_A_Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
James Arthur sings Shontelle's Impossible - The Final - The X Factor UK 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Watch judges' comments at http://itv.com/XFactor (UK ONLY) Watch James Arthur sing Impossible by Shontelle Sweeeeet! As potential Winner's Singles go, this o...
http://wn.com/James_Arthur_sings_Shontelle's_Impossible_The_Final_The_X_Factor_UK_2012
Watch judges' comments at http://itv.com/XFactor (UK ONLY) Watch James Arthur sing Impossible by Shontelle Sweeeeet! As potential Winner's Singles go, this o...
- published: 09 Dec 2012
- views: 21284998
- author: TheXFactorUK
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_RYAN_LEWIS_THRIFT_SHOP_FEAT_WANZ_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:39
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Rehab_ft_Justin_Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 52128389
- author: RihannaVEVO
YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:56
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy.
http://wn.com/YouTube_Challenge_I_Told_My_Kids_I_Ate_All_Their_Halloween_Candy
Jimmy Kimmel Live - YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy.
- published: 03 Nov 2011
- views: 40544078
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
P!nk - Who Knew
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:33
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Who Knew. (C) 2006 Zomba Recording, LLC.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Who_Knew
Music video by P!nk performing Who Knew. (C) 2006 Zomba Recording, LLC.
- published: 25 Oct 2009
- views: 38426478
- author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:05
- Updated: 18 May 2013
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_Official_Lyric_Video
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:58
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Hate_That_I_Love_You_ft_Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
Nice Guys
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:50
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Behind the Scenes at http://www.youtube.com/higatv Two losers take a "how to pick up girls" class and realize that Nice Guys finish last which results in the...
http://wn.com/Nice_Guys
Behind the Scenes at http://www.youtube.com/higatv Two losers take a "how to pick up girls" class and realize that Nice Guys finish last which results in the...
- published: 31 May 2011
- views: 46052994
- author: nigahiga
Avril Lavigne - When You're Gone
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 696566 (C) 2007 RCA/JIVE Label Group, a unit of Sony Music Entertain...
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_When_You're_Gone
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 696566 (C) 2007 RCA/JIVE Label Group, a unit of Sony Music Entertain...
- published: 03 Oct 2009
- views: 136283994
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
http://wn.com/Man_of_Steel_Official_Trailer_3_HD_
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
P!nk - Family Portrait
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Family Portrait. (C) 2001, 2002 Arista Records, Inc.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Family_Portrait
Music video by P!nk performing Family Portrait. (C) 2001, 2002 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Oct 2009
- views: 19128376
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Russian_Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
Janet Devlin's audition - The X Factor 2011 - itv.com/xfactor
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
The X Factor: Incredibly nervous 16-year-old Janet has flown over from the depths of Ireland to be at her audition. Living in a tiny village in the middle of...
http://wn.com/Janet_Devlin's_audition_The_X_Factor_2011_itvcom_xfactor
The X Factor: Incredibly nervous 16-year-old Janet has flown over from the depths of Ireland to be at her audition. Living in a tiny village in the middle of...
- published: 21 Aug 2011
- views: 10946346
- author: TheXFactorUK
P!nk - Perfect
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:05
- Updated: 19 May 2013
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_X_RYAN_LEWIS_OTHERSIDE_REMIX_FEAT_FENCES_MUSIC_VIDEO_
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
P!nk - So What
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing So What. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 952031 (C) 2008 LaFace Records, LLC.
http://wn.com/P!nk_So_What
Music video by P!nk performing So What. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 952031 (C) 2008 LaFace Records, LLC.
- published: 25 Oct 2009
- views: 89922412
- author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Try (Official Lyric Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:10
- Updated: 19 May 2013
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Try. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of Sony Music Entert...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Try_Official_Lyric_Video
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Try. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of Sony Music Entert...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 10546861
- author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Raise Your Glass
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Raise Your Glass. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Raise_Your_Glass
Music video by P!nk performing Raise Your Glass. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 02 Nov 2010
- views: 70051924
- author: PinkVEVO
Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Mean_Tweets_2
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
- published: 25 Jul 2012
- views: 14530938
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
Mortal Kombat: Legacy - Season 2 Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
http://wn.com/Mortal_Kombat_Legacy_Season_2_Trailer
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
- published: 18 Feb 2013
- views: 5367392
- author: machinima
Send this Playlist by SMS
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_ft_Nate_Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
Alexandra Stan - Mr Saxobeat (Official Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:15
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beatport: http://btprt.dj/YjPrYq Listen/ Escúchalo: Spotify: http://spo...
http://wn.com/Alexandra_Stan_Mr_Saxobeat_Official_Video
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beatport: http://btprt.dj/YjPrYq Listen/ Escúchalo: Spotify: http://spo...
- published: 26 Nov 2010
- views: 189120743
- author: blancoynegro
Jack Sparrow (feat. Michael Bolton)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:17
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://turtleneckandchain.com.
http://wn.com/Jack_Sparrow_feat_Michael_Bolton
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://turtleneckandchain.com.
- published: 08 May 2011
- views: 106941497
- author: thelonelyisland
Rihanna - Take A Bow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Take_A_Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_RYAN_LEWIS_THRIFT_SHOP_FEAT_WANZ_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:39
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Rehab_ft_Justin_Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 52128389
- author: RihannaVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:05
- Updated: 18 May 2013
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_Official_Lyric_Video
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:58
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Hate_That_I_Love_You_ft_Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Smile
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:36
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 18 May 2011
- views: 65193435
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Wish_You_Were_Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
- published: 09 Sep 2011
- views: 154933753
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 39175652
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
http://wn.com/Man_of_Steel_Official_Trailer_3_HD_
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
I Just Had Sex (feat. Akon)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:56
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.com T-shirts! http://www.thelonelyisland.com/store The first single ...
http://wn.com/I_Just_Had_Sex_feat_Akon
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.com T-shirts! http://www.thelonelyisland.com/store The first single ...
- published: 19 Dec 2010
- views: 198851006
- author: thelonelyisland
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Russian_Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Tweets_About_Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 8069075
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
PEWDIEPIE Song - Dj Fortify
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:55
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Due to so many request I decided to upload this epic track as well. Enjoy it bros!
http://wn.com/PEWDIEPIE_Song_Dj_Fortify
Due to so many request I decided to upload this epic track as well. Enjoy it bros!
- published: 28 Jan 2012
- views: 10287259
- author: PewDiePie
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:05
- Updated: 19 May 2013
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_X_RYAN_LEWIS_OTHERSIDE_REMIX_FEAT_FENCES_MUSIC_VIDEO_
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Mean_Tweets_2
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
- published: 25 Jul 2012
- views: 14530938
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
Threw It On The Ground
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Download on iTunes: http://goo.gl/gcVR7 THREE T-Shirt designs!: http://goo.gl/jr4sY So many things to throw on the ground! Featuring Ryan Reynolds and Elijah...
http://wn.com/Threw_It_On_The_Ground
Download on iTunes: http://goo.gl/gcVR7 THREE T-Shirt designs!: http://goo.gl/jr4sY So many things to throw on the ground! Featuring Ryan Reynolds and Elijah...
- published: 26 Jul 2011
- views: 53442958
- author: thelonelyisland
P!nk - Raise Your Glass
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Raise Your Glass. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Raise_Your_Glass
Music video by P!nk performing Raise Your Glass. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 02 Nov 2010
- views: 70051924
- author: PinkVEVO
Mortal Kombat: Legacy - Season 2 Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
http://wn.com/Mortal_Kombat_Legacy_Season_2_Trailer
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
- published: 18 Feb 2013
- views: 5367392
- author: machinima
Send this Playlist by SMS
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_ft_Nate_Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
Alexandra Stan - Mr Saxobeat (Official Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:15
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beatport: http://btprt.dj/YjPrYq Listen/ Escúchalo: Spotify: http://spo...
http://wn.com/Alexandra_Stan_Mr_Saxobeat_Official_Video
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beatport: http://btprt.dj/YjPrYq Listen/ Escúchalo: Spotify: http://spo...
- published: 26 Nov 2010
- views: 189120743
- author: blancoynegro
Rihanna - Take A Bow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Take_A_Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_RYAN_LEWIS_THRIFT_SHOP_FEAT_WANZ_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:39
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Rehab_ft_Justin_Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 52128389
- author: RihannaVEVO
P!nk - Who Knew
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:33
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Who Knew. (C) 2006 Zomba Recording, LLC.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Who_Knew
Music video by P!nk performing Who Knew. (C) 2006 Zomba Recording, LLC.
- published: 25 Oct 2009
- views: 38426478
- author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:05
- Updated: 18 May 2013
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
http://wn.com/P!nk_Just_Give_Me_A_Reason_Official_Lyric_Video
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:58
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Hate_That_I_Love_You_ft_Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Smile
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:36
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 18 May 2011
- views: 65193435
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Wish_You_Were_Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
- published: 09 Sep 2011
- views: 154933753
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
http://wn.com/Avril_Lavigne_Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 39175652
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
http://wn.com/Man_of_Steel_Official_Trailer_3_HD_
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
I Just Had Sex (feat. Akon)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:56
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.com T-shirts! http://www.thelonelyisland.com/store The first single ...
http://wn.com/I_Just_Had_Sex_feat_Akon
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.com T-shirts! http://www.thelonelyisland.com/store The first single ...
- published: 19 Dec 2010
- views: 198851006
- author: thelonelyisland
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
http://wn.com/Rihanna_Russian_Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:11
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Tweets_About_Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 8069075
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:05
- Updated: 19 May 2013
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
http://wn.com/MACKLEMORE_X_RYAN_LEWIS_OTHERSIDE_REMIX_FEAT_FENCES_MUSIC_VIDEO_
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
http://wn.com/Celebrities_Read_Mean_Tweets_2
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Mean Tweets #2 Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late night TV sho...
- published: 25 Jul 2012
- views: 14530938
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
Threw It On The Ground
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Download on iTunes: http://goo.gl/gcVR7 THREE T-Shirt designs!: http://goo.gl/jr4sY So many things to throw on the ground! Featuring Ryan Reynolds and Elijah...
http://wn.com/Threw_It_On_The_Ground
Download on iTunes: http://goo.gl/gcVR7 THREE T-Shirt designs!: http://goo.gl/jr4sY So many things to throw on the ground! Featuring Ryan Reynolds and Elijah...
- published: 26 Jul 2011
- views: 53442958
- author: thelonelyisland
P!nk - Raise Your Glass
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Music video by P!nk performing Raise Your Glass. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
http://wn.com/P!nk_Raise_Your_Glass
Music video by P!nk performing Raise Your Glass. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 02 Nov 2010
- views: 70051924
- author: PinkVEVO
Mortal Kombat: Legacy - Season 2 Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
http://wn.com/Mortal_Kombat_Legacy_Season_2_Trailer
Watch Season 1 of Mortal Kombat Legacy here: http://www.youtube.com/channel/SWVkIoQKmEa4I The Mortal Kombat Legacy continues in Season 2 as Liu Kang, Kung La...
- published: 18 Feb 2013
- views: 5367392
- author: machinima
Adele - Someone Like You
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:45
- Updated: 18 May 2013
Music video by Adele performing Someone Like You. (C) 2011 XL Recordings Ltd.
http://wn.com/Adele_Someone_Like_You
Music video by Adele performing Someone Like You. (C) 2011 XL Recordings Ltd.
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 271856891
- author: AdeleVEVO
4:00
Avril Lavigne - When You're Gone
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 69...
published: 03 Oct 2009
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - When You're Gone
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 696566 (C) 2007 RCA/JIVE Label Group, a unit of Sony Music Entertain...
- published: 03 Oct 2009
- views: 136283994
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
4:03
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/ta...
published: 05 Feb 2013
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
3:50
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) ...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:53
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id55...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
4:05
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk pe...
published: 11 Sep 2012
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
4:58
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 5720...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:36
Avril Lavigne - Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music ...
published: 18 May 2011
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 18 May 2011
- views: 65193435
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
3:47
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 201...
published: 09 Sep 2011
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
- published: 09 Sep 2011
- views: 154933753
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
4:56
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEV...
published: 23 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:03
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warne...
published: 17 Apr 2013
author: WarnerBrosPictures
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
4:13
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 2120015...
published: 25 Feb 2010
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 39175652
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
4:06
David Guetta - Titanium ft. Sia
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it...
published: 21 Dec 2011
author: davidguettavevo
David Guetta - Titanium ft. Sia
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it/NBTBiTunes?IQid=vevo Featuring Sia, Ne-Yo, Akon, Nicki Minaj, Flo ...
- published: 21 Dec 2011
- views: 184578697
- author: davidguettavevo
3:58
David Guetta - She Wolf (Falling To Pieces) ft. Sia
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it...
published: 28 Sep 2012
author: davidguettavevo
David Guetta - She Wolf (Falling To Pieces) ft. Sia
From the album Nothing But The Beat Ultimate - Download on iTunes here: http://smarturl.it/NBTBiTunes?IQid=vevo Featuring Sia, Ne-Yo, Akon, Nicki Minaj, Flo ...
- published: 28 Sep 2012
- views: 151296523
- author: davidguettavevo
Vimeo results:
5:37
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
4:24
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Grou...
published: 05 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:00
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Mu...
published: 20 Jan 2011
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
3:11
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube c...
published: 22 Mar 2012
author: JimmyKimmelLive
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 8069075
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
5:05
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a hal...
published: 31 Aug 2011
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
4:03
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/ta...
published: 05 Feb 2013
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
3:50
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) ...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:00
James Arthur sings Shontelle's Impossible - The Final - The X Factor UK 2012
Watch judges' comments at http://itv.com/XFactor (UK ONLY) Watch James Arthur sing Impossi...
published: 09 Dec 2012
author: TheXFactorUK
James Arthur sings Shontelle's Impossible - The Final - The X Factor UK 2012
Watch judges' comments at http://itv.com/XFactor (UK ONLY) Watch James Arthur sing Impossible by Shontelle Sweeeeet! As potential Winner's Singles go, this o...
- published: 09 Dec 2012
- views: 21284998
- author: TheXFactorUK
3:53
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id55...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
4:39
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 ...
published: 14 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 52128389
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:56
YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy
Jimmy Kimmel Live - YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy....
published: 03 Nov 2011
author: JimmyKimmelLive
YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy
Jimmy Kimmel Live - YouTube Challenge - I Told My Kids I Ate All Their Halloween Candy.
- published: 03 Nov 2011
- views: 40544078
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
4:05
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk pe...
published: 11 Sep 2012
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
4:58
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 5720...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
2:50
Nice Guys
Behind the Scenes at http://www.youtube.com/higatv Two losers take a "how to pick up girls...
published: 31 May 2011
author: nigahiga
Nice Guys
Behind the Scenes at http://www.youtube.com/higatv Two losers take a "how to pick up girls" class and realize that Nice Guys finish last which results in the...
- published: 31 May 2011
- views: 46052994
- author: nigahiga
4:00
Avril Lavigne - When You're Gone
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 69...
published: 03 Oct 2009
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - When You're Gone
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing When You're Gone. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 696566 (C) 2007 RCA/JIVE Label Group, a unit of Sony Music Entertain...
- published: 03 Oct 2009
- views: 136283994
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
4:56
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEV...
published: 23 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:03
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warne...
published: 17 Apr 2013
author: WarnerBrosPictures
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
3:50
P!nk - Family Portrait
Music video by P!nk performing Family Portrait. (C) 2001, 2002 Arista Records, Inc....
published: 25 Oct 2009
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Family Portrait
Music video by P!nk performing Family Portrait. (C) 2001, 2002 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Oct 2009
- views: 19128376
- author: PinkVEVO
Vimeo results:
5:37
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
4:24
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Grou...
published: 05 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
2:23
Janet Devlin's audition - The X Factor 2011 - itv.com/xfactor
The X Factor: Incredibly nervous 16-year-old Janet has flown over from the depths of Irela...
published: 21 Aug 2011
author: TheXFactorUK
Janet Devlin's audition - The X Factor 2011 - itv.com/xfactor
The X Factor: Incredibly nervous 16-year-old Janet has flown over from the depths of Ireland to be at her audition. Living in a tiny village in the middle of...
- published: 21 Aug 2011
- views: 10946346
- author: TheXFactorUK
4:00
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Mu...
published: 20 Jan 2011
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
5:05
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a hal...
published: 31 Aug 2011
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
4:03
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/ta...
published: 05 Feb 2013
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
3:15
Alexandra Stan - Mr Saxobeat (Official Video)
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beat...
published: 26 Nov 2010
author: blancoynegro
Alexandra Stan - Mr Saxobeat (Official Video)
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beatport: http://btprt.dj/YjPrYq Listen/ Escúchalo: Spotify: http://spo...
- published: 26 Nov 2010
- views: 189120743
- author: blancoynegro
3:17
Jack Sparrow (feat. Michael Bolton)
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://turtleneckandchain.com....
published: 08 May 2011
author: thelonelyisland
Jack Sparrow (feat. Michael Bolton)
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://turtleneckandchain.com.
- published: 08 May 2011
- views: 106941497
- author: thelonelyisland
3:50
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) ...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:53
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id55...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
4:39
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 ...
published: 14 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 52128389
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:05
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk pe...
published: 11 Sep 2012
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
4:58
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 5720...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:36
Avril Lavigne - Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music ...
published: 18 May 2011
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 18 May 2011
- views: 65193435
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
3:47
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 201...
published: 09 Sep 2011
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
- published: 09 Sep 2011
- views: 154933753
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
4:56
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEV...
published: 23 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:13
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 2120015...
published: 25 Feb 2010
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 39175652
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
3:03
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warne...
published: 17 Apr 2013
author: WarnerBrosPictures
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
2:56
I Just Had Sex (feat. Akon)
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.c...
published: 19 Dec 2010
author: thelonelyisland
I Just Had Sex (feat. Akon)
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.com T-shirts! http://www.thelonelyisland.com/store The first single ...
- published: 19 Dec 2010
- views: 198851006
- author: thelonelyisland
Vimeo results:
5:37
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
4:24
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Grou...
published: 05 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:00
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Mu...
published: 20 Jan 2011
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
3:11
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube c...
published: 22 Mar 2012
author: JimmyKimmelLive
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 8069075
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
4:55
PEWDIEPIE Song - Dj Fortify
Due to so many request I decided to upload this epic track as well. Enjoy it bros!...
published: 28 Jan 2012
author: PewDiePie
PEWDIEPIE Song - Dj Fortify
Due to so many request I decided to upload this epic track as well. Enjoy it bros!
- published: 28 Jan 2012
- views: 10287259
- author: PewDiePie
4:03
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/ta...
published: 05 Feb 2013
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason ft. Nate Ruess
From the Grammy Nominated album The Truth About Love available now - http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk featuring Nate Ruess performing Just Give Me ...
- published: 05 Feb 2013
- views: 110358087
- author: PinkVEVO
3:15
Alexandra Stan - Mr Saxobeat (Official Video)
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beat...
published: 26 Nov 2010
author: blancoynegro
Alexandra Stan - Mr Saxobeat (Official Video)
Buy It On/ Cómpralo: iTunes: http://bit.ly/17n3k9o Google Play: http://bit.ly/112iFdh Beatport: http://btprt.dj/YjPrYq Listen/ Escúchalo: Spotify: http://spo...
- published: 26 Nov 2010
- views: 189120743
- author: blancoynegro
3:50
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) ...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Take A Bow
Music video by Rihanna performing Take A Bow. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 66288884. (C) 2008 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 93881801
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:53
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id55...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE & RYAN LEWIS - THRIFT SHOP FEAT. WANZ (OFFICIAL VIDEO)
Thrift Shop on iTunes: http://itunes.apple.com/us/album/thrift-shop-feat.-wanz-single/id556955707 The Heist physical deluxe edition: http://www.macklemoremer...
- published: 29 Aug 2012
- views: 308602190
- author: Ryan Lewis
4:39
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 ...
published: 14 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Rehab ft. Justin Timberlake
Music video by Rihanna performing Rehab. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 19591123. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 52128389
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:05
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk pe...
published: 11 Sep 2012
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Just Give Me A Reason (Official Lyric Video)
The Truth About Love available on iTunes NOW http://smarturl.it/tal Music video by P!nk performing Just Give Me A Reason. (C) 2012 RCA Records, a division of...
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 22969661
- author: PinkVEVO
4:58
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 5720...
published: 30 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Hate That I Love You ft. Ne-Yo
Music video by Rihanna performing Hate That I Love You. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 57208048. (C) 2007 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 30 Nov 2009
- views: 88655641
- author: RihannaVEVO
3:36
Avril Lavigne - Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music ...
published: 18 May 2011
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Smile
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Smile. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 18 May 2011
- views: 65193435
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
3:47
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 201...
published: 09 Sep 2011
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Wish You Were Here
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Wish You Were Here. Director: Dave Meyers. (C) 2011 RCA Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment #VEVOCertified on...
- published: 09 Sep 2011
- views: 154933753
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
4:56
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEV...
published: 23 Nov 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Unfaithful
Music video by Rihanna performing Unfaithful. (C) 2006 The Island Def Jam Music Group #VEVOCertified on Feb. 15, 2012. http://vevo.com/certified http://youtu...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 148999471
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:13
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 2120015...
published: 25 Feb 2010
author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
Avril Lavigne - Complicated
Music video by Avril Lavigne performing Complicated. YouTube view counts pre-VEVO: 21200158 (C) 2003 Arista Records, Inc.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 39175652
- author: AvrilLavigneVEVO
3:03
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warne...
published: 17 Apr 2013
author: WarnerBrosPictures
Man of Steel - Official Trailer 3 [HD]
http://manofsteel.com http://www.facebook.com/manofsteel In theaters June 14th. From Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures comes "Man of Steel", starring Henry...
- published: 17 Apr 2013
- views: 21597054
- author: WarnerBrosPictures
2:56
I Just Had Sex (feat. Akon)
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.c...
published: 19 Dec 2010
author: thelonelyisland
I Just Had Sex (feat. Akon)
Buy at iTunes: http://goo.gl/zv4o9. New album on sale now! http://www.turtleneckandchain.com T-shirts! http://www.thelonelyisland.com/store The first single ...
- published: 19 Dec 2010
- views: 198851006
- author: thelonelyisland
Vimeo results:
5:37
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using pr...
published: 14 Jan 2011
author: Duarte
Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech analyzed by Nancy Duarte
Nancy Duarte analyzes Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech using principles from her book, Resonate. Mapping the speech to her “presentation form”, Duarte reveals the magic that makes it memorable.
23:05
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ He...
published: 23 Mar 2009
author: Filip Goc
Martin Luther King, Jr: "Mountaintop" speech full length
Delivered by Martin Luther King, Jr 3 April 1968, Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters), Memphis, Tennessee It is ripped from a DVD from the series Great Speeches, volume 6th, published by EVG (Educational Video Group)
This upload is the first full video on the internet. To be watched for educational purposes only.
1:45
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."...
published: 25 Jul 2011
author: Ian A. Reid
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Teaser Intro to "Constitutional Literacy with Michael Farris."
Youtube results:
4:24
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Grou...
published: 05 Dec 2009
author: RihannaVEVO
Rihanna - Russian Roulette
Music video by Rihanna performing Russian Roulette. (C) 2009 The Island Def Jam Music Group.
- published: 05 Dec 2009
- views: 101446827
- author: RihannaVEVO
4:00
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Mu...
published: 20 Jan 2011
author: PinkVEVO
P!nk - Perfect
Music video by P!nk performing F**kin' Perfect. (C) 2010 LaFace Records, a unit of Sony Music Entertainment.
- published: 20 Jan 2011
- views: 10987835
- author: PinkVEVO
3:11
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube c...
published: 22 Mar 2012
author: JimmyKimmelLive
Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves
Jimmy Kimmel Live - Celebrities Read Tweets About Themselves Jimmy Kimmel Live's YouTube channel features clips and recaps of every episode from the late nig...
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 8069075
- author: JimmyKimmelLive
5:05
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a hal...
published: 31 Aug 2011
author: Ryan Lewis
MACKLEMORE X RYAN LEWIS - OTHERSIDE REMIX FEAT. FENCES [MUSIC VIDEO]
The Otherside Remix Music Video was filmed in various locations for about a year and a half throughout 2010-2011. It is the duo's second video collaboration ...
- published: 31 Aug 2011
- views: 24211677
- author: Ryan Lewis
photo: Flickr
17 May 2013
17 May 2013, 17.17. Bunga Bunga. Berlusconi 'Prostitute' In Court. Tweet. A teenage former belly dancer who denies having sex with former Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi has given her version of events at his allegedly raunchy "bunga bunga" parties ... Prosecutors claim that Miss El Mahroug was 17 when she was paid by the politician for sex and he is on trial separately in relation to that accusation ... She added ... She added ... She said....(size: 5.8Kb)
photo: AP / Misha Japaridze
18 May 2013
The US has scolded Russia for sending missiles to the Syrian government, with plans for an international peace conference promoted by the two major powers appearing to founder on diplomatic rifts over its scope and purpose. General Martin Dempsey, the most senior US military officer, has described Russia's recent delivery of anti-ship missiles to President Bashar al-Assad as "ill-timed and very unfortunate" ... Report....(size: 7.6Kb)
photo: AP / Jerome Favre
18 May 2013
(Adds Elon Musk details in the 13th paragraph.). May 17 (Bloomberg) -- Bill Gates is once again the world’s richest person. The 57-year-old co-founder of Redmond, Washington-based Microsoft Corp. recaptured the title from Mexican investor Carlos Slim yesterday, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, as the software maker hit a five-year high. It is the first time Gates has held the mantle since 2007 ... He denies the accusation....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: White House / Pete Souza
17 May 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. There appears to be a curse stalking second term presidents, specifically starting with Presidents Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon and continuing through to President Barack Obama. President Obama's malevolent shadow, namely Benghazigate, IRSgate and the more recent APgate, have almost utterly enveloped him and his administration ... President Obama's second term is also unraveling....(size: 5.6Kb)
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Denver Post
19 May 2013
First lady Michelle Obama thanks Mustapha Williams, left, after he introduced her to give the commencement address to graduates of Martin Luther King, Jr ... (AP . Mark Humphrey). NASHVILLE, Tenn ... Obama spoke for 22 minutes to the Martin Luther King Jr ... ....(size: 1.2Kb)
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Herald Tribune
19 May 2013
SARASOTA - A man was shot as fights broke out in north Sarasota early Saturday morning, attracting a crowd of a few hundred people to Dr. Martin Luther King Way at about 3.30 a.m., according to a Sarasota Police news release ... Markeith V ... Martin Luther King Jr. Way ... The shooter has not been identified ... Martin Luther King Way at about 3.30 a.m., according to a Sarasota Police news release ... Martin Luther King Jr. Way ... Restricted use only ... More......(size: 5.0Kb)
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Denver Post
19 May 2013
WASHINGTON—President Barack Obama is delivering the commencement address at Morehouse College, the historically black, all-male institution that counts Martin Luther King Jr. among its alumni ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
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Seattle Post
19 May 2013
... is delivering the commencement address at Morehouse College, the historically black, all-male institution that counts Martin Luther King Jr....(size: 0.7Kb)
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The Washington Post
19 May 2013
WASHINGTON — President Barack Obama is delivering the commencement address at Morehouse College, the historically black, all-male institution that counts Martin Luther King Jr. among its alumni ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
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The Leaf Chronicle
19 May 2013
NASHVILLE, TENN. — First lady Michelle Obama has some advice for some Tennessee high school graduates. Strike your own path in college and life and work to overcome inevitable failures with determination and grit. Mrs. Obama spoke for 22 minutes to the graduates of Martin Luther King Jr. Academic Magnet High School on Saturday in her only high school commencement address this year ... My message to all of you today is this ... Mrs ... My No....(size: 2.7Kb)
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RoadRunner
19 May 2013
If you watch Mad Men on AMC, you’re familiar with 1960s ad man Don Draper (Jon Hamm), with his dubious past (shades of the Principal Skinner episode on The Simpsons) and tumultuous life ... But is Mad Men in danger of becoming Bad Men as it ages? Here are five ways to fix it before it’s too late. ... We see the characters’ lives play out amidst historical events like the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)
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The News & Observer
19 May 2013
Philosophy. The God Argument. The Case Against Religion and for Humanism. A.C. Grayling ... Yet if I were to assert that the future of the human race depends on abolishing all these religions, what would that make me? ... Thus, without having to name names, he casually glosses over the faith of Martin Luther King Jr., Maximilian Kolbe, Desmond Tutu, Dietrich Bonhoeffer and anyone else who doesn’t fit into his simplistic model of piety....(size: 4.0Kb)
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The Examiner
19 May 2013
They are calling the manner of his death a homicide. Still, police said Mr. Eddie Williams, Jr. was the one who forced his way into the family’s house early Friday morning in southwest Atlanta. And police said it was the 43-year-old man’s teenage son who came to the rescue when the man had gotten into a fight with his mother ... officers responded to a home at 1377 Martin Luther King Jr., Drive regarding a home invasion, Atlanta police said....(size: 5.5Kb)
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Rocky Mount Telegram
19 May 2013
The North Carolina chapter of the NAACP is spearheading a weekly series of protests at the state legislature called “Moral Mondays” directed against Republican-supported bills such as tax reform and voter ID ... William Barber, head of the N.C ... Uh, no ... Of course not ... Gandhi urged his supporters to protest injustice “by breaking the law and by peacefully submitting to arrest and imprisonment.” Martin Luther King Jr ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
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Huffington Post
19 May 2013
Theaster Gates is a wonderfully intelligent artist, sensitive and fully capable of pushing paradigms across international borders ... This is a wonderful overview ... I was surprised to find out that he was a sensitive insightful photographer who document much of the turmoil and angst that embroiled Chicago in 1968, from the Democratic Convention, to the protests that ensued after the assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy ... ....(size: 4.0Kb)
"Martin Luther King" and "MLK" redirect here. For other uses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and MLK (disambiguation).
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement.[1] He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the teachings of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.[2] King has become a national icon in the history of modern American liberalism.[3]
A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career.[4] He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. King's efforts led to the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.
In 1964, King became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other nonviolent means. By the time of his death in 1968, he had refocused his efforts on ending poverty and stopping the Vietnam War.
King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977 and Congressional Gold Medal in 2004; Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a U.S. federal holiday in 1986.
Early life and education[link]
For more details on this topic, see Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, the middle child of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King.[5] King Jr. had an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King.[6]:76 King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind.[7]
King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity's claims.[8] Most striking, perhaps, was his initial denial of the bodily resurrection of Jesus during Sunday school at the age of thirteen. From this point, he stated, "doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly".[9] However, he later concluded that the Bible has "many profound truths which one cannot escape" and decided to enter the seminary.[8]
Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grade and entered Morehouse College at age fifteen without formally graduating from high school.[10] In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1951.[11][12] King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama.[13] They became the parents of four children; Yolanda King, Martin Luther King III, Dexter Scott King, and Bernice King.[14] King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five years old, in 1954.[15] King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology at Boston University and received his Doctor of Philosophy on June 5, 1955, with a dissertation on "A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman". A 1980s inquiry concluded portions of his dissertation had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly but that his dissertation still "makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship",[16][17][18]
Influences[link]
Thurman[link]
Civil rights leader, theologian, and educator Howard Thurman was an early influence on King. A classmate of King's father at Morehouse College,[19] Thurman mentored the young King and his friends.[20] Thurman's missionary work had taken him abroad where he had met and conferred with Mahatma Gandhi.[21] When he was a student at Boston University, King often visited Thurman, who was the dean of Marsh Chapel.[22] Walter Fluker, who has studied Thurman's writings, has stated, "I don't believe you'd get a Martin Luther King, Jr. without a Howard Thurman".[23]
Gandhi and Rustin[link]
With assistance from the Quaker group the American Friends Service Committee, and inspired by Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, King visited Gandhi's birthplace in India in 1959.[6]:3 The trip to India affected King in a profound way, deepening his understanding of non-violent resistance and his commitment to America's struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, "Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity. In a real sense, Mahatma Gandhi embodied in his life certain universal principles that are inherent in the moral structure of the universe, and these principles are as inescapable as the law of gravitation."[6]:135–6 African American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin had studied Gandhi's teachings.[24] Rustin counseled King to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence,[25] served as King's main advisor and mentor throughout his early activism,[26] and was the main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington.[27] Rustin's open homosexuality, support of democratic socialism, and his former ties to the Communist Party USA caused many white and African-American leaders to demand King distance himself from Rustin.[28]
Public stance on political parties[link]
As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: "I feel someone must remain in the position of non-alignment, so that he can look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either."[29]
In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither party was perfect, saying, "I don't think the Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricably bound to either party."[30]
King critiqued both parties' performance on promoting racial equality:
Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by both the Republican and the Democratic party. The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulating to the whims and caprices of the Southern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of reactionary right wing northern Republicans. And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and right wing reactionary northern Republicans defeats every bill and every move towards liberal legislation in the area of civil rights.[31]
Personal political advocacy[link]
Although King never publicly supported a political party or candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights supporter in October 1956 he said that he was undecided as to whether he would vote for the Adlai Stevenson or Dwight Eisenhower, but that "In the past I always voted the Democratic ticket."[32]
In his autobiography, King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy: "I felt that Kennedy would make the best president. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did, but I never made one." King adds that he likely would have made an exception to his non-endorsement policy in 1964, saying "Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have endorsed him in 1964."[33]
Sermons and speeches[link]
Main article: Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
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All I'm saying is simply this, that all life is interrelated, that somehow we're caught in an inescapable network of mutuality tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly affects all indirectly. For some strange reason, I can never be what I ought to be until you are what you ought to be. You can never be what you ought to be until I am what I ought to be. This is the interrelated structure of reality.—Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.[34]
Throughout his career of service, King wrote and spoke frequently, drawing on his experience as a preacher. His "Letter from Birmingham Jail", written in 1963, is a "passionate" statement of his crusade for justice.[35] His I Have a Dream speech is a 17 minute public speech delivered on August 28, 1963, in which he called for racial equality and an end to discrimination. On October 14, 1964, King became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which was awarded to him for leading non-violent resistance to racial prejudice in the United States.[36]
Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955[link]
In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in compliance with the Jim Crow laws. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue.[37] On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat.[38] The Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soon followed.[39] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[40] and the situation became so tense that King's house was bombed.[41] King was arrested during this campaign, which ended with a United States District Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses.[6]:9[42]:53
Southern Christian Leadership Conference[link]
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, and other civil rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the service of civil rights reform. King led the SCLC until his death.[43]
On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his book Stride Toward Freedom in Blumstein's department store on 125th Street, in Harlem,[44][45] King was stabbed in the chest with a letter opener by Izola Curry, a deranged black woman, and narrowly escaped death.[46]
Gandhi's nonviolent techniques were useful to King's campaign to change the civil rights laws implemented in Alabama.[47] King applied non-violent philosophy to the protests organized by the SCLC. In 1959, he wrote The Measure of A Man, from which the piece What is Man?, an attempt to sketch the optimal political, social, and economic structure of society, is derived.[48] His SCLC secretary and personal assistant in this period was Dora McDonald.
The FBI, under written directive from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began telephone tapping King in the fall of 1963.[49] Concerned that allegations (of Communists in the SCLC), if made public, would derail the Administration's civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled to issue the written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.[50] J Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights Movement, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on tape over the next five years in attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadership position.[51]
King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s.[52][53]
King organized and led marches for blacks' right to vote, desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[42]:85 Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the law of the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[54][55]
King and the SCLC put into practice many of the principles of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent.[56]:190
Albany movement[link]
Main article: Albany movement
The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia in November 1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broad-front nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When King first visited on December 15, 1961, he "had planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel."[9][page needed] But the following day he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined bail until the city made concessions. "Those agreements", said King, "were dishonored and violated by the city," as soon as he left town[9][page needed]. King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to forty-five days in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into his sentence, Chief Pritchett discreetly arranged for King's fine to be paid and ordered his release. "We had witnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools... ejected from churches... and thrown into jail... But for the first time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail."[9][page needed]
After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King requested a halt to all demonstrations and a "Day of Penance" to promote non-violence and maintain the moral high ground. Divisions within the black community and the canny, low-key response by local government defeated efforts.[56]:190–3 However, it was credited as a key lesson in tactics for the national civil rights movement.[57]
Birmingham campaign[link]
Main article: Birmingham campaign
The Birmingham campaign was a strategic effort by the SCLC to promote civil rights for African Americans. Many of its tactics of "Project C" were developed by Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker, Executive Director of SCLC from 1960–64. Based on actions in Birmingham, Alabama, its goal was to end the city's segregated civil and discriminatory economic policies. The campaign lasted for more than two months in the spring of 1963. To provoke the police into filling the city's jails to overflowing, King and black citizens of Birmingham employed nonviolent tactics to flout laws they considered unfair. King summarized the philosophy of the Birmingham campaign when he said, "The purpose of ... direct action is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation".[58]
Protests in Birmingham began with a boycott to pressure businesses to offer sales jobs and other employment to people of all races, as well as to end segregated facilities in the stores. When business leaders resisted the boycott, King and the SCLC began what they termed Project C, a series of sit-ins and marches intended to provoke arrest. After the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, SCLC's strategist, James Bevel, initiated the action and recruited the children for what became known as the "Children's Crusade". During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene "Bull" Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs to control protesters, including children. Not all of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harm's way. By the end of the campaign, King's reputation improved immensely, Connor lost his job, the "Jim Crow" signs in Birmingham came down, and public places became more open to blacks.[59]
St. Augustine, Florida, and Selma, Alabama[link]
King and SCLC were also driving forces behind the protest in St. Augustine, Florida, in 1964.[60] The movement engaged in nightly marches in the city met by white segregationists who violently assaulted them. Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed.
King and the SCLC joined forces with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, in December 1964, where SNCC had been working on voter registration for several months.[61] A sweeping injunction issued by a local judge barred any gathering of 3 or more people under sponsorship of SNCC, SCLC, or DCVL, or with the involvement of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2, 1965.[62]
March on Washington, 1963[link]
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
King, representing SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called "Big Six" civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising the Big Six were: Roy Wilkins from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr. of the Congress of Racial Equality.[63] The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King's colleague Bayard Rustin.[64] For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of President John F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[65][66] Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation, but the organizers were firm that the march would proceed.[67]
The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern United States and a very public opportunity to place organizers' concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation's capital. Organizers intended to denounce and then challenge the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks, generally, in the South. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone.[68] As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the "Farce on Washington," and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from attending the march.[68][69]
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30-second sample from "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963
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The march did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee.[70][71][72] Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success. More than a quarter million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington's history.[73] King's "I Have a Dream" speech electrified the crowd. It is regarded, along with Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and Franklin D. Roosevelt's Infamy Speech, as one of the finest speeches in the history of American oratory.[74]
The March, and especially King's speech, helped put civil rights at the very top of the liberal political agenda in the United States and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[75][76]
Stance on compensation[link]
Martin Luther King Jr. expressed a view that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups. He posited that "the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils".[77]:365–7 He presented this idea as an application of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, "It should benefit the disadvantaged of all races".[77]:367–8
"Bloody Sunday", 1965[link]
Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
King, James Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery, for March 7, 1965. The first attempt to march on March 7 was aborted because of mob and police violence against the demonstrators. This day has since become known as Bloody Sunday. Bloody Sunday was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement, the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King's nonviolence strategy. King, however, was not present. King met with officials in the Johnson administration on March 5 in order to request an injunction against any prosecution of the demonstrators. He did not attend the march due to church duties, but he later wrote, "If I had any idea that the state troopers would use the kind of brutality they did, I would have felt compelled to give up my church duties altogether to lead the line."[9]:276–9 Footage of police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national public outrage.[42]:222–3
King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the judge issued an order blocking the march until after a hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, then held a short prayer session before turning the marchers around and asking them to disperse so as not to violate the court order. The unexpected ending of this second march aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement.[42]:223 The march finally went ahead fully on March 25, 1965.[78][79] At the conclusion of the march and on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech that has become known as "How Long, Not Long".[80]
Chicago, 1966[link]
In 1966, after several successes in the South, King and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as its first destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middle class, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin Ave., in the slums of North Lawndale[81] on the West Side of Chicago, as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor.[82]:360–2
The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organization founded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations' efforts were fostered under the aegis of The Chicago Freedom Movement.[83]:1 During that spring, several dual white couple/black couple tests on real estate offices uncovered the practice (now banned in the U.S.) of racial steering. These tests revealed the racially selective processing of housing requests by couples who were exact matches in income, background, number of children, and other attributes, with the only difference being their race.[82]:347
The needs of the movement for radical change grew, and several larger marches were planned and executed, including those in the following neighborhoods: Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest of Chicago), Gage Park and Marquette Park among others.[82]:416[83]:1[84]
In Chicago, Abernathy later wrote that they received a worse reception than they had in the South. Their marches, especially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, 1966, were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs, and they were truly afraid of starting a riot.[85][86] King's beliefs militated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would result from the demonstration.[87] King, who received death threats throughout his involvement in the civil rights movement, was hit by a brick during one march but continued to lead marches in the face of personal danger.[88]
When King and his allies returned to the south, they left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previously joined the movement in the South, in charge of their organization.[89] Jackson continued their struggle for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbasket movement that targeted chain stores that did not deal fairly with blacks.[90]
Opposition to the Vietnam War[link]
Starting in 1965, King began to express doubts about the United States' role in the Vietnam War. In an April 4, 1967 appearance at the New York City Riverside Church—exactly one year before his death—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam".[91] He spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, insisting that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony"[92]:107 and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today".[92]:102 He also argued that the country needed larger and broader moral changes:
A true revolution of values will soon look uneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and wealth. With righteous indignation, it will look across the seas and see individual capitalists of the West investing huge sums of money in Asia, Africa and South America, only to take the profits out with no concern for the social betterment of the countries, and say: "This is not just."[92]:109
King also was opposed to the Vietnam War on the grounds that the war took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare services like the War on Poverty. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, "A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death".[92]:109
King's opposition cost him significant support among white allies, including President Johnson, union leaders and powerful publishers. "The press is being stacked against me," King complained.[93] Life magazine called the speech "demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Hanoi",[92]:109 and The Washington Post declared that King had "diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, his people."[94]:148
King stated that North Vietnam "did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands".[92]:106 King also criticized the United States' resistance to North Vietnam's land reforms.[95] He accused the United States of having killed a million Vietnamese, "mostly children."[96]
The speech was a reflection of King's evolving political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the teachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Education Center, with whom King was affiliated.[97][98] King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation. Towards the time of his murder, King more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice.[99] Though his public language was guarded, so as to avoid being linked to communism by his political enemies, in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism. In one speech, he stated that "something is wrong with capitalism" and claimed, "There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism."[100]
King had read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected "traditional capitalism," he also rejected Communism because of its "materialistic interpretation of history" that denied religion, its "ethical relativism," and its "political totalitarianism."[101]
King also stated, in his "Beyond Vietnam", speech that "true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar ... it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring".[102]:122 King quoted a United States official who said that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was "on the wrong side of a world revolution."[102]:122 King condemned America's "alliance with the landed gentry of Latin America," and said that the United States should support "the shirtless and barefoot people" in the Third World rather than suppressing their attempts at revolution.[102]:122–3
King spoke at an Anti-Vietnam demonstration where he also brought up issues of civil rights and the draft.
I have not urged a mechanical fusion of the civil rights and peace movements. There are people who have come to see the moral imperative of equality, but who cannot yet see the moral imperative of world brotherhood. I would like to see the fervor of the civil-rights movement imbued into the peace movement to instill it with greater strength. And I believe everyone has a duty to be in both the civil-rights and peace movements. But for those who presently choose but one, I would hope they will finally come to see the moral roots common to both.[103]
In 1967, King gave another speech, in which he lashed out against what he called the "cruel irony" of American blacks fighting and dying for a country which treated them as second class citizens:
We were taking the young black men who had been crippled by our society and sending them eight thousand miles away to guarantee liberties which they had not found in Southwest Georgia and East Harlem. ... We have been repeatedly faced with the cruel irony of watching Negro and white boys on TV screens as they kill and die together for a nation that has been unable to seat them in the same schools.[104][105]
On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnson's State of the Union Address, King called for a large march on Washington against "one of history's most cruel and senseless wars".[106][107]
We need to make clear in this political year, to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and to the president of the United States, that we will no longer tolerate, we will no longer vote for men who continue to see the killings of Vietnamese and Americans as the best way of advancing the goals of freedom and self-determination in Southeast Asia.[106][107]
Poor People's Campaign, 1968[link]
Main article: Poor People's Campaign
In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of economic justice. The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the United States. King traveled the country to assemble "a multiracial army of the poor" that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created a bill of rights for poor Americans.[108][109]
However, the campaign was not unanimously supported by other leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. Rustin resigned from the march stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, the demands unrealizable, and thought these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black.[110] Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks and such prominent critics as Nation of Islam member Malcolm X.[111] Stokely Carmichael was a separatist and disagreed with King's plea for racial integration because he considered it an insult to a uniquely African-American culture.[112] Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force.[113]
King and the SCLC called on the government to invest in rebuilding America's cities. He felt that Congress had shown "hostility to the poor" by spending "military funds with alacrity and generosity". He contrasted this with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming that Congress had merely provided "poverty funds with miserliness".[109] His vision was for change that was more revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic flaws of "racism, poverty, militarism and materialism", and argued that "reconstruction of society itself is the real issue to be faced".[94]:148–9
Assassination and its aftermath[link]
Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
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Final 30 seconds of "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.
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On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee, in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received pay for two hours when they were sent home because of bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full day.[114][115][116]
On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" address at Mason Temple, the world headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. King's flight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb threat against his plane.[117] In the close of the last speech of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said the following:
And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers? Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. So I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.[118]
King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. The Reverend Ralph Abernathy, King's close friend and colleague who was present at the assassination, testified under oath to the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations that King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the "King-Abernathy suite."[119]
According to Jesse Jackson, who was present, King's last words on the balcony prior to his assassination were spoken to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending: "Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty."[120]
Then, at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, a shot rang out as King stood on the motel's second floor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw, then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his shoulder.[121][122] Abernathy heard the shot from inside the motel room and ran to the balcony to find King on the floor.[123] The events following the shooting have been disputed, as some people have accused Jackson of exaggerating his response.[124]
After emergency chest surgery, King was pronounced dead at St. Joseph's Hospital at 7:05 p.m.[125] According to biographer Taylor Branch, King's autopsy revealed that though only 39 years old, he had the heart of a 60-year-old man, perhaps a result of the stress of 13 years in the civil rights movement.[126][clarification needed]
The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race riots in Washington D.C., Chicago, Baltimore, Louisville, Kentucky, Kansas City, and dozens of other cities.[127][128] Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy was on his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he was informed of King's death. He gave a short speech to the gathering of supporters informing them of the tragedy and urging them to continue King's ideal of non-violence.[129] James Farmer, Jr. and other civil rights leaders also called for non-violent action,[130] while the more militant Stokely Carmichael called for a more forceful response.[130]
President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national day of mourning for the civil rights leader.[131] Vice-President Hubert Humphrey attended King's funeral on behalf of the President, as there were fears that Johnson's presence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[132]
At his widow's request, King's last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church was played at the funeral,[133] a recording of his "Drum Major" sermon, given on February 4, 1968. In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to "feed the hungry", "clothe the naked", "be right on the [Vietnam] war question", and "love and serve humanity".[134] His good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, "Take My Hand, Precious Lord", at the funeral.[135]
The city of Memphis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers.[136][137]
Two months after King's death, escaped convict James Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd on his way to white-ruled Rhodesia.[138] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with King's murder. He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this confession three days later.[139] On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pleaded guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. Ray was sentenced to a 99-year prison term.[139][140] Ray fired Foreman as his attorney, from then on derisively calling him "Percy Fourflusher".[141] He claimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias "Raoul" was involved and that the assassination was the result of a conspiracy.[142][143] He spent the remainder of his life attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had.[140] On June 10, 1977, shortly after Ray had testified to the House Select Committee on Assassinations that he did not shoot King, he and six other convicts escaped from Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary in Petros, Tennessee. They were recaptured on June 13 and returned to prison.[144]
Allegations of conspiracy[link]
Ray's lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to the way that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists.[145] One of the claims used to support this assertion is that Ray's confession was given under pressure, and he had been threatened with the death penalty.[140][146] Ray was a thief and burglar, but he had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon.[143]
Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point to the two successive ballistics tests which while proving that a rifle similar to Ray's Remington Gamemaster had been the murder weapon, did not prove that his specific rifle had been the one used.[140][147] Moreover, witnesses surrounding King at the moment of his death say the shot came from another location, from behind thick shrubbery near the rooming house—which had been inexplicably cut away in the days following the assassination—and not from the rooming house window.[148]
In 1997, King's son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and publicly supported Ray's efforts to obtain a new trial.[149] Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King's widow, along with the rest of King's family, won a wrongful death claim against Loyd Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators". Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King's assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found Jowers guilty and that government agencies were party to the assassination.[150] William F. Pepper represented the King family in the trial.[151]
In 2000, the United States Department of Justice completed the investigation about Jowers' claims but did not find evidence to support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommended no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented.[152] In 2002, The New York Times reported a church minister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson—not James Earl Ray—assassinated Martin Luther King, Jr. He stated, "It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way." Wilson provided no evidence to back up his claims.[153] King biographer David Garrow disagrees with William F. Pepper's claims that the government killed King. He is supported by author Gerald Posner who has researched and written about the assassination.[154] In 2003, William Pepper published a book about the long investigation and trial, as well as his representation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, laying out the evidence and refuting other accounts.[155]
King's friend and colleague, James Bevel, disputed the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, "There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar black man."[156] In 2004, Jesse Jackson, who was with King at the time of his death, noted:
The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on the government payroll. So infiltration within, saboteurs from without and the press attacks. ... I will never believe that James Earl Ray had the motive, the money and the mobility to have done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the escape route for James Earl Ray.[157]
Personality and public image[link]
FBI surveillance and wiretapping[link]
J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, for years had been suspicious about potential influence of communists in social movements such as labor unions and civil rights.[158] Hoover directed the FBI to track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did not have a full-time executive director until 1960);[51] its investigations were largely superficial until 1962, when it learned that one of King's most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison. The FBI found Levison had been involved with the Communist Party USA.[159]: 233 The FBI feared Levison was working as an "agent of influence" over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 that Levison had left the Party and was no longer associated in business dealings with them.[159]:71–3[159]:70–4 Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).[160] However, by 1976 the FBI had acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence that King himself or the SCLC were actually involved with any communist organizations.[161]
The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the fall of 1963[162] and informed President John F. Kennedy, both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissociate himself from Levison.[163] Although Robert Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so",[164]:372 Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy.[164]:372–4 The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levison's and King's home and office phones, and bugged King's rooms in hotels as he traveled across the country.[163][165]
For his part, King adamantly denied having any connections to Communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interview that "there are as many Communists in this freedom movement as there are Eskimos in Florida",[77]:362 and claiming that Hoover was "following the path of appeasement of political powers in the South" and that his concern for communist infiltration of the civil rights movement was meant to "aid and abet the salacious claims of southern racists and the extreme right-wing elements".[161] Hoover did not believe his pledge of innocence and replied by saying that King was "the most notorious liar in the country."[166] After King gave his "I Have A Dream" speech during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, the FBI described King as "the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in the country".[165] They alleged that King was "knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating with and taking guidance from communists".[159]:83
The attempt to prove that King was a Communist was related to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred up by "communists" and "outside agitators".[167] However, the civil rights movement arose from activism within the black community dating back to before World War I. King said that "the Negro revolution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb that produces all massive social upheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unendurable situations."[77]:363
Allegations of adultery[link]
Having concluded that King was dangerous due to communist infiltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to discredit King through revelations regarding his private life. FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public, attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numerous extramarital affairs.[165] Lyndon Johnson once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher".[168] Ralph Abernathy, a close associate of King's, stated in his 1989 autobiography And the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a "weakness for women".[169] In a later interview, Abernathy said he only wrote the term "womanizing", did not specifically say King had extramarital sex and that the infidelities King had were emotional rather than sexual.[170][171] King's biographer David Garrow wrote about a number of extramarital affairs, including one woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, "that relationship, rather than his marriage, increasingly became the emotional centerpiece of King's life, but it did not eliminate the incidental couplings...of King's travels." King explained his extramarital affairs as "a form of anxiety reduction." Garrow noted that King's promiscuity was the cause of "painful and overwhelming guilt".[172]
The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family.[173] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work.[174] One anonymous letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part, "The American public, the church organizations that have been helping—Protestants, Catholics and Jews will know you for what you are—an evil beast. So will others who have backed you. You are done. King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have just 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a specific reason, it has definite practical significant [sic]). You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy fraudulent self is bared to the nation."[175] King interpreted this as encouragement for him to commit suicide,[176] although William Sullivan, head of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it may have only been intended to "convince Dr. King to resign from the SCLC."[161] King refused to give in to the FBI's threats.[177] Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr. in 1977 ordered that all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the FBI's electronic surveillance of King between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National Archives and sealed from public access until 2027.[178]
Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding house in which James Earl Ray was staying, was a fire station. Police officers were stationed in the fire station to keep King under surveillance.[179] Using papered-over windows with peepholes cut into them, the agents were watching the scene while Martin Luther King was shot.[180] Immediately following the shooting, officers rushed out of the station to the motel, and Marrell McCollough, an undercover police officer, was the first person to administer first aid to King.[181] The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find the killer, and the police presence nearby have led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the assassination.[182]
Legacy[link]
King's main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States. Just days after King's assassination, the U.S. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[183] Title VIII of the Act, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination in housing and housing-related transactions on the basis of race, religion, or national origin (later expanded to include sex, familial status, and disability). This legislation is seen as a fitting tribute to King's struggle in his final years to combat residential discrimination in the U.S.[183]
King continues to be frequently referenced as a human rights icon. His name and legacy have often been invoked since his death as people have debated his likely position on various modern political issues.
On the international scene, King's legacy included influences on the Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Movement in South Africa.[184][185] King's work was cited by and served as an inspiration for South African leader Albert Lutuli, another black Nobel Peace prize winner who fought for racial justice in his country.[6]:307–8 The day following King's assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first "Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes" exercise with her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was to help them understand King's death as it related to racism, something they little understood from having lived in a predominately white community.[186]
King's wife, Coretta Scott King, followed her husband's footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide.[187] Their son, Dexter King, currently serves as the center's chairman.[188][189] Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training.[190]
There are opposing views, even within the King family, of the slain civil rights leader's religious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. King's widow Coretta said publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights. However, his daughter Bernice believed he would have been opposed to gay marriage.[191] The King Center includes discrimination, and lists homophobia as one of its examples, in its list of "The Triple Evils" that should be opposed.[192]
In 1980, the Department of Interior designated King's boyhood home in Atlanta and several nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site. In 1996, United States Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the Mall in Washington, D.C.[193] King was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, established by and for African Americans.[194] King was the first African American honored with his own memorial in the National Mall area and the first non-President to be commemorated in such a way.[195] The King Memorial will be administered by the National Park Service.[196]
King's life and assassination inspired many artistic works. A 1976 Broadway production, I Have a Dream, was directed by Robert Greenwald and starred Billy Dee Williams as King.[197] In spring of 2006, a stage play Passages of Martin Luther King about King was produced in Beijing, China with King portrayed by Chinese actor, Cao Li. The play was written by Stanford University professor, Clayborne Carson.[198][199]
King spoke earlier about what people should remember him for if they are around for his funeral. He said rather than his awards and where he went to school, people should talk about how he fought peacefully for justice:
I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life serving others. I'd like for somebody to say that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love somebody.I want you to say that day that I tried to be right on the war question. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try in my life to clothe those who were naked. I want you to say on that day that I did try in my life to visit those who were in prison. And I want you to say that I tried to love and serve humanity.
Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum major. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Say that I was a drum major for peace. I was a drum major for righteousness. And all of the other shallow things will not matter.[130]
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day[link]
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King's birthday.[200][201] On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states.[202] Arizona (1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognize the holiday.[203]
Awards and recognition[link]
King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the U.S. and elsewhere.[204][205] Besides winning the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, in 1965 King was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the American Jewish Committee for his "exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty".[205][206][207] In his acceptance remarks, King said, "Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you are not free."[208] King was also awarded the Pacem in Terris Award, named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII calling for all people to strive for peace.[209]
In 1959, King was awarded the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story.[210]
In 1966, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret Sanger Award for "his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity".[211] King was posthumously awarded the Marcus Garvey Prize for Human Rights by Jamaica in 1968.[204]
In 1971, King was posthumously awarded the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam.[212] Six years later, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was awarded to King by Jimmy Carter. King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004.[213]
King was second in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.[214] In 1963, King was named Time Person of the Year and in 2000, King was voted sixth in the Person of the Century poll by the same magazine.[215] King was elected third in the Greatest American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel and AOL.[216]
More than 730 cities in the United States have streets named after King.[217] King County, Washington rededicated its name in his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image of his face in 2007.[218] The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King.[219] King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (feast day April 4)[220][221] and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (feast day January 15).[222]
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed King on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[223]
In 2011, comparing the record of the leaderless Occupy movement in creating meaningful change with the civil rights movement, Malcolm Gladwell described King as "one of the foremost tacticians of the 20th century." [224]
Capital memorial[link]
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial
A memorial to King has been constructed along the Tidal Basin at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., by the Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. The official address of the monument, 1964 Independence Avenue, S.W., commemorates the year that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law.[225]
Film portrayals[link]
Martin Luther King, Jr. has been portrayed in film and television through the years. He has been portrayed by:
- Raymond St. Jacques in The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover (1977)
- Paul Winfield in King (1978)
- James Earl Jones in Freedom to Speak (1982)
- Charles Brown in Kennedy (1983)
- Fred Perron and Walter Franks in The Boy King (1986) which focuses on King's early life.
- Leland Gantt in Hoover vs. the Kennedys: The Second Civil War (1987)
- Larry Riley in Unconquered (1989)
- Eric Ware in The Vernon Johns Story (1994)
- Voiced by his son Dexter Scott King and Jaleel White in the animated biography Our Friend, Martin (1999)
- Reuben Yabuku in Timequest (2000)
- Jeffrey Wright in Boycott (2001)
- LeVar Burton in Ali (2001)
- Portrayed again by his son Dexter Scott King in The Rosa Parks Story (2002)
Bibliography[link]
- Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958) ISBN 978-0-06-250490-6
- The Measure of a Man (1959) ISBN 978-0-8006-0877-4
- Strength to Love (1963) ISBN 978-0-8006-9740-2
- Why We Can't Wait (1964) ISBN 978-0-8070-0112-7
- Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1967) ISBN 978-0-8070-0571-2
- The Trumpet of Conscience (1968) ISBN 978-0-8070-0170-7
- A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1986) ISBN 978-0-06-250931-4
- The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1998), ed. Clayborne Carson ISBN 978-0-446-67650-2
- "All Labor Has Dignity" (2011) ed. Michael Honey ISBN 978-0-8070-8600-1
- "Thou, Dear God": Prayers That Open Hearts and Spirits Collection of Dr. King's prayers. (2011), ed. Dr. Lewis Baldwin ISBN 978-0-8070-8603-2
- MLK: A Celebration in Word and Image Photographed by Bob Adelman, introduced by Charles Johnson ISBN 978-0-8070-0316-9
See also[link]
- Anti-racism
- American philosophy
- Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues
- Christian left
- Christian pacifism
- Christian radicalism
- Equal opportunity
- List of African Americans
- List of American philosophers
- List of black Nobel Laureates
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients
- List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates
- List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.
- Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
- Racism in the United States
- Religious leaders by year
- Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Notes[link]
- ^ Schlesinger, Arthur M. (2002) [1965], A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House, p. xiv .
- ^ D'Souza, Placido P. (January 20, 2003). "Commemorating Martin Luther King Jr.: Gandhi's influence on King". San Francisco Chronicle. http://articles.sfgate.com/2003-01-20/opinion/17474454_1_nonviolence-philosophy-king.
- ^ Krugman, Paul R. (2009), The Conscience of a Liberal, p. 84 .
- ^ Lischer, Richard. (2001). The Preacher King, p. 3.
- ^ Ogletree, Charles J. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education. WW Norton & Co. p. 138. ISBN 0-393-05897-2.
- ^ a b c d e King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph; Russell, Penny A. (1992). The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07950-7.
- ^ Katznelson, Ira (2005). When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. WW Norton & Co. p. 5. ISBN 0-393-05213-3.
- ^ a b "King’s God: The Unknown Faith of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr". Tikkun. 2001-11–2. http://www.tikkun.org/article.php/nov_dec_09_scofield. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
- ^ a b c d e King, Jr., Martin Luther (1998). Carson, Clayborne. ed. Autobiography. Warner Books. p. 6. ISBN 0-446-52412-3.
- ^ Ching, Jacqueline (2002). The Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 0-8239-3543-4.
- ^ Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
- ^ Nojeim, Michael J. (2004). Gandhi and King: The Power of Nonviolent Resistance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 179. ISBN 0-275-96574-0.
- ^ "Coretta Scott King". Daily Telegraph (UK). 2006-02-01. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1509338/Coretta-Scott-King.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
- ^ Fuller, Linda K. (2004). National Days, National Ways: Historical, Political, And Religious Celebrations around the World. Greenwood Publishing. p. 314. ISBN 0-275-97270-4.
- ^ Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 298. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ "Boston U. Panel Finds Plagiarism by Dr. King". The New York Times. 1991-10-11. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEFD61030F932A25753C1A967958260. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Heller, Steven; Vienne, Veronique (2003). Citizen Designer: Perspectives on Design Responsibility. Allworth Communications. p. 156. ISBN 1-58115-265-5.
- ^ Thurman, Howard (1981). With Head and Heart: The Autobiography of Howard Thurman. Harcourt. p. 254. ISBN 0-15-697648-X.
- ^ Thurman, Howard; Fluker, Walter E.; Tumber, Catherine (1998). A Strange Freedom: The Best of Howard Thurman on Religious Experience and Public Life. Beacon Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8070-1057-X.
- ^ Curtis, Nancy C. (1996). Black Heritage Sites: An African American Odyssey and Finder's Guide. ALA Editions. p. 62. ISBN 0-8389-0643-5.
- ^ Marsh, Charles (1999). God's Long Summer: Stories of Faith and Civil Rights. Princeton University Press. p. 122. ISBN 0-691-02940-7.
- ^ "The Legacy of Howard Thurman — Mystic and Theologian". Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. PBS. 2002-01-18. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week520/feature.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Kahlenberg, Richard D. (1997). "Book Review: Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen". Washington Monthly. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_n4_v29/ai_19279952. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
- ^ Farrell, James J. (1997). The Spirit of the Sixties: Making Postwar Radicalism. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 0-415-91385-3.
- ^ De Leon, David (1994). Leaders from the 1960s: a biographical sourcebook of American activism. Greenwood Publishing. p. 138. ISBN 0-313-27414-2.
- ^ Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-19-513674-8.
- ^ Oates, Stephen B. (December 13, 1993). Let the Trumpet Sound: A Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-06-092473-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=85fOOMQaNaQC&pg=PA159. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=qW-NYdIefPgC&pg=PA364. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2000). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-520-22231-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=qW-NYdIefPgC&pg=PA84. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (1992). Carson, Clayborne; Holloran, Peter; Luker, Ralph et al.. eds. The papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. University of California Press. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-520-07951-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=4ysIWgsSr9AC&pg=PA384. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; Carson, Clayborne (1998). The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. Hachette Digital. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=pynSnGuC964C&pg=PT187. Retrieved October 26, 2011.
- ^ Warren, Mervyn A.; Taylor, Gardner C. (2008). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-8308-3253-X
- ^ Galchutt, Kathryn M. (2005). The Career of Andrew Schulze, 1924–1968: Lutherans And Race in the Civil Rights Era. Mercer University Press. p. 194. ISBN 0-86554-946-X.
- ^ Wintle, Justin (2001). Makers of Modern Culture: Makers of Culture. Routledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-415-26583-5.
- ^ Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 103. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
- ^ "December 1, 1955: Rosa Parks arrested". CNN. 2003-03-11. http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/03/10/sprj.80.1955.parks/. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Walsh, Frank (2003). The Montgomery Bus Boycott. Gareth Stevens. p. 24. ISBN 0-8368-5403-9.
- ^ McMahon, Thomas F. (2004). Ethical Leadership Through Transforming Justice. University Press of America. p. 25. ISBN 0-7618-2908-3.
- ^ Fisk, Larry J.; Schellenberg, John (1999). Patterns of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Broadview Press. p. 115. ISBN 1-55111-154-3.
- ^ a b c d Jackson, Thomas F. (2007). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3969-5.
- ^ Marable, Manning; Mullings, Leith (2000). Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal: an African American Anthology. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 391–2. ISBN 0-8476-8346-X.
- ^ Pearson, Hugh (2002). When Harlem Nearly Killed King: The 1958 Stabbing of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8
- ^ Extract of Pearson. Google Books. 2004-01-01. ISBN 978-1-58322-614-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=wiuTfo66SO0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=harlem+1958+martin+luther+king+jr&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Vivian, Octavia (2006). Coretta: The Story of Coretta Scott King. Fortress Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-8006-3855-7.
- ^ "New Sitdowns Stir Violence in Tennessee". The Chicago Daily Tribune. April 12, 1960.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (1988). The Measure of a Man. Fortress Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8006-0877-1.
- ^ Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, Richard Gid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing. p. 148. ISBN 0-89774-991-X.
- ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s, Basic Books: New York, New York. ISBN 0-465-04195-7, p. 41
- ^ a b Theoharis, Athan G.; Poveda, Tony G.; Powers, Richard Gid; Rosenfeld, Susan (1999). The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 123. ISBN 0-89774-991-X.
- ^ Wilson, Joseph; Marable, Manning; Ness, Immanuel (2006). Race and Labor Matters in the New U.S. Economy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 47. ISBN 0-7425-4691-8.
- ^ Schofield, Norman (2006). Architects of Political Change: Constitutional Quandaries and Social Choice Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. ISBN 0-521-83202-0.
- ^ Shafritz, Jay M. (1998). International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration. Westview Press. p. 1242. ISBN 0-8133-9974-2.
- ^ Loevy, Robert D.; Humphrey, Hubert H.; Stewart, John G. (1997). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation. SUNY Press. p. 337. ISBN 0-7914-3361-7.
- ^ a b Glisson, Susan M. (2006). The Human Tradition in the Civil Rights Movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-4409-5.
- ^ "Albany, GA Movement". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis61.htm#1961albany. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Garrow, (1986) p. 246.
- ^ Harrell, David Edwin; Gaustad, Edwin S.; Miller, Randall M.; Boles, John B.; Woods, Randall Bennett; Griffith, Sally Foreman (2005). Unto a Good Land: A History of the American People, Volume 2. Wm B Eerdmans Publishing. p. 1055. ISBN 0-8028-2945-7.
- ^ Jones, Maxine D.; McCarthy, Kevin M. (1993). African Americans in Florida: An Illustrated History. Pineapple Press. pp. 113–5. ISBN 1-56164-031-X.
- ^ Haley, Alex (January 1965). "Martin Luther King". Interview (Playboy). http://www.playboy.com/arts-entertainment/features/mlk/. Retrieved 2008-08-27. [dead link]
- ^ "The Selma Injunction". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964selmainj. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1251. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ Cashman, Sean Dennis (1991). African-Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights, 1900–1990. NYU Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-8147-1441-2.
- ^ Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M. (2002) [1978]. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 351. ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
- ^ Marable, Manning (1991). Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1990. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 74. ISBN 0-87805-493-6.
- ^ Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary (2003). Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes. WW Norton & Co. p. 130. ISBN 0-393-05122-6.
- ^ a b Boggs, Grace Lee (1998). Living for Change: An Autobiography. U of Minnesota Press. p. 127. ISBN 0-8166-2955-2.
- ^ Aron, Paul (2005). Mysteries in History: From Prehistory to the Present. ABC-CLIO. p. 399. ISBN 1-85109-899-2.
- ^ Singleton, Carl; Wildin, Rowena (1999). The Sixties in America. Salem Press. p. 454. ISBN 0-89356-982-8.
- ^ Bennett, Scott H. (2003). Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press. p. 225. ISBN 0-8156-3003-4.
- ^ Davis, Danny (2007-01-16). "Celebrating the Birthday and Public Holiday for Martin Luther King, Jr.". Congressional Record (Library of Congress). http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r110:H16JA7-0046:. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Powers, Roger S.; Vogele, William B.; Kruegler, Christopher; McCarthy, Ronald M. (1997). Protest, power, and change: an encyclopedia of nonviolent action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage. Taylor & Francis. p. 313. ISBN 0-8153-0913-9.
- ^ Moore, Lucinda (2003-08-01). "Dream Assignment". Smithsonian. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/dream-speech.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945-1974 (Oxford University Press 1996) pp 482-85, 542-46
- ^ Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality (Hill and Wang; 2008) pp 152-53
- ^ a b c d Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael (2000). America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0-19-509190-6.
- ^ Azbell, Joe (1968). The Riotmakers. Oak Tree Books. p. 176.
- ^ Leeman, Richard W. (1996). African-American Orators: A Bio-critical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing. p. 220. ISBN 0-313-29014-8.
- ^ "North Lawndale". Encyclopedia. Chicago History. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/901.html. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ a b c Cohen, Adam Seth; Taylor, Elizabeth (2000). Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation. Back Bay. ISBN 0-316-83489-0.
- ^ a b Ralph, James (1993). Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-62687-7.
- ^ Fairclough, Adam (1987). To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King, Jr. University of Georgia Press. p. 299. ISBN 0-8203-2346-2.
- ^ Baty, Chris (2004). Chicago: City Guide. Lonely Planet. p. 52. ISBN 1-74104-032-9.
- ^ Stone, Eddie (1988). Jesse Jackson. Holloway House Publishing. pp. 59–60. ISBN 0-87067-840-X.
- ^ Lentz, Richard (1990). Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. p. 230. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice; Kazin, Michael (2000). America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-19-509190-6. See also: Miller, Keith D. (1998). Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Its Sources. University of Georgia Press. p. 139. ISBN 0-8203-2013-7.
- ^ Mis, Melody S. (2008). Meet Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 20. ISBN 1-4042-4209-0.
- ^ Slessarev, Helene (1997). The Betrayal of the Urban Poor. Temple University Press. p. 140. ISBN 1-56639-543-7.
- ^ Krenn, Michael L. (1998). The African American Voice in U.S. Foreign Policy Since World War II. Taylor & Francis. p. 29. ISBN 0-8153-3418-4.
- ^ a b c d e f Robbins, Mary Susannah (2007). Against the Vietnam War: Writings by Activists. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5914-9.
- ^ David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross (1986), pp. 440, 445.
- ^ a b Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M.; Patterson, James T. (2006). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5109-1.
- ^ Long, Michael G. (2002). Against Us, But for Us: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the State. Mercer University Press. p. 199. ISBN 0-86554-768-8.
- ^ Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 273. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ Harding; Rosenthal, Cindy (2006). Restaging the Sixties: Radical Theaters and Their Legacies. University of Michigan Press. p. 297. ISBN 0-472-06954-3.
- ^ Lentz, Richard (1990). Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King. LSU Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-8071-2524-5.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. p. 277. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ Franklin, Robert Michael (1990). Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought. Fortress Press. p. 125. ISBN 0-8006-2392-4.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther; King, Coretta Scott; King, Dexter Scott (1998). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Companion: Quotations from the Speeches, Essays, and Books of Martin Luther King, Jr. St. Martin's Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-312-19990-2.
- ^ a b c Zinn, Howard (2002). The Power of Nonviolence: Writings by Advocates of Peace. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-1407-9.
- ^ "1967 Year In Review". UPI. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1967/Protests/12303074818188-15/. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ The Americas: Reconstruction to the 21st Century. Atlas by Rand McNally
- ^ America's Vietnam War: A Narrative History
- ^ a b Kurlansky, Mark (2004). 1968. London, UK: Jonathan Cape (Random House). p. 46. ISBN 0-224-06251-4.
- ^ a b Robinson, Douglas (January 13, 1968). "Dr. King Calls for Antiwar Rally in Capital Feb. 5–6". The New York Times (New York): p. 4. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0B1EFD3C5E1A7B93C1A8178AD85F4C8685F9. Retrieved April 22, 2010.
- ^ Vigil, Ernesto B. (1999). The Crusade for Justice: Chicano Militancy and the Government's War on Dissent. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-299-16224-9.
- ^ a b Kick, Russell (2001). You are Being Lied to: The Disinformation Guide to Media Distortion, Historical Whitewashes and Cultural Myths. The Disinformation Campaign. p. 1991. ISBN 0-9664100-7-6.
- ^ Isserman, Maurice (2001). The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington. Public Affairs. p. 281. ISBN 1-58648-036-7.
- ^ Bobbitt, David (2007). The Rhetoric of Redemption: Kenneth Burke's Redemption Drama and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" Speech. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 105. ISBN 0-7425-2928-2.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. pp. 250–1. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ Yeshitela, Omali. "Abbreviated Report from the International Tribunal on Reparations for Black People in the U.S.". African People's Socialist Party. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20080517082245/http://www.apspuhuru.org/publications/repnow/ReparationsNow-OCR.txt. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "1,300 Members Participate in Memphis Garbage Strike". AFSCME. February 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004632/http://www.afscme.org/about/1529.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
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- ^ "King V. Jowers Conspiracy Allegations". United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000. http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/mlk/part6.php#conspire. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Pilkington, Ed (2008-04-03). "40 years after King's death, Jackson hails first steps into promised land". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/apr/03/usa.race. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Garner, Joe; Cronkite, Walter; Kurtis, Bill (2002). We Interrupt This Broadcast: The Events that Stopped Our Lives... from the Hindenburg Explosion to the Attacks of September 11. Sourcebooks. p. 62. ISBN 1-57071-974-8.
- ^ Pepper, William (2003). An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. p. 159. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
- ^ Kirk, John A. (2005). Martin Luther King Jr. Longman. p. 181. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
- ^ Purnick, Joyce (1988-04-18). "Koch Says Jackson Lied About Actions After Dr. King Was Slain". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEED7133EF93BA25757C0A96E948260. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Lokos, Lionel (1968). House Divided: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther King. Arlington House. p. 48.
- ^ "Citizen King Transcript". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/mlk/filmmore/pt.html. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ "1968: Martin Luther King shot dead". On this Day (BBC). 1968-04-04. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4/newsid_2453000/2453987.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Risen, Clay (2009). A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-17710-1.
- ^ Klein, Joe (2006). Politics Lost: How American Democracy was Trivialized by People Who Think You're Stupid. New York: Doubleday. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-385-51027-1
- ^ a b c "1968 Year In Review". UPI. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/Martin-Luther-King-Assasination/12303153093431-4/. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
- ^ Manheimer, Ann S. (2004). Martin Luther King Jr.: Dreaming of Equality. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 97. ISBN 1-57505-627-5.
- ^ Dickerson, James (1998). Dixie's Dirty Secret: The True Story of how the Government, the Media, and the Mob Conspired to Combat Immigration and the Vietnam Antiwar Movement. ME Sharpe. p. 169. ISBN 0-7656-0340-3.
- ^ Hatch, Jane M.; Douglas, =George William (1978). The American Book of Days. Wilson. p. 321.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (2007). Dream: The Words and Inspiration of Martin Luther King, Jr. Blue Mountain Arts. p. 26. ISBN 1-59842-240-5.
- ^ Werner, Craig (2006). A Change is Gonna Come: Music, Race & the Soul of America. University of Michigan Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-472-03147-3.
- ^ "AFSCME Wins in Memphis". AFSCME The Public Employee. April 1968. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004802/http://www.afscme.org/about/1533.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "1968 Memphis Sanitation Workers' Strike Chronology". AFSCME. Archived from the original on 2006-11-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20061102004657/http://www.afscme.org/about/1548.cfm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Ling, Peter J. (2002). Martin Luther King, Jr. Routledge. p. 296. ISBN 0-415-21664-8.
- ^ a b Flowers, R. Barri; Flowers, H. Loraine (2004). Murders in the United States: Crimes, Killers And Victims Of The Twentieth Century. McFarland. p. 38. ISBN 0-7864-2075-8.
- ^ a b c d "James Earl Ray Dead At 70". CBS. 1998-04-23. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1998/04/23/national/main7900.shtml. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
- ^ Clarke, James W. (2005). Defining Danger: American Assassins And the New Domestic Terrorists. Transaction Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 0-7658-0289-9.
- ^ House Select Committee on Assassinations (2001). Compilation of the Statements of James Earl Ray: Staff Report. The Minerva Group. p. 17. ISBN 0-89875-297-3.
- ^ a b Davis, Lee (1995). Assassination: 20 Assassinations that Changed the World. JG Press. p. 105. ISBN 1-57215-235-4.
- ^ "History of the Knoxville Office". FBI. Archived from the original on 2008-05-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080524142603/http://knoxville.fbi.gov/hist.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "From small-time criminal to notorious assassin". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/US/9804/03/james.ray.profile/. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 402. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
- ^ "Questions left hanging by James Earl Ray's death". BBC. 1998-04-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/82893.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Frank, Gerold (1972). An American Death: The True Story of the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Greatest Manhunt of our Time. Doubleday. p. 283.
- ^ "James Earl Ray, convicted King assassin, dies". CNN. 1998-04-23. http://edition.cnn.com/US/9804/23/ray.obit/#2. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ "Trial Transcript Volume XIV". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-05-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20080506041106/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/trial/Volume14.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Smith, Robert Charles; Seltzer, Richard (2000). Contemporary Controversies and the American Racial Divide. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 97. ISBN 0-7425-0025-X.
- ^ "Overview". United States Department of Justice Investigation of Recent Allegations Regarding the Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. U.S. Department of Justice. June 2000. http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/crm/mlk/part2.php#over. Retrieved 2011-07-11.
- ^ Canedy, Dana (2002-04-05). "A Minister Says His Father, Now Dead, Killed Dr. King". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/us/a-minister-says-his-father-now-dead-killed-dr-king.html.
- ^ Sargent, Frederic O. (2004). The Civil Rights Revolution: Events and Leaders, 1955–1968. McFarland. p. 129. ISBN 0-7864-1914-8.
- ^ Pepper, William (2003). An Act of State: The Execution of Martin Luther King. Verso. p. 182. ISBN 1-85984-695-5.
- ^ Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68. Simon & Schuster. p. 770. ISBN 978-0-684-85712-1.
- ^ Goodman, Amy; Gonzalez, =Juan (2004-01-15). "Jesse Jackson On 'Mad Dean Disease', the 2000 Elections and Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King". Democracy Now!. http://www.democracynow.org/2004/1/15/rev_jesse_jackson_on_mad_dean. Retrieved 2006-09-18.
- ^ Downing, Frederick L. (1986). To See the Promised Land: The Faith Pilgrimage of Martin Luther King, Jr. Mercer University Press. pp. 246–7. ISBN 0-86554-207-4.
- ^ a b c d Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-08825-3.
- ^ Woods, Jeff (2004). Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregation and Anti-communism in the South, 1948–1968. LSU Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-8071-2926-7. See also: Wannall, Ray (2000). The Real J. Edgar Hoover: For the Record. Turner Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 1-56311-553-0.
- ^ a b c Church, Frank (April 23, 1976). "Church Committee Book III". Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study. Church Committee. http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIb.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
- ^ Garrow, David J. (July–August 2002). "The FBI and Martin Luther King". The Atlantic Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200207/garrow.
- ^ a b Ryskind, Allan H. (2006-02-27). "JFK and RFK Were Right to Wiretap MLK". Human Events. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200602/ai_n17173432/pg_2. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ a b Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1982-6.
- ^ a b c Christensen, Jen (2008-04-07). "FBI tracked King's every move". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/31/mlk.fbi.conspiracy/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Bruns, Roger (2006). Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Biography. Greenwood Publishing. p. 67. ISBN 0-313-33686-5.
- ^ Gilbert, Alan (1990). Democratic Individuality: A Theory of Moral Progress. Cambridge University Press. p. 435. ISBN 0-521-38709-4.
- ^ Sidey, Hugh (1975-02-10). "L.B.J., Hoover and Domestic Spying". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912799-2,00.html. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Newsweek, 1998-01-19, p. 62 . Baldwin, Lewis V. (1992). To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Fortress Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-8006-2543-9.
- ^ Abernathy, Ralph David (1989-10-29). "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". Booknotes. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071211111242/http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1442. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Abernathy, Ralph David (1989-10-29). "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". Booknotes. Archived from the original on 2007-12-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071211111242/http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/index_print.asp?ProgramID=1442. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. William Morrow & Co. 1986. pp. 375–6. See also: Burrow, Jr., Rufus (Spring 2003). "The humanity of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Vigilance in pursuing his dream". Encounter. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4044/is_200304/ai_n9232227. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
- ^ Burnett, Thom (2005). Conspiracy Encyclopedia. Collins & Brown. p. 58. ISBN 1-84340-287-4.
- ^ Thragens, William C. (1988). Popular Images of American Presidents. Greenwood Publishing. p. 532. ISBN 0-313-22899-X.
- ^ Kotz, Nick (2005). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws that Changed America. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. 247. ISBN 0-618-08825-3. http://books.google.com/?id=qo9r4_rnrasC&pg=PA247. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ Wilson, Sondra K. (1999). In Search of Democracy: The NAACP Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White, and Roy Wilkins (1920–1977). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 466. ISBN 0-19-511633-X.
- ^ "FBI tracked King's every move". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/31/mlk.fbi.conspiracy/index.html#cnnSTCVideo. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Phillips, Geraldine N. (Summer 1997). "Documenting the Struggle for Racial Equality in the Decade of the Sixties". Prologue Magazine. The National Archives and Records Administration. http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1997/summer/equality-in-the-sixties.html#f3. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Eyewitness to Murder: The King Assassination Featured Individuals". Black in America. CNN. http://www.hvc-inc.com/clients/cnn/bia/featured.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ McKnight, Gerald (1998). The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor People's Crusade. Boulder: Westview Press. p. 76. ISBN 0-8133-3384-9.
- ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.: The FBI Files. Filiquarian Publishing. 2007. pp. 40–2. ISBN 1-59986-253-0. See also: Polk, James (2008-04-07). "King conspiracy theories still thrive 40 years later". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/28/conspiracy.theories/. Retrieved 2008-06-16. and "King's FBI file Part 1 of 2" (pdf). FBI. http://vault.fbi.gov/Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr./Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr.%20Part%201%20of%202/view. Retrieved 2012-01-16. and "King's FBI file Part 2 of 2" (pdf). FBI. http://vault.fbi.gov/Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr./Martin%20Luther%20King,%20Jr.%20Part%202%20of%202/view. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ Knight, Peter (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 408–9. ISBN 1-57607-812-4.
- ^ a b "The History of Fair Housing". U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/aboutfheo/history. Retrieved April 19, 2012.
- ^ Ansell, Gwen (2005). Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music, and Politics in South Africa. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 139. ISBN 0-8264-1753-1.
- ^ Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2007). It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. Simon & Schuster. p. 137. ISBN 1-4165-4064-4.
- ^ Peters, William. "A Class Divided: One Friday in April, 1968". Frontline. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/etc/friday.html. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The King Center's Mission". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-04-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20080412114756/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/mission.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Copeland, Larry (2006-02-01). "Future of Atlanta's King Center in limbo". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-01-31-king-center_x.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Chairman's Message: Introduction to the King Center and its Mission". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-01-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20080118102950/http://www.thekingcenter.org/tkc/chairman.asp. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Welcome". Higher Ground Productions. http://www.highergroundproductions.com/index2.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Williams, Brandt (2005-01-16). "What would Martin Luther King do?". Minnesota Public Radio. http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/2005/01/17_williamsb_wwmlkd/. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "The Triple Evils". The King Center. Archived from the original on 2008-08-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20080803150448/http://www.thekingcenter.org/misc/triple_evils.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Washington, DC Martin Luther King Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation Breaks Ground On Historic $100 Million Memorial On The National Mall In Washington, D.C.". Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. 2006-11-06. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=hkIUL9MVJxE&b=1601407&ct=3612187. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Mjagkij, Nina (2001). Organizing Black America: An Encyclopedia of African American Associations. Taylor & Francis. p. 30. ISBN 0-8153-2309-3.
- ^ Tobias, Randall L. (January 18, 2007). "Celebrating the Birthday of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2007-11-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20071115141138/http://www.state.gov/f/releases/remarks2007/87649.htm. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
- ^ "History of the Memorial". Washington, DC Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/c.hkIUL9MVJxE/b.1190613/k.5EE9/History_of_the_Memorial.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The Theater: A King in Darkness". Time. 1976-10-04. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,918426,00.html. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
- ^ "National Theatre Company of China Tours Atlanta, Birmingham, and Memphis". The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. 2007-02-06. http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/China/mlkchina/try2_files/mlkpp_data/Touring_Atlanta_text.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ 2007-06-23, Anthony. "Martin Luther King's Story Plays on Beijing Stage". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11330396. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "Proclamation 6401 – Martin Luther King, Jr., Federal Holiday". The American Presidency Project. 1992. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=47329. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
- ^ "Martin Luther King Day". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 2008-03-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20080328081425/http://exchanges.state.gov/education/engteaching/mlkbday.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Goldberg, Carey (1999-05-26). "Contrarian New Hampshire To Honor Dr. King, at Last". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A07E0DC1031F935A15756C0A96F958260. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ "The History of Martin Luther King Day". Infoplease. 2007. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/mlkhistory1.html. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ a b "Biographical Outline of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.". The King Center. http://www.thekingcenter.org/DrMLKingJr/Biography.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ a b Warren, Mervyn A. (2001). King Came Preaching: The Pulpit Power of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. InterVarsity Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-8308-2658-0.
- ^ "Winner of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Peace". Nobel Prize Committee. http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1964/. Retrieved 2008-06-21.
- ^ Engel, Irving M. "Commemorating Martin Luther King, Jr.: Presentation of American Liberties Medallion". American Jewish Committee. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=843719&ct=1052921. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther. "Commemorating Martin Luther King, Jr.: Response to Award of American Liberties Medallion". American Jewish Committee. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content3.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=843719&ct=1052923. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Habitat co-founder to receive Pacem in Terris award tonight". Quad-City Times. 2005-10-23. http://www.qctimes.com/articles/2005/10/23/news/local/doc435b0e9c484dc514864978.txt. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Martin Luther King Jr.". Anisfield-Wolf Book Awards. http://www.anisfield-wolf.org/books/stride-toward-freedom-the-montgomery-story/?sortby=author&auth=KINGJR.MARTINLUTHER. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
- ^ "The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. upon accepting The Planned Parenthood Federation Of America Margaret Sanger Award". PPFA. Archived from the original on 2008-02-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080224104928/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/about-us/who-we-are/the-reverend-martin-luther-king-jr.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis; Appiah, Anthony (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Basic Civitas Books. p. 1348. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ "Congressional Gold Medal Recipients (1776 to Present)". Office of the Clerk: U.S. House of Representatives. http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/goldMedal.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
- ^ Gallup, George; Gallup, Jr., Alec (2000). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1999. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 249. ISBN 0-8420-2699-1.
- ^ "The Person of the Century Poll Results". TIME. 2000-01-19. http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/century.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Reagan voted 'greatest American'". BBC. 2005-06-28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4631421.stm. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Alderman, Derek H. (2006-02-13). "Naming Streets for Martin Luther King, Jr.: No Easy Road". Landscape and Race in the United States. Routledge Press. http://personal.ecu.edu/aldermand/pubs/alderman_chapter.pdf. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
- ^ "King County Was Rededicated For MLK". The Seattle Times. 1998-01-18. http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19980118&slug=2729257. Retrieved 2008-06-13. See also: "New logo is an image of civil rights leader". King County. http://www.kingcounty.gov/operations/logo.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-13.
- ^ "Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Essay Competition Winners Announced". City of Harrisburg. 2003-01-19. Archived from the original on 2007-12-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20071207045944/http://www.harrisburgpa.gov/pressReleases/prArchives/2003/01/20030119_mlkEssay.html. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ The Episcopal and Lutheran Churches in the U.S. have feast days dedicated to King, on April 4 and January 15 respectively, as per the Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America), and Calendar of Saints (Lutheran) — neither church has a formal canonization process. There is a statue of King in the Gallery of 20th Century Martyrs at Westminster Abbey, London.
- ^ Flagg, Chuck (2006-02-10). "What it Takes to Become a Saint". The Morgan Hill Times. http://www.morganhilltimes.com/lifestyles/178715-what-it-takes-to-become-a-saint. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "News & Events — January 2008". St. Thomas Evangelical Lutheran Church. http://www.stlconline.org/archive/200801.html. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
- ^ Malcolm Gladwell (2011-12-02). "Malcolm Gladwell says the Occupy movement needs to get more Machiavellian". The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/books/malcolm-gladwell-says-the-occupy-movement-needs-to-get-more-machiavellian/article2258841/. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
- ^ "Site Location – Build the Dream". Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial Project Foundation, Inc.. http://www.mlkmemorial.org/site/c.hkIUL9MVJxE/b.7548975/k.9356/Site_Location.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
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- Beito, David; Beito, Linda Royster (2004). "T.R.M. Howard: Pragmatism over Strict Integrationist Ideology in the Mississippi Delta, 1942–1954". In Feldman, Glenn. Before Brown: Civil Rights and White Backlash in the Modern South. University of Alabama Press. pp. 68–95. ISBN 0-8173-5134-5.
- Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-46097-8.
- Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80819-6.
- Branch, Taylor (2006). At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85712-X.
- Chernus, Ira (2004). "Chapter 11". American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea. Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075-547-7.
- Garrow, David J. (1981). The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-006486-9.
- Jackson, Thomas F. (2006). From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3969-0.
- King, Coretta Scott (1993) [1969]. My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. Henry Holth & Co. ISBN 0-8050-2445-X.
- Kirk, John A. (2005). Martin Luther King, Jr. Pearson Longman. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
- Lindgren, Carl Edwin (Spring 1992). "Resurrection City". Southern Exposure 20 (1): 7.
Further reading[link]
- Carson, Clayborne. "Mythology and the Charismatic Leadership of Martin Luther King". In Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas. Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. St. James, NY: Brandywine Press. (1997). ISBN 978-1-881089-97-1
- Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1989). Pulitzer Prize. ISBN 978-0-06-056692-0
- Kirk, John A., ed. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement: Controversies and Debates (2007). 224 pp.
- Schulke, Flip; McPhee, Penelope. King Remembered, Foreword by Jesse Jackson (1986). ISBN 978-1-4039-9654-1
- Kotz, Nick, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws that Changed America (2005). ISBN 978-0-618-64183-3
External links[link]
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- The King Center
- "Martin Luther King Jr. Collection", Morehouse College, RWWL
- The Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project
- Martin Luther King Jr., "A New Sense of Direction (1968)"
- "Martin Luther King Jr.", The Seattle Times
- 1956 Comic Book: Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story
- Kirk, John A., "Martin Luther King, Jr.", New Georgia Encyclopedia
- "Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle", online encyclopedia, chronology and document library, The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University.
- "Martin Luther King, Jr.", Encyclopedia of Alabama
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Martin Luther King, Jr. at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by Martin Luther King, Jr. at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Martin Luther King, Jr. in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Images
- Speeches and interviews
- Audio from April 1961 King, "The Church on the Frontier of Racial Tensions", speech at Southern Seminary
- "Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 1929–1968", one hour documentary report by Democracy Now!
- "Martin Luther King, Jr. Historic Speeches and Interviews"
- The New Negro, King interviewed by J. Waites Waring
- "Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark", PBS
- "Beyond Vietnam" speech text and audio
- King Institute Encyclopedia multimedia
- Why I Am Oppposed to the War in Vietnam, sermon at the Ebenezer Baptist Church on April 30, 1967 (audio of speech with video 23:31)
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| Name | King, Martin Luther, Jr. |
| Alternative names | King, Martin Luther; MLK |
| Short description | Political activist |
| Date of birth | January 15, 1929 |
| Place of birth | Atlanta, Georgia |
| Date of death | April 4, 1968 |
| Place of death | Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee |
http://wn.com/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Martin Luther, see Martin Luther (disambiguation).
| Martin Luther | |
|---|---|
 Luther in 1533 by Lucas Cranach the Elder |
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| Born | (1483-11-10)10 November 1483 Eisleben, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire |
| Died | 18 February 1546(1546-02-18) (aged 62) Eisleben, Saxony, Holy Roman Empire |
| Occupation | Monk, Priest, Theologian |
| Notable works | The Ninety-Five Theses, Luther's Large Catechism, Luther's Small Catechism, On the Freedom of a Christian |
| Spouse | Katharina von Bora |
| Children | Hans (Johannes), Elisabeth, Magdalena, Martin, Paul, Margarethe |
| Influences | Paul the Apostle, Augustine of Hippo |
| Influenced | Philipp Melanchthon, Lutheranism, John Calvin, Karl Barth |
| Signature | |
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Martin Luther (help·info) (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation.[1] He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.
Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge[2] and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood.[3] Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans.
His translation of the Bible into the vernacular (instead of Latin) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation,[4] and influenced the translation into English of the King James Bible.[5] His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches.[6] His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry.[7]
In his later years, while suffering from several illnesses and deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly antisemitic, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. These statements have contributed to his controversial status.[8]
Contents
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Early life[link]
Birth and education[link]
Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther)[9] and his wife Margarethe (née Lindemann) on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters[10] and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council.[9] The religious scholar Martin Marty describes Luther's mother as a hard-working woman of "trading-class stock and middling means" and notes that Luther's enemies would later wrongly describe her as a whore and bath attendant.[9] He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have been close to one of them, Jacob.[11] Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, and Eisenach in 1498.[12] The three schools focused on the so-called "trivium": grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell.[13]
In 1501, at the age of nineteen, he entered the University of Erfurt – which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse.[14] The schedule called for waking at four every morning for what has been described as "a day of rote learning and often wearying spiritual exercises."[14] He received his master's degree in 1505.[15]
In accordance with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but dropped out almost immediately, believing that law represented uncertainty.[15] Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel.[15] He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers[15] and to test everything himself by experience.[16] Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he thereafter developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.[16] For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed, and Scripture therefore became increasingly important to him.[16]
He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he was on horseback during a thunderstorm and a lightning bolt struck near him as he was returning to university after a trip home. Later telling his father he was terrified of death and divine judgment, he cried out, "Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk!"[17] He came to view his cry for help as a vow he could never break. He left law school, sold his books, and entered a closed Augustinian friary in Erfurt on 17 July 1505.[18] One friend blamed the decision on Luther's sadness over the deaths of two friends. Luther himself seemed saddened by the move. Those who attended a farewell supper walked him to the door of the Black Cloister. "This day you see me, and then, not ever again," he said.[16] His father was furious over what he saw as a waste of Luther's education.[19]
Monastic and academic life[link]
Luther dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasting, long hours in prayer, pilgrimage, and frequent confession.[20] He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them."[21] Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul."[22]
Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg.[23] He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the Sentences by Peter Lombard in 1509.[24] On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg, having been called to the position of Doctor in Bible.[25] He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.
The start of the Reformation[link]
Further information: History of Protestantism and The Ninety-Five Theses
In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.[26] Roman Catholic theology stated that faith alone, whether fiduciary or dogmatic, cannot justify man;[27] justification rather depends only on such faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man.[28] The benefits of good works could be obtained by donating money to the church.
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to his bishop, Albert of Mainz, protesting the sale of indulgences. He enclosed in his letter a copy of his "Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences," which came to be known as The Ninety-Five Theses. Hans Hillerbrand writes that Luther had no intention of confronting the church, but saw his disputation as a scholarly objection to church practices, and the tone of the writing is accordingly "searching, rather than doctrinaire."[29] Hillerbrand writes that there is nevertheless an undercurrent of challenge in several of the theses, particularly in Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"[29]
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory [also attested as 'into heaven'] springs."[30]
He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
However, this oft-quoted saying of Tetzel was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of his capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure.[31]
According to scholars Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter and Gerhard Prause, the story of the posting on the door, even though it has settled as one of the pillars of history, has little foundation in truth.[32][33][34] The story is based on comments made by Philipp Melanchthon, though it is thought that he was not in Wittenberg at the time.[35]
It was not until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the 95 Theses from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press.[36] Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe.
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519. Students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther speak. He published a short commentary on Galatians and his Work on the Psalms. This early part of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.[37] Three of his best-known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.
Justification by faith[link]
Main article: Sola fide
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity. The most important for Luther was the doctrine of justification – God's act of declaring a sinner righteous – by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the Messiah.[38] "This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification," he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness."[39]
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his position on Predestination on St. Paul's epistle to the Ephesians 2:8–10. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.[40] "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ."[41] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God" – a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith.[42] He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).[43]
Breach with the papacy[link]
Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Magdeburg did not reply to Luther's letter containing the 95 Theses. He had the theses checked for heresy and in December 1517 forwarded them to Rome.[44] He needed the revenue from the indulgences to pay off a papal dispensation for his tenure of more than one bishopric. As Luther later noted, "the pope had a finger in the pie as well, because one half was to go to the building of St Peter's Church in Rome".[45]
Pope Leo X was used to reformers and heretics,[46] and he responded slowly, "with great care as is proper."[47] Over the next three years he deployed a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther, which served only to harden the reformer's anti-papal theology. First, the Dominican theologian Sylvester Mazzolini drafted a heresy case against Luther, whom Leo then summoned to Rome. The Elector Frederick persuaded the pope to have Luther examined at Augsburg, where the Imperial Diet was held.[48] There, in October 1518, Luther informed the papal legate Cardinal Cajetan that he did not consider the papacy part of the biblical Church, and the hearings degenerated into a shouting match. More than his writing the 95 Theses, Luther's confrontation of the church cast him as an enemy of the pope.[49] Cajetan's original instructions had been to arrest Luther if he failed to recant, but he lacked the means in Augsburg, where the Elector guaranteed Luther's security.[50] Luther slipped out of the city at night, without leave from Cajetan.[51]
In January 1519, at Altenburg in Saxony, the papal nuncio Karl von Miltitz adopted a more conciliatory approach. Luther made certain concessions to the Saxon, who was a relative of the Elector, and promised to remain silent if his opponents did.[52] The theologian Johann Maier von Eck, however, was determined to expose Luther's doctrine in a public forum. In June and July 1519, he staged a disputation with Luther's colleague Andreas Karlstadt at Leipzig and invited Luther to speak.[53] Luther's boldest assertion in the debate was that Matthew 16:18 does not confer on popes the exclusive right to interpret scripture, and that therefore neither popes nor church councils were infallible.[54] For this, Eck branded Luther a new Jan Hus, referring to the Czech reformer and heretic burned at the stake in 1415. From that moment, he devoted himself to Luther's defeat.[55]
Excommunication[link]
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the papal bull (edict) Exsurge Domine that he risked excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the 95 Theses, within 60 days. That autumn, Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,[56] an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles. As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
Diet of Worms[link]
Main article: Diet of Worms
The enforcement of the ban on the 95 Theses fell to the secular authorities. On 18 April 1521, Luther appeared as ordered before the Diet of Worms. This was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms, a town on the Rhine. It was conducted from 28 January to 25 May 1521, with Emperor Charles V presiding. Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, obtained a safe conduct for Luther to and from the meeting.
Johann Eck, speaking on behalf of the Empire as assistant of the Archbishop of Trier, presented Luther with copies of his writings laid out on a table and asked him if the books were his, and whether he stood by their contents. Luther confirmed he was their author, but requested time to think about the answer to the second question. He prayed, consulted friends, and gave his response the next day:
Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May God help me. Amen.[57]
Luther is sometimes also quoted as saying: "Here I stand. I can do no other". Recent scholars consider the evidence for these words to be unreliable, since they were inserted before "May God help me" only in later versions of the speech and not recorded in witness accounts of the proceedings.[58]
Over the next five days, private conferences were held to determine Luther's fate. The Emperor presented the final draft of the Diet of Worms on 25 May 1521, declaring Luther an outlaw, banning his literature, and requiring his arrest: "We want him to be apprehended and punished as a notorious heretic."[59] It also made it a crime for anyone in Germany to give Luther food or shelter. It permitted anyone to kill Luther without legal consequence.
At Wartburg Castle[link]
Luther's disappearance during his return trip was planned. Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, had him intercepted on his way home by masked horsemen and escorted to the security of the Wartburg Castle at Eisenach.[60] During his stay at Wartburg, which he referred to as "my Patmos",[61] Luther translated the New Testament from Greek into German and poured out doctrinal and polemical writings. These included a renewed attack on Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, whom he shamed into halting the sale of indulgences in his episcopates,[62] and a "Refutation of the Argument of Latomus," in which he expounded the principle of justification to Jacobus Latomus, an orthodox theologian from Louvain.[63]
In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favor is a sin.[64] All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and God's grace, which cannot be earned, alone can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."[65]
In the summer of 1521, Luther widened his target from individual pieties like indulgences and pilgrimages to doctrines at the heart of Church practices. In On the Abrogation of the Private Mass, he condemned as idolatry the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, asserting instead that it is a gift, to be received with thanksgiving by the whole congregation.[66] His essay On Confession, Whether the Pope has the Power to Require It rejected compulsory confession and encouraged private confession and absolution, since "every Christian is a confessor."[67] In November, Luther wrote The Judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. He assured monks and nuns that they could break their vows without sin, because vows were an illegitimate and vain attempt to win salvation.[68]
Luther made his pronouncements from Wartburg in the context of rapid developments at Wittenberg, of which he was kept fully informed. Andreas Karlstadt, supported by the ex-Augustinian Gabriel Zwilling, embarked on a radical programme of reform there in June 1521, exceeding anything envisaged by Luther. The reforms provoked disturbances, including a revolt by the Augustinian monks against their prior, the smashing of statues and images in churches, and denunciations of the magistracy. After secretly visiting Wittenberg in early December 1521, Luther wrote A Sincere Admonition by Martin Luther to All Christians to Guard Against Insurrection and Rebellion.[69] Wittenberg became even more volatile after Christmas when a band of visionary zealots, the so-called Zwickau prophets, arrived, preaching revolutionary doctrines such as the equality of man, adult baptism, and Christ's imminent return.[70] When the town council asked Luther to return, he decided it was his duty to act.[71]
Return to Wittenberg[link]
See also: Radical Reformation
Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. "During my absence," he wrote to the Elector, "Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word."[72] For eight days in Lent, beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons." In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change.[73]
Do you know what the Devil thinks when he sees men use violence to propagate the gospel? He sits with folded arms behind the fire of hell, and says with malignant looks and frightful grin: "Ah, how wise these madmen are to play my game! Let them go on; I shall reap the benefit. I delight in it." But when he sees the Word running and contending alone on the battle-field, then he shudders and shakes for fear.[74]
The effect of Luther's intervention was immediate. After the sixth sermon, the Wittenberg jurist Jerome Schurf wrote to the elector: "Oh, what joy has Dr. Martin’s return spread among us! His words, through divine mercy, are bringing back every day misguided people into the way of the truth."[74]
Luther next set about reversing or modifying the new church practices. By working alongside the authorities to restore public order, he signalled his reinvention as a conservative force within the Reformation.[75] After banishing the Zwickau prophets, he now faced a battle against not only the established Church but also the radical reformers who threatened the new order by fomenting social unrest and violence.[76]
Peasants' War[link]
Main article: German Peasants' War
Despite his victory in Wittenberg, Luther was unable to stifle radicalism further afield. Preachers such as Zwickau prophet Nicholas Storch and Thomas Müntzer helped instigate the German Peasants' War of 1524–25, during which many atrocities were committed, often in Luther's name. There had been revolts by the peasantry on a smaller scale since the 15th century.[77] Luther's pamphlets against the Church and the hierarchy, often worded with "liberal" phraseology, now led many peasants to believe he would support an attack on the upper classes in general.[78] Revolts broke out in Franconia, Swabia, and Thuringia in 1524, even drawing support from disaffected nobles, many of whom were in debt. Gaining momentum under the leadership of radicals such as Müntzer in Thuringia and Michael Gaismair in Tyrol, the revolts turned into war.[79]
Luther sympathised with some of the peasants' grievances, as he showed in his response to the Twelve Articles in May 1525, but he reminded the aggrieved to obey the temporal authorities.[80] During a tour of Thuringia, he became enraged at the widespread burning of convents, monasteries, bishops’ palaces, and libraries. In Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, written on his return to Wittenberg, he gave his interpretation of the Gospel teaching on wealth, condemned the violence as the devil's work, and called for the nobles to put down the rebels like mad dogs:
Therefore let everyone who can, smite, slay, and stab, secretly or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful, or devilish than a rebel ... For baptism does not make men free in body and property, but in soul; and the gospel does not make goods common, except in the case of those who, of their own free will, do what the apostles and disciples did in Acts 4 [:32–37]. They did not demand, as do our insane peasants in their raging, that the goods of others—of Pilate and Herod—should be common, but only their own goods. Our peasants, however, want to make the goods of other men common, and keep their own for themselves. Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.[81]
Luther justified his opposition to the rebels on three grounds. First, in choosing violence over lawful submission to the secular government, they were ignoring Christ's counsel to "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's"; St. Paul had written in his epistle to the Romans 13:1–7 that all authorities are appointed by God and therefore should not be resisted. This reference from the Bible forms the foundation for the doctrine known as the Divine Right of Kings, or, in the German case, the divine right of the princes. Second, the violent actions of rebelling, robbing, and plundering placed the peasants "outside the law of God and Empire," so they deserved "death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and murderers." Lastly, Luther charged the rebels with blasphemy for calling themselves "Christian brethren" and committing their sinful acts under the banner of the Gospel.[82]
Without Luther's backing for the uprising, many rebels laid down their weapons; others felt betrayed. Their defeat by the Swabian League at the Battle of Frankenhausen on 15 May 1525, followed by Müntzer’s execution, brought the revolutionary stage of the Reformation to a close.[83] Thereafter, radicalism found a refuge in the anabaptist movement and other sects, while Luther's Reformation flourished under the wing of the secular powers.[84]
Marriage[link]
Martin Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of 12 nuns he had helped escape from the Nimbschen Cistercian convent in April 1523, when he arranged for them to be smuggled out in herring barrels.[85] "Suddenly, and while I was occupied with far different thoughts," he wrote to Wenceslaus Link, "the Lord has plunged me into marriage."[86] Katherina was 26 years old, Luther was 41 years old.
On 13 June 1525, the couple was engaged with Johannes Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Johannes Apel, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach the Elder and his wife as witnesses.[87] On the evening of the same day, the couple was married by Bugenhagen.[87] The ceremonial walk to the church and the wedding banquet were left out, and were made up two weeks later on 27 June.[87]
Some priests and former monks had already married, including Andreas Karlstadt and Justus Jonas, but Luther's wedding set the seal of approval on clerical marriage.[88] He had long condemned vows of celibacy on Biblical grounds, but his decision to marry surprised many, not least Melanchthon, who called it reckless.[89] Luther had written to George Spalatin on 30 November 1524, "I shall never take a wife, as I feel at present. Not that I am insensible to my flesh or sex (for I am neither wood nor stone); but my mind is averse to wedlock because I daily expect the death of a heretic."[90] Before marrying, Luther had been living on the plainest food, and, as he admitted himself, his mildewed bed was not properly made for months at a time.[91]
Luther and his wife moved into a former monastery, "The Black Cloister," a wedding present from the new elector John the Steadfast (1525–32). They embarked on what appeared to have been a happy and successful marriage, though money was often short.[92] Between bearing six children, Hans – June 1526; Elizabeth – 10 December 1527, who died within a few months; Magdalene – 1529, who died in Luther's arms in 1542; Martin – 1531; Paul – January 1533; and Margaret – 1534. Katharina helped the couple earn a living by farming the land and taking in boarders.[93] Luther confided to Michael Stiefel on 11 August 1526: "My Katie is in all things so obliging and pleasing to me that I would not exchange my poverty for the riches of Croesus."[94]
Organising the church[link]
By 1526, Luther found himself increasingly occupied in organising a new church. His Biblical ideal of congregations' choosing their own ministers had proved unworkable.[95] According to Bainton: "Luther's dilemma was that he wanted both a confessional church based on personal faith and experience and a territorial church including all in a given locality. If he were forced to choose, he would take his stand with the masses, and this was the direction in which he moved."[96] From 1525 to 1529, he established a supervisory church body, laid down a new form of worship service, and wrote a clear summary of the new faith in the form of two catechisms.
To avoid confusing or upsetting the people, Luther avoided extreme change. He also did not wish to replace one controlling system with another. He concentrated on the church in the Electorate of Saxony, acting only as an adviser to churches in new territories, many of which followed his Saxon model. He worked closely with the new elector, John the Steadfast, to whom he turned for secular leadership and funds on behalf of a church largely shorn of its assets and income after the break with Rome.[97] For Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, this partnership "was the beginning of a questionable and originally unintended development towards a church government under the temporal sovereign".[98] The elector authorised a visitation of the church, a power formerly exercised by bishops.[99] At times, Luther's practical reforms fell short of his earlier radical pronouncements. For example, the Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528), drafted by Melanchthon with Luther's approval, stressed the role of repentance in the forgiveness of sins, despite Luther's position that faith alone ensures justification.[100] The Eisleben reformer Johannes Agricola challenged this compromise, and Luther condemned him for teaching that faith is separate from works.[101] The Instruction is a problematic document for those seeking a consistent evolution in Luther's thought and practice.[102]
In response to demands for a German liturgy, Luther wrote a German Mass, which he published in early 1526.[103] He did not intend it as a replacement for his 1523 adaptation of the Latin Mass but as an alternative for the "simple people", a "public stimulation for people to believe and become Christians."[104] Luther based his order on the Catholic service but omitted "everything that smacks of sacrifice"; and the Mass became a celebration where everyone received the wine as well as the bread.[105] He retained the elevation of the host and chalice, while trappings such as the Mass vestments, altar, and candles were made optional, allowing freedom of ceremony.[106] Some reformers, including followers of Huldrych Zwingli, considered Luther's service too papistic; and modern scholars note the conservatism of his alternative to the Catholic mass.[107] Luther's service, however, included congregational singing of hymns and psalms in German, as well as of parts of the liturgy, including Luther's unison setting of the Creed.[108] To reach the simple people and the young, Luther incorporated religious instruction into the weekday services in the form of the catechism.[109] He also provided simplified versions of the baptism and marriage services.[110]
Luther and his colleagues introduced the new order of worship during their visitation of Electoral Saxony, which began in 1527.[111] They also assessed the standard of pastoral care and Christian education in the territory. "Merciful God, what misery I have seen," Luther wrote, "the common people knowing nothing at all of Christian doctrine ... and unfortunately many pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable of teaching."[112]
Catechisms[link]
Luther devised the catechism as a method of imparting the basics of Christianity to the congregations. In 1529, he wrote the Large Catechism, a manual for pastors and teachers, as well as a synopsis, the Small Catechism, to be memorised by the people themselves.[113] The catechisms provided easy-to-understand instructional and devotional material on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper.[114] Luther incorporated questions and answers in the catechism so that the basics of Christian faith would not just be learned by rote, "the way monkeys do it", but understood.[115]
The catechism is one of Luther's most personal works. "Regarding the plan to collect my writings in volumes," he wrote, "I am quite cool and not at all eager about it because, roused by a Saturnian hunger, I would rather see them all devoured. For I acknowledge none of them to be really a book of mine, except perhaps the Bondage of the Will and the Catechism."[116] The Small Catechism has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching.[117] It remains in use today, along with Luther's hymns and his translation of the Bible.
Luther's Small Catechism proved especially effective in helping parents teach their children; likewise the Larger Catechism was effective for pastors.[118] Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. He rewrote each article of the Creed to express the character of the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit. Luther's goal was to enable the catechumens to see themselves as a personal object of the work of the three persons of the Trinity, each of which works in the catechumen's life. That is, Luther depicted the Trinity not as a doctrine to be learned, but as persons to be known. The Father creates, the Son redeems, and the Spirit sanctifies, a divine unity with separate personalities. Salvation originates with the Father and draws the believer to the Father. Luther's treatment of the Apostles Creed must be understood in the context of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and the Lord's Prayer, which are also part of the Lutheran catechical teaching.[119]
Translation of the Bible[link]
Main article: Luther Bible
Luther had published his German translation of the New Testament in 1522, and he and his collaborators completed the translation of the Old Testament in 1534, when the whole Bible was published. He continued to work on refining the translation until the end of his life.[120] Others had translated the Bible into German, but Luther tailored his translation to his own doctrine.[121] When he was criticised for inserting the word "alone" after "faith" in Romans 3:28,[122] he replied in part: "[T]he text itself and the meaning of St. Paul urgently require and demand it. For in that very passage he is dealing with the main point of Christian doctrine, namely, that we are justified by faith in Christ without any works of the Law . . . But when works are so completely cut away – and that must mean that faith alone justifies – whoever would speak plainly and clearly about this cutting away of works will have to say, 'Faith alone justifies us, and not works'."[123]
Luther's translation used the variant of German spoken at the Saxon chancellery, intelligible to both northern and southern Germans.[124] He intended his vigorous, direct language to make the Bible accessible to everyday Germans, "for we are removing impediments and difficulties so that other people may read it without hindrance."[125]
Published at a time of rising demand for German-language publications, Luther's version quickly became a popular and influential Bible translation. As such, it made a significant contribution to the evolution of the German language and literature.[126] Furnished with notes and prefaces by Luther, and with woodcuts by Lucas Cranach that contained anti-papal imagery, it played a major role in the spread of Luther's doctrine throughout Germany.[127] The Luther Bible influenced other vernacular translations, such as William Tyndale's English Bible (1525 forward), a precursor of the King James Bible.[128]
Hymns[link]
File:EinFesteBurg.jpg
An early printing of Luther's hymn A Mighty Fortress Is Our God (Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott)
Luther was a prolific hymn-writer, authoring hymns such as Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God), based on Psalm 46.[129] Luther connected high art and folk music, also all classes, clergy and laity, men, women and children. His device for this linking was the singing of German hymns in connection with worship, school, home, and the public arena.[130]
Luther's 1524 creedal hymn Wir glauben all an einen Gott (We All Believe in One True God) is a three-stanza confession of faith prefiguring Luther's 1529 three-part explanation of the Apostles' Creed in the Small Catechism. Luther's hymn, adapted and expanded from an earlier German creedal hymn, gained widespread use in vernacular Lutheran liturgies as early as 1525. Sixteenth-century Lutheran hymnals also included Wir glauben all among the catechetical hymns, although 18th-century hymnals tended to label the hymn as Trinitarian rather than catechetical, and 20th-century Lutherans rarely use the hymn because of the perceived difficulty of its tune.[130]
Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, Vater unser im Himmelreich, corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism, with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter.[131]
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The German text of Ein feste Burg (A Mighty Fortress) sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody.
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Luther wrote Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (From depths of woe I cry to you) in 1523 as a hymnic version of Psalm 130 and sent it as a sample to encourage evangelical colleagues to write psalm-hymns for use in German worship. In a collaboration with Paul Speratus, this and seven more hymns were published in the first Lutheran hymnal, also called Achtliederbuch. In 1524 Luther developed his original four-stanza psalm paraphrase into a five-stanza Reformation hymn that developed the theme of "grace alone" more fully. Because it expressed essential Reformation doctrine, this expanded version of Aus tiefer Not was designated as a regular component of several regional Lutheran liturgies and was widely used at funerals, including Luther's own. Along with Erhart Hegenwalt's hymnic version of Psalm 51, Luther's expanded hymn was also adopted for use with the fifth part of Luther's catechism, concerning confession.[132]
Luther's 1540 hymn Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam (To Jordan came the Christ our Lord) reflects the structure and substance of his questions and answers concerning baptism in the Small Catechism. Luther adopted a preexisting Johann Walter tune associated with a hymnic setting of Psalm 67's prayer for grace; Wolf Heintz's four-part setting of the hymn was used to introduce the Lutheran Reformation in Halle in 1541. Preachers and composers of the 18th century, including J. S. Bach, used this rich hymn as a subject for their own work, although its objective baptismal theology was displaced by more subjective hymns under the influence of late-19th-century Lutheran pietism.[130]
Luther wrote Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein (Oh God, look down from heaven). He wrote Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (Now come, Savior of the gentiles) based on Veni redemptor gentium. It became the main hymn (Hauptlied) for Advent. He transformed A solus ortus cardine to Christum wir sollen loben schon (We should now praise Christ) and Veni creator spiritus to Komm, Gott Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist (Come, Holy Spirit, Lord God).[133] He wrote two hymns on the Ten Commandments, Dies sind die heilgen Zehn Gebot and Mensch, willst du leben seliglich. His Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (Praise be to You, Jesus Christ) became the main hymn for Christmas. He wrote for Pentecost Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist and for Easter Christ ist erstanden (Christ is risen), based on Victimae paschali laudes.
Luther's hymns inspired composers to write music. Johann Sebastian Bach included several verses as chorales in his cantatas and based chorale cantatas entirely on them, namely Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4, as early as possibly 1707, in his second annual cycle (1724 to 1725) Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam, BWV 7, Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 62, Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, BWV 91, and Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, later Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80, and in 1735 Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit, BWV 14.
Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy[link]
In October 1529, Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, convoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquy, to establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.[134] Agreement was achieved on fourteen points out of fifteen, the exception being the nature of the Eucharist – the sacrament of the Lord's Supper—an issue crucial to Luther.[135]
The theologians, including Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer, and Johannes Oecolampadius, differed on the significance of the words spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "This is my body which is for you" and "This cup is the new covenant in my blood" (1 Corinthians 11:23–26).[136] Luther insisted on the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine, which he called the sacramental union,[137] while his opponents believed God to be only spiritually or symbolically present.[138] Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus's ability to be in more than one place at a time but Luther stressed the omnipresence of his human nature.[139] According to transcripts, the debate sometimes became confrontational. Citing Jesus's words "The flesh profiteth nothing" (John 6.63), Zwingli said, "This passage breaks your neck". "Don't be too proud," Luther retorted, "German necks don't break that easily. This is Hesse, not Switzerland."[140] On his table Luther wrote the words "Hoc est corpus meum" ("This is my body") in chalk, to continually indicate his firm stance.[141]
Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements.[142]
On the soul after death[link]
In contrast to the views of Calvin[143] and Melanchthon,[144] throughout his life Luther maintained that it was not false doctrine to believe that a Christian's soul sleeps after it is separated from the body in death;[145] and, accordingly, he disputed traditional interpretations of some Bible passages, such as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus.[146] This also led Luther to reject the idea of torments for the saints: "It is enough for us to know that souls do not leave their bodies to be threatened by the torments and punishments of hell, but enter a prepared bedchamber in which they sleep in peace."[147] He also rejected the existence of Purgatory, which involved Christian souls undergoing penitential suffering after death.[148] He affirmed the continuity of one's personal identity beyond death. In his Smalcald Articles he described the saints as currently residing "in their graves and in heaven."[149]
The Lutheran theologian Franz Pieper observed that Luther's teaching about the state of the Christian's soul after death differed from the later Lutheran theologians such as Johann Gerhard.[150] Lessing (1755) had earlier reached the same conclusion in his analysis of Lutheran Orthodoxy on this issue.[151]
Luther's Commentary on Genesis contains a passage which concludes "...the soul does not sleep (anima non sic dormit), but wakes (sed vigilat) and experiences visions".[152] Francis Blackburne in 1765 argued that John Jortin misread this and other passages from Luther,[153] while Gottfried Fritschel pointed out in 1867 that it actually refers to the soul of a man "in this life" (homo enim in hac vita) tired from his daily labour (defatigus diurno labore) who at night enters his bedchamber (sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum) and whose sleep is interrupted by dreams.[154]
Henry Eyster Jacobs' English translation from 1898 reads:
- "Nevertheless, the sleep of this life and that of the future life differ; for in this life, man, fatigued by his daily labour, at nightfall goes to his couch, as in peace, to sleep there, and enjoys rest; nor does he know anything of evil, whether of fire or of murder."[155]
On Islam[link]
Further information: Protestantism and Islam
At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army.[156] Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent to punish Christians by God, as agents of the Biblical apocalypse that would destroy the antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy, and the Roman Church.[157] He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name".[158] On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks.[159] In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war.[160] By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks.[161] He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance.[162] Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies".[163]
In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an.[164] He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk".[165] Though Luther saw the Muslim faith as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live."[166] He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny.[167]
Augsburg Confession[link]
Further information: Augsburg Confession and Apology of the Augsburg Confession
File:Augsburg Confession and Apology (first edition).jpg
First edition of the Augsburg Confession and Apology, 1531
Shaken by the Siege of Vienna, Charles V convened the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1530, aiming to unite the empire against the Turks.[168] To achieve this, he needed first to resolve the religious controversies in his lands, "considering with love and kindness the views of everybody".[169] He asked for a statement of the evangelical case, and one was duly devised by Luther, Melanchthon, and their colleagues at Wittenberg. Melanchthon drafted the document, known as the Augsburg Confession, and travelled with the elector's party to Augsburg, where it was read to the emperor and diet on 25 June 1530.[170] (Luther was left behind at the Coburg fortress in southern Saxony because he remained under the imperial ban and lacked a safe-conduct to attend the diet.[171]) Luther's writings during his 165 days at Coburg, including the Exhortation to all Clergy Assembled at Augsburg, show that, unlike Melanchthon, he was set against making concessions.[172]
Despite the Confession's avoidance of strident language or abuse of the pope, the diet rejected it on 22 September and ordered the reformers to renounce heresy and submit to the control of the Roman Catholic Church by the following April or face the imperial army.[173] That decision confirmed Luther's belief that the mission had been futile. It prompted the Lutheran princes to form a military alliance, the Schmalkaldic League, which Luther cautiously supported on grounds of self-defence in his Warning to His Dear German People of 1531.[174] The Augsburg Confession had become the statement of faith on which Lutherans were prepared to stand or fall. Though a modification of Luther's own position, it nevertheless is regarded as the first Lutheran treatise.[175]
Depiction of Luther[link]
In the 1530s and 1540s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck." He was shown to be physically imposing, an equal in stature to the secular German princes with whom he would join forces to spread Lutheranism. His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking or conjugal relations with his wife—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Famous images from this period include the woodcuts by Hans Brosamer (1530) and Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger (1546).[176]
Antinomian controversy[link]
Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola (1494–1566) – serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben – preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall.[177] Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540.[178] He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians,[179] and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year.[180]
In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.[181] Luther states that everything that is used to work sorrow over sin is called the law, even if it is Christ's life, Christ's death for sin, or God's goodness experienced in creation.[182] Simply refusing to preach the Ten Commandments among Christians – thereby, as it were, removing the three letters l-a-w from the church – does not eliminate the accusing law.[183] Claiming that the law – in any form – should not be preached to Christians anymore would be tantamount to asserting that Christians are no longer sinners in themselves and that the church consists only of essentially holy people.[184]
On the other hand, Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments – when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law – also positively teach how the Christian ought to live.[185] This has traditionally been called the "third use of the law."[186] For Luther, also Christ's life, when understood as an example, is nothing more than an illustration of the Ten Commandments, which a Christian should follow in his or her vocations on a daily basis.[187]
The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptism, are a present foreshadowing of the believers' future angel-like life in heaven in the midst of this life.[188] Luther's teaching of the Ten Commandments, therefore, has clear eschatological overtones, which, characteristically for Luther, do not encourage world-flight but direct the Christian to service to the neighbor in the common, daily vocations of this perishing world.
In the 20th century, there have been attempts to show that the "third use of the law" was a typical "Reformed" doctrine and that Luther himself never taught this,[189] but in light of Luther's disputations against the antinomians and other texts, this position cannot be maintained.[citation needed]
Bigamy of Philip of Hesse[link]
From December 1539, Luther became implicated in the bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, who wanted to marry one of his wife's ladies-in-waiting. Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs. The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter.[190] As a result, on 4 March 1540, Philip married a second wife, Margarethe von der Sale, with Melanchthon and Bucer among the witnesses. However, Philip was unable to keep the marriage secret, and he threatened to make Luther's advice public. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did during the subsequent public controversy.[191] In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht, "giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable".[192] Brecht argues that Luther's mistake was not that he gave private pastoral advice, but that he miscalculated the political implications.[193] The affair caused lasting damage to Luther's reputation.[194]
Anti-Judaism and antisemitism[link]
Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism
Luther wrote about the Jews throughout his career, though only a few of his works dealt with them directly.[195] Luther rarely encountered Jews during his life, but his attitudes reflected a theological and cultural tradition which saw Jews as a rejected people guilty of the murder of Christ, and he lived within a local community that had expelled Jews some ninety years earlier.[196] He considered the Jews blasphemers and liars because they rejected the divinity of Jesus, whereas Christians believed Jesus was the Messiah.[197] At the same time, Luther believed that all human beings who set themselves against God shared one and the same guilt.[198] As early as 1516, Luther wrote, "...[M]any people are proud with marvelous stupidity when they call the Jews dogs, evildoers, or whatever they like, while they too, and equally, do not realize who or what they are in the sight of God".[199] In 1523, Luther advised kindness toward the Jews in That Jesus Christ was Born a Jew, but only with the aim of converting them to Christianity.[200] When his efforts at conversion failed, he grew increasingly bitter toward them.[201]
Luther's other major works on the Jews were his 60,000-word treatise Von den Juden und Ihren Lügen (On the Jews and Their Lies), and Vom Schem Hamphoras und vom Geschlecht Christi (On the Holy Name and the Lineage of Christ), both published in 1543, three years before his death.[202] Luther argued that the Jews were no longer the chosen people but "the devil's people": he referred to them with violent, vile language.[203][204] Luther advocated setting synagogues on fire, destroying Jewish prayerbooks, forbidding rabbis from preaching, seizing Jews' property and money, and smashing up their homes, so that these "poisonous envenomed worms" would be forced into labour or expelled "for all time".[205] In Robert Michael's view, Luther's words "We are at fault in not slaying them" amounted to a sanction for murder.[206] Luther's "recommendations" for how to treat the Jews was a clear reference to the "sharp mercy" of Deuteronomy 13, the punishments prescribed by Moses for those who led others to "false gods".[207]
Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.[208] Josel of Rosheim, the Jewish spokesman who tried to help the Jews of Saxony in 1537, later blamed their plight on "that priest whose name was Martin Luther—may his body and soul be bound up in hell!—who wrote and issued many heretical books in which he said that whoever would help the Jews was doomed to perdition."[209] Josel asked the city of Strasbourg to forbid the sale of Luther's anti-Jewish works: they refused initially, but relented when a Lutheran pastor in Hochfelden used a sermon to urge his parishioners to murder Jews.[208] Luther's influence persisted after his death. Throughout the 1580s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states.[210]
Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and he acquired the status of a prophet within Germany.[211] According to the prevailing view among historians,[212] his anti-Jewish rhetoric contributed significantly to the development of antisemitism in Germany,[213] and in the 1930s and 1940s provided an "ideal underpinning" for the Nazis' attacks on Jews.[214] Reinhold Lewin writes that "whoever wrote against the Jews for whatever reason believed he had the right to justify himself by triumphantly referring to Luther." According to Michael, just about every anti-Jewish book printed in the Third Reich contained references to and quotations from Luther. Heinrich Himmler wrote admiringly of his writings and sermons on the Jews in 1940.[215] The city of Nuremberg presented a first edition of On the Jews and their Lies to Julius Streicher, editor of the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, on his birthday in 1937; the newspaper described it as the most radically anti-Semitic tract ever published.[216] It was publicly exhibited in a glass case at the Nuremberg rallies and quoted in a 54-page explanation of the Aryan Law by Dr. E.H. Schulz and Dr. R. Frercks.[217] On 17 December 1941, seven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge, "since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory." According to Daniel Goldhagen, Bishop Martin Sasse, a leading Protestant churchman, published a compendium of Luther's writings shortly after Kristallnacht, for which Diarmaid MacCulloch, Professor of the History of the Church in the University of Oxford argued that Luther's writing was a "blueprint."[218] Sasse applauded the burning of the synagogues and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, "On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany." The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words "of the greatest antisemite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews."[219] According to Professor Dick Geary, the Nazis won a larger share of the vote in Protestant than in Catholic areas of Germany in elections of 1928 to November 1932.[220]
At the heart of scholars' debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis. Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Biographer Martin Brecht points out that "There is a world of difference between his belief in salvation and a racial ideology. Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer."[221] Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology.[222] Uwe Siemon-Netto agreed, arguing that it was because the Nazis were already anti-Semites that they revived Luther's work.[223][224] Hans J. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history.[225] Similarly, Roland Bainton, noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever [On the Jews and Their Lies] was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial."[226][227]
Other scholars argue that, even if his views were merely anti-Judaic, their violence lent a new element to the standard Christian suspicion of Judaism. Ronald Berger writes that Luther is credited with "Germanizing the Christian critique of Judaism and establishing anti-Semitism as a key element of German culture and national identity."[228] Paul Rose argues that he caused a "hysterical and demonizing mentality" about Jews to enter German thought and discourse, a mentality that might otherwise have been absent.[229]
Since the 1980s, Lutheran Church denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans.[230][231]
Final years and death[link]
Luther had been suffering from ill health for years, including Ménière's disease, vertigo, fainting, tinnitus, and a cataract in one eye.[232] From 1531 to 1546, his health deteriorated further. The years of struggle with Rome, the antagonisms with and among his fellow reformers, and the scandal which ensued from the bigamy of the Philip of Hesse incident, in which Luther had played a leading role, all may have contributed. In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney and bladder stones, and arthritis, and an ear infection ruptured an ear drum. In December 1544, he began to feel the effects of angina.[233]
His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude."[234] In 1545 and 1546 Luther preached three times in the Market Church in Halle, staying with his friend Justus Jonas during Christmas.[235]
File:Luthertombstoneunderaltar.jpg
Luther's tombstone in the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 February 1546, three days before his death.[236] It was "entirely devoted to the obdurate Jews, whom it was a matter of great urgency to expel from all German territory," according to Léon Poliakov.[237] James Mackinnon writes that it concluded with a "fiery summons to drive the Jews bag and baggage from their midst, unless they desisted from their calumny and their usury and became Christians."[238] Luther said, "we want to practice Christian love toward them and pray that they convert," but also that they are "our public enemies ... and if they could kill us all, they would gladly do so. And so often they do."[239]
Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control. The controversy that ensued involved all four Mansfeld counts: Albrecht, Philip, John George, and Gerhard. Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late 1545 to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early 1546 for their completion.
The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February 1546. After 8:00 pm, he experienced chest pains. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" (Ps. 31:5), the common prayer of the dying. At 1:00 am he awoke with more chest pain and was warmed with hot towels. He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name?" A distinct "Yes" was Luther's reply.
File:Luther death-hand mask.jpg
Cast of Luther's face and hands at his death, in the Market Church in Halle[240]
An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on 18 February 1546, aged 62, in Eisleben, the city of his birth. He was buried in the Castle Church in Wittenberg, beneath the pulpit.[241] The funeral was held by his friends Johannes Bugenhagen and Philipp Melanchthon.[242] A year later, troops of Luther's adversary Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor entered the town, but were ordered by Charles not to disturb the grave.[242]
A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German.
1. No one can understand Virgil's Bucolics unless he has been a shepherd for five years. No one can understand Virgil's Georgics, unless he has been a farmer for five years. 2. No one can understand Cicero's Letters (or so I teach), unless he has busied himself in the affairs of some prominent state for twenty years. 3. Know that no one can have indulged in the Holy Writers sufficiently, unless he has governed churches for a hundred years with the prophets, such as Elijah and Elisha, John the Baptist, Christ and the apostles. Do not assail this divine Aeneid; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads. We are beggars: this is true.[243][244]
Luther is honoured on 18 February with a commemoration in the Lutheran Calendar of Saints and a feast day in the Episcopal (United States) Calendar of Saints; in the Church of England's Calendar of Saints he is commemorated on 31 October.
Works and editions[link]
- The Erlangen Edition (Erlangener Ausgabe: "EA"), comprising the Exegetica opera latina – Latin exegetical works of Luther.
- The Weimar Edition (Weimarer Ausgabe) is the exhaustive, standard German edition of Luther's Latin and German works, indicated by the abbreviation "WA". This is continued into "WA Br" Weimarer Ausgabe, Briefwechsel (correspondence), "WA Tr" Weimarer Ausgabe, Tischreden (tabletalk) and "WA DB" Weimarer Ausgabe, Deutsche Bibel (German Bible).
- The American Edition (Luther's Works) is the most extensive English translation of Luther's writings, indicated either by the abbreviation "LW" or "AE". The first 55 volumes were published 1955-1986, and a twenty volume extension (vols. 56-75) is planned of which volumes 58, 60, and 68 have appeared thus far.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Plass, Ewald M. "Monasticism," in What Luther Says: An Anthology. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1959, 2:964.
- ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says, 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures, Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
- ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament, trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, p. 223.
- ^ Hendrix, Scott H. "The Controversial Luther", Word & World 3/4 (1983), Luther Seminary, St. Paul, MN, p. 393: "And, finally, after the Holocaust and the use of his anti-Jewish statements by National Socialists, Luther's anti-semitic outbursts are now unmentionable, though they were already repulsive in the sixteenth century. As a result, Luther has become as controversial in the twentieth century as he was in the sixteenth." Also see Hillerbrand, Hans. "The legacy of Martin Luther", in Hillerbrand, Hans & McKim, Donald K. (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Luther. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
- ^ a b c Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 1.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:3–5.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Rupp, Ernst Gordon. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.
- ^ a b c d Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:48.
- ^ Schwiebert, E.G. Luther and His Times. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1950, 136.
- ^ Marty, Martin. Martin Luther. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 40–42.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986), 53.
- ^ Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986, 79.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 44–45.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:93.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:12–27.
- ^ "Johann Tetzel," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albert, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church."
- ^ (Trent, l. c., can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, a.s.")
- ^ (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)
- ^ a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Thesis 55 of Tetzel's One Hundred and Six Theses. These "Anti-theses" were a reply to Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses and were drawn up by Tetzel’s friend and former Professor, Konrad Wimpina. Theses 55 & 56 (responding to Luther's 27th Theses) read: "For a soul to fly out, is for it to obtain the vision of God, which can be hindered by no interruption, therefore he errs who says that the soul cannot fly out before the coin can jingle in the bottom of the chest." In, The reformation in Germany, Henry Clay Vedder, 1914, Macmillon Company, p. 405. [1] Animam purgatam evolare, est eam visione dei potiri, quod nulla potest intercapedine impediri. Quisquis ergo dicit, non citius posse animam volare, quam in fundo cistae denarius possit tinnire, errat. In: D. Martini Lutheri, Opera Latina: Varii Argumenti, 1865, Henricus Schmidt, ed., Heyder and Zimmer, Frankfurt am Main & Erlangen, vol. 1, p. 300. (Print on demand edition: Nabu Press, 2010, ISBN 1-142-40551-6 ISBN 978-1-142-40551-9). [2] See also:
"Johann Tetzel". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. - ^ See Ludwig von Pastor, The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages, Ralph Francis Kerr, ed., 1908, B. Herder, St. Louis, Volume 7, pp. 348–349. [3]
- ^ Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. "Luther," in Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden. Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.
- ^ Ritter, Gerhard. "Luther, Frankfurt 1985.
- ^ Gerhard Prause "Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,"in Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht. Düsseldorf, 1986.
- ^ Bekker, Henrik. "Dresden Leipzig & Saxony Adventure Guide". Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 125. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=41aJOjMZ3nwC&pg=PT125#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–205.
- ^ Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, 338.
- ^ Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology," in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 88–94.
- ^ Bouman, Herbert J. A. "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly, 26 November 1955, No. 11:801.
- ^ Dorman, Ted M., "Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther", Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ "Luther's Definition of Faith". http://www.ProjectWittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt.
- ^ "Justification by Faith: The Lutheran-Catholic Convergence". http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=155.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
- ^ Michael A. Mullett, Martin Luther, London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 978-0-415-26168-5, 78; Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10313-1, 192–93.
- ^ Mullett, 68–69; Oberman, 189.
- ^ Richard Marius, Luther, London: Quartet, 1975, ISBN 0-7043-3192-6, 85.
- ^ Papal Bull Exsurge Domine, 15 June 1520.
- ^ Mullett, 81–82.
- ^ Mullett, 82.
- ^ Mullett, 83.
- ^ Oberman, 197.
- ^ Mullett, 92–95; Roland H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther, New York: Mentor, 1955, OCLC 220064892, 81.
- ^ Marius, 87–89; Bainton, Mentor edition, 82.
- ^ Marius, 93; Bainton, Mentor edition, 90.
- ^ G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Collins, 1963, OCLC 222872115, 177.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
- ^ Brecht, 1:460.
- ^ Wilson, 153, 170; Marius, 155.
- ^ Bratcher, Dennis. "The Diet of Worms (1521)," in The Voice: Biblical and Theological Resources for Growing Christians. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ Reformation Europe: 1517–1559, London: Fontana, 1963, 53; Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700, London: Allen Lane, 2003, 132.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Letter 82," in Luther's Works. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald and Helmut T. Lehmann (eds), Vol. 48: Letters I, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1999, c1963, 48:246; Mullett, 133. John, author of Revelation, had been exiled on the island of Patmos.
- ^ Brecht, 2:12–14.
- ^ Mullett, 132, 134; Wilson, 182.
- ^ Brecht, 2:7–9; Marius, 161–62; Marty, 77–79.
- ^ Martin Luther, "Let Your Sins Be Strong," a Letter From Luther to Melanchthon, August 1521, Project Wittenberg, retrieved 1 October 2006.
- ^ Brecht, 2:27–29; Mullett, 133.
- ^ Brecht, 2:18–21.
- ^ Marius, 163–64.
- ^ Mullett, 135–36.
- ^ Wilson, 192–202; Brecht, 2:34–38.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 164–65.
- ^ Letter of 7 March 1522. Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV; Brecht, 2:57.
- ^ Brecht, 2:60; Bainton, Mentor edition, 165; Marius, 168–69.
- ^ a b Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch IV.
- ^ Marius, 169.
- ^ Mullett, 141–43.
- ^ Michael Hughes, Early Modern Germany: 1477–1806, London: Macmillan, 1992, ISBN 0-333-53774-2, 45.
- ^ A. G. Dickens, The German Nation and Martin Luther, London: Edward Arnold, 1974, ISBN 0-7131-5700-3, 132–33. Dickens cites as an example of Luther's "liberal" phraseology: "Therefore I declare that neither pope nor bishop nor any other person has the right to impose a syllable of law upon a Christian man without his own consent".
- ^ Hughes, 45–47.
- ^ Hughes, 50.
- ^ Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, Luther's Works, 55 vols. (St. Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Pub. House and Fortress Press, 1955–1986), 46: 50–51.
- ^ Mullett, 166.
- ^ Hughes, 51.
- ^ Andrew Pettegree, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20704-X, 102–103.
- ^ Wilson, 232.
- ^ Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, Vol VII, Ch V, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
- ^ a b c Scheible, Heinz (1997) (in German). Melanchthon. Eine Biographie. Munich: C.H.Beck. p. 147. ISBN 3-406-42223-3.
- ^ Lohse, Bernhard, Martin Luther: An Introduction to his Life and Work,, translated by Robert C. Schultz, Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1987, ISBN 0-567-09357-3, 32; Brecht, 2:196–97.
- ^ Brecht, 2:199; Wilson, 234; Lohse, 32.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. "Luther's Marriage. 1525.", History of the Christian Church, Volume VII, Modern Christianity, The German Reformation. § 77, rpt. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 17 May 2009; Mullett, 180–81.
- ^ Marty, 109; Bainton, Mentor edition, 226.
- ^ Brecht, 2: 202; Mullett, 182.
- ^ Oberman, 278–80; Wilson, 237; Marty, 110.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 228; Schaff, "Luther's Marriage. 1525."; Brecht, 2: 204.
- ^ MacCulloch, 164.
- ^ Bainton, Mentor edition, 243.
- ^ Brecht, 2:260–63, 67; Mullett, 184–86.
- ^ Brecht, 2:267; Bainton, Mentor edition, 244.
- ^ Brecht, 2:267; MacCulloch, 165. On one occasion, Luther referred to the elector as an "emergency bishop" (Notbischof).
- ^ Mullett, 186–87; Brecht, 2:264–65, 267.
- ^ Brecht, 2:264–65.
- ^ Brecht, 2:268.
- ^ Brecht, 2:251–54; Bainton, Mentor edition, 266.
- ^ Brecht, 2:255.
- ^ Mullett, 183; Eric W. Gritsch, A History of Lutheranism, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8006-3472-1, 37.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Mullett, 183.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 265–66.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256; Bainton, Mentor edition, 269–70.
- ^ Brecht, 2:256–57.
- ^ Brecht, 2:258.
- ^ Brecht, 2:263.
- ^ Mullett, 186. Quoted from Luther's preface to the Small Catechism, 1529; MacCulloch, 165.
- ^ Marty, 123.
- ^ Brecht, 2:273; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
- ^ Marty, 123; Wilson, 278.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971, 50:172–73; Bainton, Mentor edition, 263.
- ^ Brecht, 2:277, 280.
- ^ See texts at English translation
- ^ Charles P. Arand, "Luther on the Creed." Lutheran Quarterly 2006 20(1): 1–25. Issn: 0024-7499; James Arne Nestingen, "Luther's Catechisms" The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. Ed. Hans J. Hillerbrand. (1996)
- ^ Mullett, 145; Lohse, 119.
- ^ Mullett, 148–50.
- ^ Mullett, 148; Wilson, 185; Bainton, Mentor edition, 261. Luther inserted the word "alone" (allein) after the word "faith" in his translation of St Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 3:28. The clause is rendered in the English Authorised Version as "Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law".
- ^ Lindberg, Carter. "The European Reformations: Sourcebook". Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2000. pg. 49. Original sourcebook excerpt taken from "Luther's Works". St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1955–86. ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann, vol. 35. pgs. 182, 187–189, 195.
- ^ Wilson, 183; Brecht, 2:48–49.
- ^ Mullett, 149; Wilson, 302.
- ^ Marius, 162.
- ^ Lohse, 112–17; Wilson, 183; Bainton, Mentor edition, 258.
- ^ Daniel Weissbort and Astradur Eysteinsson (eds.), Translation—Theory and Practice: A Historical Reader, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-871200-6, 68.
- ^ For a short collection see online hymns
- ^ a b c Christopher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the Success of the Reformation. (2005)
- ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(1): 79–88, 89–98.
- ^ Robin A. Leaver, "Luther's Catechism Hymns: 5. Baptism." Lutheran Quarterly 1998 12(2): 160–169, 170–180.
- ^ Christoph Markschies, Michael Trowitzsch: Luther zwischen den Zeiten – Eine Jenaer Ringvorlesung; Mohr Siebeck, 1999; p. 215–219 (in German).
- ^ Mullett, 194–95.
- ^ Brecht, 2:325–34; Mullett, 197.
- ^ Wilson, 259.
- ^ Weimar Ausgabe 26, 442; Luther's Works 37, 299–300.
- ^ Oberman, 237.
- ^ Marty, 140–41; Lohse, 74–75.
- ^ Quoted by Oberman, 237.
- ^ Brecht 2:329.
- ^ Oberman, 238.
- ^ Psychopannychia (the night banquet of the soul), manuscript Orléans 1534, Latin Strasbourg 1542, 2nd.ed. 1545, French, Geneva 1558, English 1581.
- ^ Liber de Anima 1562
- ^ D. Franz Pieper Christliche Dogmatik, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1920), 3:575: "Hieraus geht sicher so viel hervor, daß die abgeschiedenen Seelen der Gläubigen in einem Zustande des seligen Genießens Gottes sich befinden .... Ein Seelenschlaf, der ein Genießen Gottes einschließt (so Luther), ist nicht als irrige Lehre zu bezeichnen"; English translation: Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 3 vols., (Saint Louis: CPH, 1953), 3:512: "These texts surely make it evident that the departed souls of the believers are in a state of blessed enjoyment of God .... A sleep of the sould which includes enjoyment of God (says Luther) cannot be called a false doctrine."
- ^ Sermons of Martin Luther: the House Postils, Eugene F. A. Klug, ed. and trans., 3 vols., (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1996), 2:240.
- ^ Weimarer Ausgabe 43, 360, 21–23 (to Genesis 25,7–10): also Exegetica opera latina Vol 5–6 1833 p. 120 and the English translation: Luther's Works, American Edition, 55 vols. (St. Louis: CPH), 4:313; "Sufficit igitur nobis haec cognitio, non egredi animas ex corporibus in periculum cruciatum et paenarum inferni, sed esse eis paratum cubiculum, in quo dormiant in pace."
- ^ Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 12
- ^ Smalcald Articles, Part II, Article II, paragraph 28
- ^ Gerhard Loci Theologici, Locus de Morte, § 293 ff. Pieper writes: "Luther speaks more guardedly of the state of the soul between death and resurrection than do Gerhard and the later theologians, who transfer some things to the state between death and resurrection which can be said with certainty only of the state after the resurrection" (Christian Dogmatics, 3:512, footnote 21).
- ^ Article in the Berlinischer Zeitung 1755 in Complete Works ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Lachmann – 1838 p. 59 "Was die Gegner auf alle diese Stellen antworten werden, ist leicht zu errathen. Sie werden sagen, daß Luther mit dem Worte Schlaf gar die Begriffe nicht verbinde, welche Herr R. damit verbindet. Wenn Luther sage, daß die Seele IS nach dem Tode schlafe, so denke er nichts mehr dabey, als was alle Leute denken, wenn sie den Tod des Schlafes Bruder nennen. Tode ruhe, leugneten auch die nicht, welche ihr Wachen behaupteten :c. Ueberhaupt ist mit Luthers Ansehen bey der ganzen Streitigkeit nichts zu gewinnen"
- ^ Exegetica opera Latina, Volumes 5–6 Martin Luther, ed. Christopf Stephan Elsperger (Gottlieb) p. 120 "Differunt tamen somnus sive quies hujus vitae et futurae. Homon enim in hac vita defatigatus diurno labore, sub noctem intrat in cubiculum suum tanquam in pace, ut ibi dormiat, et ea nocte fruitur quiete, neque quicquam scit de ullo malo sive incendii, sive caedis. Anima autem non sic dormit, sed vigilat, et patitur visiones loquelas Angelorum et Dei. Ideo somnus in futura vita profundior est quam in hac vita et tamen anima coram Deo vivit. Hac similitudine, quam habeo a somno viventia." (Commentary on Genesis – Enarrationes in Genesin, 1535–1545)"
- ^ Blackburne A short historical view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state (1765) p121
- ^ Gottfried Fritschel. Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche p. 657 "Denn dass Luther mit den Worten "anima non sic dormit, sed vigilat et patitur visiones, loquelas Angelorum et Dei" nicht dasjenige leugnen will, was er an allen andern Stellen seiner Schriften vortragt"
- ^ Henry Eyster Jacobs Martin Luther the Hero of the Reformation 1483 to 1546 1898. Emphasis added.
- ^ Mallett, 198; Marius, 220. The siege was lifted on 14 October 1529, which Luther saw as a divine miracle.
- ^ Andrew Cunningham, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,. 2000, ISBN 0-521-46701-2, 141; Mullett, 239–40; Marty, 164.
- ^ From On War against the Turk, 1529, quoted in William P. Brown, The Ten Commandments: The Reciprocity of Faithfulness, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004, ISBN 0-664-22323-0, 258; Lohse, 61; Marty, 166.
- ^ Marty, 166; Marius, 219; Brecht, 2:365, 368.
- ^ Mullett, 238–39; Lohse, 59–61.
- ^ Brecht, 2:364.
- ^ Wilson, 257; Brecht, 2:364–65.
- ^ Brecht, 2:365; Mullett, 239.
- ^ Brecht, 3:354.
- ^ Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-45908-7, 109; Mullett, 241; Marty, 163.
- ^ From On war against the Turk, 1529, quoted in Roland E. Miller, Muslims and the Gospel, Minneapolis: Kirk House Publishers, 2006, ISBN 1-932688-07-2, 208.
- ^ Brecht, 3:355.
- ^ Hughes, 55.
- ^ Gritsch, 45.
- ^ Mullett, 198–200; Elton, 148–49.
- ^ Wilson, 265.
- ^ Mullett, 201–203; Marius, 223.
- ^ Mullett, 207; Wilson, 269.
- ^ Mullett, 208; Gritsch, 48–49; Marius, 244.
- ^ Mullett, 203–204.
- ^ Roper, Lyndal (April 2010). "Martin Luther's Body: The 'Stout Doctor' and His Biographers". American Historical Review 115 (2): 351–362.
- ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal: Martin Luther's Complete Antinomian Theses and Disputations, ed. and tr. H. Sonntag, Minneapolis: Lutheran Press, 2008, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-9748529-6-6
- ^ Cf. ibid., 11–15.
- ^ Cf. Luther's Works 47:107–119. There he writes: "Dear God, should it be unbearable that the holy church confesses itself a sinner, believes in the forgiveness of sins, and asks for remission of sin in the Lord’s Prayer? How can one know what sin is without the law and conscience? And how will we learn what Christ is, what he did for us, if we do not know what the law is that he fulfilled for us and what sin is, for which he made satisfaction?" (112–113).
- ^ Cf. Luther's Works 41, 113–114, 143–144, 146–147. There he said about the antinomians: "They may be fine Easter preachers, but they are very poor Pentecost preachers, for they do not preach de sanctificatione et vivificatione Spiritus Sancti, “about the sanctification by the Holy Spirit,” but solely about the redemption of Jesus Christ" (114). "Having rejected and being unable to understand the Ten Commandments, ... they see and yet they let the people go on in their public sins, without any renewal or reformation of their lives" (147).
- ^ Cf. Luther, Only the Decalogue Is Eternal, 33–36.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 170–172
- ^ Cf. ibid., 76, 105–107.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 140, 157.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 75, 104–105, 172–173.
- ^ The "first use of the law," accordingly, would be the law used as an external means of order and coercion in the political realm by means of bodily rewards and punishments.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 110.
- ^ Cf. ibid., 35: "The law, therefore, cannot be eliminated, but remains, prior to Christ as not fulfilled, after Christ as to be fulfilled, although this does not happen perfectly in this life even by the justified. ... This will happen perfectly first in the coming life." See also ibid., 43–44, 91–93.
- ^ E.g., by Erlangen theologian Werner Elert (1885–1954), cf. ibid., 21.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3: 206.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:212.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:214.
- ^ Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther, tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:205–15.
- ^ Oberman, Heiko, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 294.
- ^ Michael, Robert.[disambiguation needed
] Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, 109; Mullett, 242. - ^ Edwards, Mark. Luther's Last Battles. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, 121.
- ^ Brecht, 3:341–43; Mullett, 241; Marty, 172.
- ^ Rupp, Gordan. Martin Luther and the Jews. London: , 1972, 9.
- ^ Luther, "Lectures on Romans", Luthers Werke. 25:428.
- ^ Brecht, 3:334; Marty, 169; Marius, 235.
- ^ Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2; Mullett, 246.
- ^ Brecht, 3:341–47.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and their Lies, quoted in Michael, 112.
- ^ Luther, Vom Schem Hamphoras, quoted in Michael, 113.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, Luthers Werke. 47:268–271.
- ^ Luther, On the Jews and Their Lies, quoted in Robert Michael, "Luther, Luther Scholars, and the Jews," Encounter 46 (Autumn 1985) No. 4:343–344.
- ^ "Deuteronomy 13" (in English Standard Version). The Bible. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2013&version=ESV.
- ^ a b Michael, 117.
- ^ Quoted by Michael, 110.
- ^ Michael, 117–18.
- ^ Gritsch, 113–14; Michael, 117.
- ^ "The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented anti-Semitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion." Johannes Wallmann, "The Reception of Luther's Writings on the Jews from the Reformation to the End of the 19th century", Lutheran Quarterly, n.s. 1 (Spring 1987) 1:72–97.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28; Johnson, Paul. A History of the Jews (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987), 242; Shirer, William. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960).
- ^ Grunberger, Richard. The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi German 1933–1945 (NP:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 465.
- ^ Himmler wrote: "what Luther said and wrote about the Jews. No judgment could be sharper."
- ^ Ellis, Marc H. Hitler and the Holocaust, Christian Anti-Semitism", (NP: Baylor University Center for American and Jewish Studies, Spring 2004), Slide 14. [4].
- ^ See Noble, Graham. "Martin Luther and German anti-Semitism," History Review (2002) No. 42:1–2.
- ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Reformation:Europe's House Divided, 1490–1700. New York:Penguin Books Ltd, 2004, pp. 666–667.
- ^ Bernd Nellessen, "Die schweigende Kirche: Katholiken und Judenverfolgung," in Buttner (ed), Die Deutchschen und die Jugendverfolg im Dritten Reich, p.265, cited in Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (Vintage, 1997)
- ^ Who voted for the Nazis? (electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers Party),History Today, October 1998, Vol.48, Issue 10, pages 8–14
- ^ Brecht 3:351.
- ^ Wallmann, 72–97.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, The Fabricated Luther, 17–20.
- ^ Siemon-Netto, "Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Witness 123 (2004) No. 4:19, 21.
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Hillerbrand writes: "His strident pronouncements against the Jews, especially toward the end of his life, have raised the question of whether Luther significantly encouraged the development of German anti-Semitism. Although many scholars have taken this view, this perspective puts far too much emphasis on Luther and not enough on the larger peculiarities of German history."
- ^ Bainton, Roland: Here I Stand, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, New American Library, 1983), p. 297
- ^ For similar views, see:
- Briese, Russell. "Martin Luther and the Jews," Lutheran Forum (Summer 2000):32;
- Brecht, Martin Luther, 3:351;
- Edwards, Mark U. Jr. Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics 1531–46. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983, 139;
- Gritsch, Eric. "Was Luther Anti-Semitic?", Christian History, No. 3:39, 12.;
- Kittelson, James M., Luther the Reformer, 274;
- Oberman, Heiko. The Roots of Anti-Semitism: In the Age of Renaissance and Reformation. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984, 102;
- Rupp, Gordon. Martin Luther, 75;
- Siemon-Netto, Uwe. Lutheran Witness, 19.
- ^ Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002), 28.
- ^ Rose, Paul Lawrence. Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner. Princeton University Press, 1990. Cited in Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2002, 28.
- ^ Synod deplores and disassociates itself from Luther’s negative statements about the Jewish people and the use of these statements to incite anti-Lutheran sentiment, from a summary of Official Missouri Synod Doctrinal Statements
- ^ Lull, Timothy Martin Luther's Basic Theological Writings, Second Edition (2005), p. 25
- ^ Iversen OH (1996). "[Martin Luther's somatic diseases. A short life-history 450 years after his death]" (in Norwegian). Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 116 (30): 3643–46. PMID 9019884.
- ^ Edwards, 9.
- ^ Spitz, 354.
- ^ Die Beziehungen des Reformators Martin Luther zu Halle buergerstiftung-halle.de (German)
- ^ Luther, Martin. Sermon No. 8, "Predigt über Mat. 11:25, Eisleben gehalten," 15 February 1546, Luthers Werke, Weimar 1914, 51:196–197.
- ^ Poliakov, Léon. From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, Vanguard Press, p. 220.
- ^ Mackinnon, James. Luther and the Reformation. Vol. IV, (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962, p. 204.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Admonition against the Jews, added to his final sermon, cited in Oberman, Heiko. Luther: Man Between God and the Devil, New York: Image Books, 1989, p. 294. A complete translation of Luther's Admonition can be found in Wikisource.s:Warning Against the Jews (1546)
- ^ Martin Luther's Death Mask on View at Museum in Halle, Germany artdaily.com
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:369–79.
- ^ a b McKim, Donald K. (2003). The Cambridge companion to Martin Luther. Cambridge companions to religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-521-01673-8.
- ^ Kellermann, James A. (translator) "The Last Written Words of Luther: Holy Ponderings of the Reverend Father Doctor Martin Luther". 16 February 1546.
- ^ Original German and Latin of Luther's last written words is: "Wir sein pettler. Hoc est verum." Heinrich Bornkamm, Luther's World of Thought, tr. Martin H. Bertram (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1958), 291.
Further reading[link]
For works by and about Luther, see Martin Luther (resources) or Luther's works at Wikisource.
- Erikson, Erik H. (1958). Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History. New York: W. W. Norton.
- Dillenberger, John (1961). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 165808.
- Lull, Timothy (1989). Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 0-8006-3680-5.
- Luther, M. The Bondage of the Will. Eds. J. I. Packer and O. R. Johnson. Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1957. OCLC 22724565.
- Luther's Works, 55 vols. Eds. H. T. Lehman and J. Pelikan. St Louis Missouri, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1955–86. Also on CD-ROM. Minneapolis and St Louis: Fortress Press and Concordia Publishing House, 2002.
- Reu, Johann Michael Thirty-five Years of Luther Research Chicago: Wartburg Publishing House, 1917.
External links[link]
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Martin Luther" article dated 2011-07-17, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
Works written by or about Martin Luther at Wikisource
Media related to Martin Luther at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Martin Luther at Wikiquote- The Mutopia Project has compositions by Martin Luther
- Booknotes interview with Martin Marty on Martin Luther, April 11, 2004.
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Luther, Martin |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | German theologian and priest |
| Date of birth | 10 November 1483 |
| Place of birth | Eisleben, Germany |
| Date of death | 18 February 1546 |
| Place of death | Eisleben, Germany |
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This article is about the person. For other uses, see Malcolm X (disambiguation).
"Malik Shabazz" redirects here. For other people of that name, see Malik Shabazz (disambiguation).
| Malcolm X | |
|---|---|
 Malcolm X in March 1964 |
|
| Born | Malcolm Little (1925-05-19)May 19, 1925 Omaha, Nebraska, United States |
| Died | February 21, 1965(1965-02-21) (aged 39) New York City, New York, United States |
| Cause of death | Assassination (gunshot) |
| Resting place | Ferncliff Cemetery |
| Other names | El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz |
| Organization | Nation of Islam, Muslim Mosque, Inc., Organization of Afro-American Unity |
| Influenced by | Elijah Muhammad, Marcus Garvey |
| Political movement | Black nationalism, Pan-Africanism |
| Religion | Nation of Islam, (later) Sunni Islam |
| Spouse | Betty Shabazz (m. 1958) |
| Children | Attallah Shabazz Qubilah Shabazz Ilyasah Shabazz Gamilah Lumumba Shabazz Malikah Shabazz Malaak Shabazz |
| Parents | Earl Little, Louise Norton Little |
| Signature |  |
Malcolm X ( /ˈmælkəm ˈɛks/; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz[1] (Arabic: الحاجّ مالك الشباز), was an African-American Muslim minister and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans. Detractors accused him of preaching racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.
Malcolm X's father died—killed by white supremacists, it was rumored—when he was young, and at least one of his uncles was lynched. When he was thirteen, his mother was placed in a mental hospital, and he was placed in a series of foster homes. In 1946, at age 20, he went to prison for breaking and entering.
In prison, Malcolm X became a member of the Nation of Islam and after his parole in 1952 he quickly rose to become one of its leaders. For a dozen years Malcolm X was the public face of the controversial group, but disillusionment with Nation of Islam head Elijah Muhammad led him to leave the Nation in March 1964. After a period of travel in Africa and the Middle East, he returned to the United States, where he founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. In February 1965, less than a year after leaving the Nation of Islam, he was assassinated by three members of the group.
Malcolm X's expressed beliefs changed substantially over time. As a spokesman for the Nation of Islam he taught black supremacy and advocated separation of black and white Americans—in contrast to the civil rights movement's emphasis on integration. After breaking with the Nation of Islam in 1964—saying of his association with it, "I was a zombie then ... pointed in a certain direction and told to march"—and becoming a Sunni Muslim, he disavowed racism and expressed willingness to work with civil rights leaders, though still emphasizing black self-determination and self defense.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children to Earl Little and Louise Norton.[2] His father was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker. He supported Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey and was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).[3] Malcolm never forgot the values of black pride and self-reliance that his father and other UNIA leaders preached.[4] Malcolm X later said that three of Earl Little's brothers, one of whom was lynched, died violently at the hands of white men.[5] Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan.[6]
Earl Little, who was dark-skinned, was born in Reynolds, Georgia.[7] He had three children from his first marriage: Ella, Mary, and Earl Jr.—and seven with his second wife, Louise: Wilfred, Hilda, Philbert, Malcolm, Reginald, Yvonne, and Wesley.[8] Louise Norton Little was born in Grenada. Because her father was Scottish, she was so light-skinned that she could have passed for white. Malcolm inherited his light complexion from his mother and maternal grandfather.[9] Initially he felt his light skin was a status symbol, but he later said he "hated every drop of that white rapist's blood that is in me."[10] Malcolm X later remembered feeling that his father favored him because he was the lightest-skinned child in the family; however, he thought his mother treated him harshly for the same reason.[11] One of Malcolm's nicknames, "Red", derived from the tinge of his hair. According to one biographer, at birth he had "ash-blonde hair ... tinged with cinnamon", and at age four, "reddish-blonde hair".[12] His hair darkened as he aged, yet he also resembled his paternal grandmother, whose hair "turned reddish in the summer sun."[2] The issue of skin and hair color took on very significant implications later in Malcolm's life.[7]
In December 1924, Louise Little was threatened by Klansmen while she was pregnant with Malcolm. She recalled that the Klansmen warned the family to leave Omaha, because Earl Little's activities with UNIA were "spreading trouble".[13] After they moved to Lansing, their house was burned in 1929; however, the family escaped without physical injury. On September 8, 1931, Earl Little was fatally struck by a streetcar in Lansing. Authorities ruled his death an accident. The police reported that Earl Little was conscious when they arrived on the scene, and he told them he had slipped and fallen under the streetcar's wheels.[14] The black community in Lansing disputed the cause of death, believing there was circumstantial evidence of assault. His family had frequently been harassed by the Black Legion, a white supremacist group that his father accused of burning down their home in 1929. Some blacks believed the Black Legion was responsible for Earl Little's death. One of the adults at the funeral told eight-year-old Philbert Little that his father had been hit from behind and shoved under the streetcar.[15]
Though Earl Little had two life insurance policies, his family received death benefits solely from the smaller policy. The insurance company of the larger policy claimed that his father had committed suicide and refused to issue the benefit.[16] The payout from the insurance policy was $1,000 (comparable to about $15,000 in 2010 dollars), and the probate court awarded Louise Little a monthly "widow's allowance" of $18. She rented space in the garden to raise more money, and her sons would hunt game for supper.[17]
In 1935 or 1936, Louise Little began dating an African-American man. A marriage proposal seemed a possibility, but the man disappeared from their lives when Louise became pregnant with his child in late 1937.[18] In December 1938, Louise Little had a nervous breakdown and was declared legally insane. The Little siblings were split up and sent to different foster homes. The state formally committed Louise Little to the state mental hospital at Kalamazoo, Michigan, where she remained until Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[19][20]
Malcolm Little was one of the best students in his junior high school, but he dropped out after a white eighth-grade teacher told him that his aspirations of being a lawyer were "no realistic goal for a nigger."[21] Years later, Malcolm X would laugh about the incident, but at the time it was humiliating. It made him feel that there was no place in the white world for a career-oriented black man, no matter how smart he was.[21] After living with a series of foster parents, Malcolm moved to Boston in February 1941 to live with his older half-sister, Ella Little Collins.[22][23]
Young adult years[link]
Collins lived in Roxbury, a predominantly African-American middle-class neighborhood of Boston. It was the first time Little had seen so many black people. He was drawn to the cultural and social life of the neighborhood.[24] In Boston, Little held a variety of jobs and found intermittent employment with the New Haven Railroad. Between 1943 and 1946, he drifted from city to city and job to job. He left Boston to live for a short time in Flint, Michigan. He moved to New York City in 1943. Living in Harlem, he became involved in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and pimping.[25] During this period, Little became known as "Detroit Red" because he came from Michigan and because of the reddish color of his hair.[26] According to recent biographies, Little occasionally engaged in sex with other men, usually for money.[27][28]
In 1943, the U.S. draft board ordered Little to register for military service.[29] He later recalled that he put on a display to avoid the draft by telling the examining officer that he could not wait to "steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers."[30] Military physicians classified him as "mentally disqualified for military service". He was issued a 4-F card, relieving him of his service obligations.[29] In late 1945, Little returned to Boston. With a group of associates, he began a series of elaborate burglaries targeting the residences of wealthy white families.[31] On January 12, 1946, Little was arrested for burglary while trying to pick up a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop.[32] The shop owner called the police because the watch was very expensive, and the police had alerted all Boston jewelers that it had been stolen. Little told the police that he had a gun on his person and surrendered so the police would treat him more leniently.[33] Three days later, Little was indicted for carrying firearms. On January 16, he was charged with larceny and breaking and entering, and eventually sentenced to eight to ten years in prison.[34]
On February 27, Little began serving his sentence at the Charlestown State Prison in Charlestown, Boston. While in prison, Little earned the nickname of "Satan" for his hostility toward religion.[35] Little met a self-educated man in prison named John Elton Bembry (referred to as "Bimbi" in The Autobiography of Malcolm X).[36] Bembry was a well-regarded prisoner at Charlestown, and Malcolm X would later describe him as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect ... with words."[37] Gradually, the two men became friends and Bembry convinced Little to educate himself.[38] Little developed a voracious appetite for reading, and he frequently read after the prison lights had been turned off.[39] In 1948, Little's brother Philbert wrote, telling him about the Nation of Islam. Like the UNIA, the Nation preached black self-reliance and, ultimately, the unification of members of the African diaspora, free from white American and European domination.[40] Little was not interested in joining until his brother Reginald wrote, saying, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison."[41] Little quit smoking, and the next time pork was served in the prison dining hall, he refused to eat it.[42]
When Reginald came to visit Little, he described the group's teachings, including the belief that white people are devils. Afterward, Little thought about all the white people he had known, and he realized that he'd never had a relationship with a white person or social institution that wasn't based on dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred. Little began to reconsider his dismissal of all religion and he became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam. Other family members who had joined the Nation wrote or visited and encouraged Little to join.[43] In February 1948, mostly through his sister's efforts, Little was transferred to the Norfolk Prison Colony, an experimental prison in Norfolk, Massachusetts, that had a much larger library.[44] In late 1948, he wrote a letter to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to atone for his crimes by renouncing his past and by humbly bowing in prayer to Allah and promising never to engage in destructive behavior again. Little, who always had been rebellious and deeply skeptical, found it very difficult to bow in prayer. It took him a week to bend his knees. Finally he prayed, and he became a member of the Nation of Islam.[45] For the remainder of his incarceration, Little maintained regular correspondence with Muhammad.[46] On August 7, 1952, Little was paroled and was released from prison.[47] He later reflected on the time he spent in prison after his conversion: "Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my correspondence, my visitors—usually Ella and Reginald—and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life."[48]
Nation of Islam[link]
| Part of a series on the |
| Nation of Islam |
|---|
 |
| Leaders |
| Wallace Fard Muhammad Elijah Muhammad · Malcolm X Warith Deen Mohammed Louis Farrakhan Tynetta Muhammad Mustapha Farrakhan Ishmael Muhammad Ava Muhammad |
| History and beliefs |
| Saviours' Day Nation of Islam and antisemitism Tribe of Shabazz · Yakub Million Man March |
| Publications |
| A Torchlight for America The Final Call How to Eat to Live Muhammad Speaks |
| Subsidiaries and offshoots |
| American Society of Muslims Fruit of Islam The Nation of Gods and Earths New Black Panther Party United Nation of Islam Your Black Muslim Bakery |
Further information: Nation of Islam
When Little was released from prison in 1952, he had more than a new religion. He also had a new name. In a December 1950 letter to his brother Philbert, Little signed his name as Malcolm X for the first time.[49] In his autobiography, he explained why: "The Muslim's 'X' symbolized the true African family name that he never could know. For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears."[50]
Shortly after his release from prison, Malcolm X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago, Illinois.[51] In June 1953, Malcolm X was named assistant minister of the Nation of Islam's Temple Number One in Detroit.[52][53] Soon, he became a full-time minister.[54] By late 1953, Malcolm X established Boston's Temple Number 11.[55] In March 1954, he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[56] Two months later Malcolm X was selected to lead Temple Number Seven in Harlem,[57] and he rapidly expanded its membership.[58]
The FBI had opened a file on Malcolm X in 1950 after he wrote a letter to President Truman stating his opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself to be a communist.[59] It began surveillance of him in 1953, and soon the FBI turned its attention from concerns about possible Communist Party association to Malcolm X's rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[60]
During 1955, Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment efforts on behalf of the organization. He established temples in Springfield, Massachusetts (Number 13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number 14); and Atlanta, Georgia (Number 15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month.[61] Beside his skill as a speaker, Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg).[62] One writer described him as "powerfully built",[63] and another as "mesmerizingly handsome ... and always spotlessly well-groomed".[62]
Johnson Hinton incident[link]
Malcolm X first came to the attention of the general public after the police beating of a Nation of Islam member named Johnson Hinton.[64][65] On April 26, 1957, two police officers were beating an African-American man with their nightsticks when three passersby who belonged to the Nation of Islam tried to intervene.[64] They shouted: "You're not in Alabama or Georgia. This is New York!"[65] One of the officers began to beat one of the passersby, Johnson Hinton. The blows were so severe, a surgeon later determined, that they caused brain contusions, subdural hemorrhaging, and scalp lacerations. All four men were arrested and taken to the police station.[64]
A woman who had seen the assault ran to the Nation of Islam's restaurant.[64] Within a few hours, Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Hinton. The police captain initially said no Muslims were being held there, but as the crowd grew to about 500, he allowed Malcolm X to speak with Hinton.[66] After a short talk, Malcolm X demanded that Hinton be taken to the hospital, so an ambulance was called and Hinton was taken to Harlem Hospital.[67]
Hinton was treated and released into the custody of the police, who returned him to the police station.[66] By this point, about 4,000 people had gathered; the police realized there was the potential for a riot and called for backup. Malcolm X went back into the police station with an attorney and made bail arrangements for the other two Muslims. The police said Hinton could not go back to the hospital until he was arraigned the following day.[67] Malcolm X realized things were at a stalemate. He stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal.[67] The Nation of Islam members in the crowd silently walked away. The rest of the crowd dispersed minutes later. One police officer told the editor of the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[67][68]
The following month, the Bureau of Special Services and Investigation of the New York Police Department (NYPD) began its surveillance of Malcolm X. The NYPD's Chief Inspector asked for information from the police department in every city where Malcolm X had lived, and from the prisons where he had served his sentence.[69] In October, when a grand jury declined to indict the officers who had beaten Hinton, Malcolm X wrote an angry telegram to the police commissioner. In response, undercover NYPD officers were placed inside the Nation of Islam.[70]
Marriage and family[link]
Malcolm X met Betty Sanders in 1955. She had been invited to listen to his lecture, and she was very impressed by him. They met again at a dinner party. Soon Sanders was attending all of Malcolm X's lectures at Temple Number Seven. In mid 1956, she joined the Nation of Islam and changed her name to Betty X.[71]
Malcolm X and Betty X did not have a conventional courtship. One-on-one dates were contrary to the teachings of the Nation of Islam. Instead, the couple shared their "dates" with dozens, or even hundreds of other members. Malcolm X frequently took groups to visit New York's museums and libraries, and he always invited Betty X.[72]
Although they had never discussed the subject, Betty X suspected that Malcolm X was interested in marriage. On January 12, 1958, he called from Detroit and asked her to marry him, and they were married two days later in Lansing, Michigan.[73][74]
The couple had six daughters. Their names were Attallah, born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun;[75][76] Qubilah, born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan;[77] Ilyasah, born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad;[78] Gamilah Lumumba, born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba;[79] and twins, Malikah and Malaak, born in 1965 after their father's assassination and named for him.[80]
[edit] The Hate That Hate Produced
After a 1959 television broadcast in New York City about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced, Malcolm X became known to white Americans. Representatives of the print media, radio, and television frequently asked him for comments on issues.[81] By the late 1950s, Malcolm X had acquired a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el-Shabazz, although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm X.[82]
In September 1960, Fidel Castro arrived in New York to attend the meeting of the United Nations General Assembly. He and his entourage stayed at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem. Malcolm X was a prominent member of a Harlem-based welcoming committee made up of community leaders who met with Castro.[83] Castro was so impressed by Malcolm X that he requested a private meeting with him. At the end of their two-hour meeting, Castro invited Malcolm X to visit him in Cuba.[84] During the General Assembly meeting, Malcolm X was also invited to many official embassy functions sponsored by African nations, where he met heads of state and other leaders, including Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress.[85]
From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings, including that black people are the original people of the world,[86] that white people are "devils",[87] that blacks are superior to whites, and that the demise of the white race is imminent.[88] While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. He proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in America[89] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[90] Malcolm X also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, and instead advocated that black people use any necessary means of self-defense to protect themselves.[91] Malcolm X's speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, generally African Americans who lived in the Northern and Western cities, who were tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect.[92] Many blacks felt that he articulated their complaints better than the civil rights movement did.[93][94]
Malcolm X has been widely considered the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad.[95] He was largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one author's estimate,[96] or from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another's).[97][98] He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali) to join the Nation of Islam.[99] (though like Malcolm X himself, Ali later left the group to become a Sunni Muslim).[100]
Many white people, and even some blacks, were alarmed by Malcolm X and the things he said. He and the Nation of Islam were described as hatemongers, black supremacists, racists, violence-seekers, segregationists, and a threat to improved race relations. Civil rights organizations denounced Malcolm X and the Nation as irresponsible extremists whose views were not representative of African Americans.[101][102][103] Malcolm X was accused of being antisemitic.[104]
Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement.[105] He described its leaders as "stooges" for the white establishment, and he once described Martin Luther King, Jr. as a "chump".[106][107] He criticized the 1963 March on Washington, which he called "the farce on Washington".[108] He said he did not know why so many black people were excited about a demonstration "run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive".[109]
Leaving the Nation[link]
On December 1, 1963, when he was asked for a comment about the assassination of President Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost". He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."[110] The New York Times wrote, "in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to roost'."[110] The remarks prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had issued a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[111] Although Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister, he was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.[112]
On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. He said that he was still a Muslim, but he felt the Nation of Islam had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid religious teachings.[113] Malcolm X said he was going to organize a black nationalist organization that would try to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans.[113] He also expressed his desire to work with other civil rights leaders and said that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past.[113]
One reason for the separation was growing tension between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad because of Malcolm X's dismay about rumors of Muhammad's extramarital affairs with young secretaries, actions that were against the teachings of the Nation. Although at first Malcolm X had ignored the rumors, after speaking with Muhammad's son Wallace and the women making the accusations, he came to believe that they were true. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963 but tried to justify his actions by reference to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[114] Another reason for the separation was growing resentment by people within the Nation. As Malcolm X had become a favorite of the media, many in the Nation's Chicago headquarters felt that he was over-shadowing Muhammad. Louis Lomax's 1963 book about the Nation of Islam, When the Word Is Given, featured a picture of Malcolm X on its cover and included five of his speeches, but only one of Muhammad's, which greatly upset Muhammad. Muhammad was also envious that a publisher was interested in Malcolm X's autobiography.[115] After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque, Inc., a religious organization,[116][117] and the Organization of Afro-American Unity, a secular group that advocated Pan-Africanism.[118][119] On March 26, 1964, he met Martin Luther King, Jr. in Washington, D.C., after a press conference held when both men attended the Senate to hear the debate on the Civil Rights bill. This was the only time the two men ever met and their meeting lasted only one minute—just long enough for photographers to take a picture.[120][121] In April, Malcolm X made a speech titled "The Ballot or the Bullet" in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely.[122][123] Several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about Islam. Soon he converted to Sunni Islam, and decided to make his pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).[124]
International travel[link]
Pilgrimage to Mecca[link]
On April 13, 1964, Malcolm X departed JFK Airport in New York for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. His status as an authentic Muslim was questioned by Saudi authorities because of his United States passport and his inability to speak Arabic. Since only confessing Muslims are allowed into Mecca, he was separated from his group for about 20 hours.[125][126]
According to his autobiography, Malcolm X saw a telephone and remembered the book The Eternal Message of Muhammad by Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam, which had been presented to him with his visa approval. He called Azzam's son, who arranged for his release. At the younger Azzam's home, he met Azzam Pasha, who gave Malcolm his suite at the Jeddah Palace Hotel. The next morning, Muhammad Faisal, the son of Prince Faisal, visited and informed Malcolm X that he was to be a state guest. The deputy chief of protocol accompanied Malcolm X to the Hajj Court, where he was allowed to make his pilgrimage.[127]
On April 19, Malcolm X completed the Hajj, making the seven circuits around the Kaaba, drinking from the Zamzam Well, and running between the hills of Safah and Marwah seven times.[128] After completing the Hajj, he was granted an audience with Prince Faisal.[129] Malcolm X said the trip allowed him to see Muslims of different races interacting as equals. He came to believe that Islam could be the means by which racial problems could be overcome.[130]
Africa[link]
Malcolm X visited Africa on three separate occasions, once in 1959 and twice in 1964. During his visits, he met officials, gave interviews to newspapers, and spoke on television and radio in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika (now Tanzania), Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and Morocco.[131] Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments.[132]
In 1959, Malcolm X traveled to Egypt (then known as the United Arab Republic), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana to arrange a tour for Elijah Muhammad.[133] The first of the two trips Malcolm X made to Africa in 1964 lasted from April 13 until May 21, before and after his Hajj.[134] On May 8, following his speech at the University of Ibadan, Malcolm X was made an honorary member of the Nigerian Muslim Students' Association. During this reception the students bestowed upon him the name "Omowale", which means "the son who has come home" in the Yoruba language.[135] Malcolm X wrote in his autobiography that he "had never received a more treasured honor."[136]
On July 9, 1964, Malcolm X returned to Africa.[137] On July 17, he was welcomed to the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity in Cairo as a representative of the Organization of Afro-American Unity. By the time he returned to the United States on November 24, 1964, Malcolm had met with every prominent African leader and established an international connection between Africans on the continent and those in the diaspora.[132]
France and the United Kingdom[link]
On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke at the Salle de la Mutualité.[138][139] A week later, on November 30, Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom, and on December 3 participated in a debate at the Oxford Union. The topic of the debate was "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue", and Malcolm X argued the affirmative. Interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC.[140][141]
On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X went to Europe again.[142] On February 8, he spoke in London, before the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations.[143] The next day, Malcolm X tried to go to France, but he was refused entry.[144] On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near Birmingham, which had become a byword for racial division after the 1964 general election, when the Conservative Party won the parliamentary seat after rumors that their candidate's supporters had used the slogan "If you want a nigger for your neighbour, vote Labour."[145]
Return to United States[link]
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X spoke before a wide variety of audiences in the United States. He spoke at regular meetings of Muslim Mosque, Inc., and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. He was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses,[146] and one of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students."[147] Malcolm X also spoke before political groups such as the Militant Labor Forum.[148]
Tensions increased between Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. As early as February 1964, a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered a member of the Fruit of Islam to wire explosives to Malcolm X's car.[149] In September 1964, Ebony published a photograph of Malcolm X holding an M1 Carbine and peering out a window. The photo was intended to illustrate his determination to defend himself and his family against the death threats he was receiving.[150][151]
The Nation of Islam and its leaders began making both public and private threats against Malcolm X. On March 23, 1964, Elijah Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that "hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off."[152] The April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon in which his severed head was shown bouncing.[153] On July 9, John Ali, a top aide to Muhammad, answered a question about Malcolm X by saying that "anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy."[154] The December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks included an article by Louis X that railed against Malcolm X, saying "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death."[155]
Some threats were made anonymously. During the month of June 1964, FBI surveillance recorded two such threats. On June 8, a man called Malcolm X's home and told Betty Shabazz to "tell him he's as good as dead."[156] On June 12, an FBI informant reported getting an anonymous telephone call from somebody who said "Malcolm X is going to be bumped off."[157]
In June 1964, the Nation of Islam sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in Queens, New York, which they claimed to own. The suit was successful, and Malcolm X was ordered to vacate.[158] On February 14, 1965, the night before a scheduled hearing to postpone the eviction date, the house burned to the ground. Malcolm X and his family survived. No one was charged with any crime.[159]
Assassination[link]
On February 21, 1965, as Malcolm X prepared to address the Organization of Afro-American Unity in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom, a disturbance broke out in the 400-person audience[160]—a man yelled, "Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!"[161][162] As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance,[163] a man seated in the front row rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a double-barreled sawed-off shotgun.[164] Two other men charged the stage and fired semi-automatic handguns, hitting Malcolm X several times.[162] He was pronounced dead at 3:30 pm, shortly after he arrived at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[160] According to the autopsy report, Malcolm X's body had 21 gunshot wounds to his chest, left shoulder, and both arms and legs, many of them fatal; ten of the wounds were buckshot to his left chest and shoulder from the initial shotgun blast.[165]
One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan) was seized and beaten by the crowd before the police arrived minutes later;[166][167] witnesses identified the others as Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson, also Nation members.[168] Hayer confessed at trial to have been one of the handgun shooters, but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson.[169] All three were convicted.[170]
Butler, now known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation's Harlem mosque in 1998. He continues to maintain his innocence.[171] Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam, rejected the Nation's teachings while in prison and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009.[172][173] Hayer, now known as Mujahid Halim,[174] was paroled in 2010.[175]
Funeral[link]
A public viewing was held at Harlem's Unity Funeral Home from February 23 through February 26, and it was estimated that between 14,000 and 30,000 mourners attended.[176] The funeral was held on February 27 at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ in Harlem. The church was filled to capacity with more than 1,000 people.[177] Loudspeakers were set up outside the Temple so the overflowing crowd could listen[178] and a local television station broadcast the funeral live.[179]
Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis, Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse Gray, and Andrew Young.[177][180] Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X as "our shining black prince".
There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain—and we will smile. Many will say turn away—away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the black man—and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate—a fanatic, a racist—who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him.[181]
Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.[179] At the gravesite after the ceremony, friends took the shovels from the waiting gravediggers and completed the burial themselves.[182] Actor and activist Ruby Dee (wife of Ossie Davis) and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise funds to buy a house and pay educational expenses for Malcolm X's family.[183]
Responses to assassination[link]
Reactions to Malcolm X's assassination were varied. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. sent a telegram to Betty Shabazz, expressing his sadness over "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband."
While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race.[184]
Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February 26, "Malcolm X got just what he preached," while denying any involvement with the murder.[185] "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him," Muhammad said. "We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end."[186]
The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted".[187] The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance—often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized."[188]
The international press, particularly that of Africa, was sympathetic. The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X "will have a place in the palace of martyrs."[189] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown and Patrice Lumumba among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause".[190] Guangming Daily, published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights",[191] while in Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination".[192]
Allegations of conspiracy[link]
Within days of the assassination, questions were raised about who bore ultimate responsibility. On February 23, James Farmer, the leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were to blame.[193] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene.[194][195]
In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs directed towards infiltrating and disrupting civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s.[196] John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was identified as an FBI undercover agent.[197] Malcolm X had confided in a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad. He considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.[197] On February 20, 1965, the night before the assassination, Ali met with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X.[198]
In 1977 and 1978, Talmadge Hayer submitted two sworn affidavits re-asserting his claim that Butler and Johnson were not involved in the assassination. In his affidavits Hayer named four men, all members of the Nation of Islam's Newark Temple Number 25, as having participated with him in the crime. Hayer asserted that a man, later identified as Wilbur McKinley, was the one who shouted and threw a smoke bomb to create a diversion. Hayer said that another man, later identified as William Bradley, had a shotgun and was the first to fire on Malcolm X after the diversion. Hayer asserted that he and a man later identified as Leon Davis, both armed with pistols, fired on Malcolm X immediately after the shotgun blast. Hayer also said that a fifth man, later identified as Benjamin Thomas, was involved in the conspiracy.[199][200] Hayer's statements failed to convince authorities to reopen their investigation of the murder.[201]
Some, including the Shabazz family, have accused Louis Farrakhan of being involved in the plot to assassinate Malcolm X.[202][203][204][205] In a 1993 speech, Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible for the assassination:
Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats.[206][207]
In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some of the things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke", he said. "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[208] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination."[209] No consensus on who was responsible has been reached.[210]
Philosophy[link]
Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the myriad speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death in 1965.[211] Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published.[212]
Beliefs of the Nation of Islam[link]
Further information: Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam
Before he left the Nation of Islam in 1964, Malcolm X taught its beliefs in his speeches. His speeches were peppered with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that...".[213] It is virtually impossible to discern whether Malcolm X's beliefs diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam.[214][215] Malcolm X once compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him.[213]
Malcolm X taught that black people were the original people of the world,[86] and that white people were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub.[87] The Nation of Islam believed that black people were superior to white people, and that the demise of the white race was imminent.[88] When he was questioned concerning his statements that white people were devils, Malcolm X said that "history proves the white man is a devil."[216] He enumerated some of the historical reasons that, he felt, supported his argument: "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil."[217]
Malcolm X said that Islam was the "true religion of black mankind" and that Christianity was "the white man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters.[218] He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of black people in America.[219] He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was Allah incarnate,[220] and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or prophet.[221]
While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in the Southern[89] or Southwestern United States[222] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[90] Malcolm X suggested the United States government owed reparations to black people for the unpaid labor of their enslaved ancestors.[223] He also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence and instead advocated that black people should protect themselves by any necessary means.[91]
Independent views[link]
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement,[113] though he felt that it should change its focus to human rights. So long as the movement remained a fight for civil rights, its struggle would remain a domestic issue, but by framing the struggle as a fight for human rights, it would become an international issue, and the movement could bring its complaint before the United Nations. Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support to the cause of African Americans.[224]
Malcolm X declared that he and the other members of the Organization of Afro-American Unity were determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to secure freedom, justice and equality "by whatever means necessary", arguing that if the government was unwilling or unable to protect black people, they should protect themselves.[225]
Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the liberation struggles of Third World nations.[226] He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; in a global context, black people were a majority, not a minority.[227]
In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, Malcolm X criticized capitalism.[148] After one such speech, when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted, he said he didn't know, but that it was no coincidence the newly liberated countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism.[228] Malcolm X still was concerned primarily with the freedom struggle of African Americans. When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism, Malcolm X asked whether it was good for black people. When the reporter told him it seemed to be, Malcolm X told him, "Then I'm for it."[228][229]
Although he no longer called for the separation of black people from white people, Malcolm X continued to advocate black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African-American community.[230] In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support of black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were white.[231]
After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of white people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that his experiences with white people during his pilgrimage convinced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions".[232] In a 1965 conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said:
[L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a black and white problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another.
Brother, remember the time that white college girl came into the restaurant—the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the whites get together—and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent I saw white students helping black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then—like all [Black] Muslims—I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.
That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days—I'm glad to be free of them.[233]
Legacy[link]
Malcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.[234][235][236] He is credited with raising the self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage.[237] He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in the United States.[238][239][240] Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than the mainstream civil rights movement did.[93][94] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, Malcolm X "made clear the price that white America would have to pay if it did not accede to black America's legitimate demands."[241]
In the late 1960s, as black activists became more radical, Malcolm X and his teachings were part of the foundation on which they built their movements. The Black Power movement,[62][242] the Black Arts Movement,[62][243] and the widespread adoption of the slogan "Black is beautiful"[244] can all trace their roots to Malcolm X.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in Malcolm X among young people, fueled in part by use of him as an icon by hip hop groups such as Public Enemy.[245][246] His image was on display in hundreds of thousands of homes, offices, and schools,[247] as well as on T-shirts and jackets.[248]
This wave peaked in 1992 with the release of the film Malcolm X,[249] an adaptation of the The Autobiography of Malcolm X which Malcolm X began in 1963 in collaboration with Alex Haley on The Autobiography of Malcolm X.[115] (Malcolm X had told Haley, "If I'm alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle";[250] indeed Haley completed and published it some months after the assassination).[251] In 1998 Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.[252]
Portrayals in film and on stage[link]
Denzel Washington played the title role in Malcolm X[253]—named one of the ten best films of the 1990s by both critic Roger Ebert and director Martin Scorsese.[254] Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 off-Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost.[255] Other portrayals include:
- James Earl Jones, in the 1977 film The Greatest.[256]
- Dick Anthony Williams, in the 1978 television miniseries King[257] and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Jeff Stetson play The Meeting.[258]
- Al Freeman, Jr., in the 1979 television miniseries Roots: The Next Generations.[259]
- Morgan Freeman, in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet.[260]
- Ben Holt, in the 1986 opera X, The Life and Times of Malcolm X at the New York City Opera.[261]
- Gary Dourdan, in the 2000 television movie King of the World.[262]
- Joe Morton, in the 2000 television movie Ali: An American Hero.[263]
- Mario Van Peebles, in the 2001 film Ali.[264]
Memorials and tributes[link]
The Malcolm X House Site, at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, marks the place where Malcolm Little first lived with his family. The house where the Little family lived was torn down in 1965 by owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X.[265] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 and a historic marker identifies the site because of the importance of Malcolm X to American history and national culture.[266][267] In 1987 the site was added to the Nebraska register of historic sites and marked with a state plaque.[268]
Lansing, Michigan, where Malcolm Little spent his early, formative years, is home to a Michigan Historical Marker erected in 1975 marking his homesite.[269] The city is also home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus. The Academy is located in the building where Little attended elementary school.[270]
In cities around the world, Malcolm X's birthday (May 19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The first known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in Washington, D.C., in 1971.[271] The city of Berkeley, California, has recognized Malcolm X's birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979.[272]
Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X; in 1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard.[273] The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985.[274][275] In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard.[276] Main Street in Lansing, Michigan, was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010.[277]
There have been dozens of schools named after Malcolm X, including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark, New Jersey,[278] Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison, Wisconsin,[279] and Malcolm X College in Chicago, Illinois.[280] Meanwhile, the Malcolm X Library and Performing Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system opened in 1996. It is the first library named after Malcolm X.[281]
The U.S. Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage stamp in 1999.[282] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[283] Collections of Malcolm X's papers are deposited at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W. Woodruff Library.[284][285][286]
Published works[link]
- The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. OCLC 219493184.
- Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. OCLC 256095445.
- Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York: Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. OCLC 81990227.
- Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965. OCLC 19464959.
- Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. OCLC 78155009.
- The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. OCLC 185901618.
- By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. OCLC 249307.
- The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. OCLC 149849.
- The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
- Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-87348-962-1.
- February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-87348-749-8.
See also[link]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ This name includes the honorific El-Hajj, given on completion of the Hajj to Mecca. Malise Ruthven (1997). Islam: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-19-285389-9.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 2.
- ^ Perry, p. 3.
- ^ Natambu, p. 7.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 3–4. There have been many editions of The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Page numbers cited in the notes refer to the One World trade paperback edition (1992).
- ^ Natambu, p. 3.
- ^ a b Natambu, p. 6.
- ^ Perry, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Perry, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 5.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 7, 10–11.
- ^ Perry, pp. 2, 4.
- ^ DeCaro, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Perry, p. 12.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 29.
- ^ Natambu, p. 10.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 32. Inflation information in source.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 35.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 35–36, 265.
- ^ Perry, pp. 33–34, 331.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 42.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 21–29.
- ^ Perry, pp. 32–48.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Perry, pp. 58–81.
- ^ Marable, pp. 37, 51–52.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Perry, pp. 77, 82–83.
- ^ a b Carson, p. 108.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 124.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 106–109.
- ^ Perry, p. 99.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Perry, pp. 104–106.
- ^ Natambu, p. 121.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 178; ellipsis in original.
- ^ Perry, pp. 108–110.
- ^ Perry, p. 118.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Natambu, p. 128.
- ^ Perry, p. 113.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 132–138.
- ^ Perry, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Perry, p. 116.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 98.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 199.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 96.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 229.
- ^ Perry, pp. 142, 144–145.
- ^ Natambu, p. 168.
- ^ The Nation of Islam numbered its Temples according to the order in which they were established. Perry, pp. 141–142.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 104.
- ^ Perry, p. 147.
- ^ Perry, p. 152.
- ^ Perry, p. 153.
- ^ Perry, pp. 161–164.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 95.
- ^ Carson, p. 95.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 122–123.
- ^ a b c d Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 301.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 189.
- ^ a b c d Marable, Malcolm X, p. 127.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 164.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 165.
- ^ a b c d Marable, Malcolm X, p. 128.
- ^ Perry, p. 166.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 132.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 134–135.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 36–45, 50–51.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Shabazz, Betty, "Malcolm X as a Husband and Father", Clarke, pp. 132–134.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 109–110.
- ^ In a 1992 interview, Attallah Shabazz said she was not named for Attila, rather her name was Arabic for "the gift of God". Miller, Russell (November 23, 1992). "X Patriot". New York. http://books.google.com/books?id=3-QCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
- ^ Rickford, p. 122.
- ^ Rickford, p. 123.
- ^ Rickford, p. 197.
- ^ Rickford, p. 286.
- ^ Perry, pp. 174–179.
- ^ Manning, Malcolm X, pp. 135, 193.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 172.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 18.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 231–233.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 55.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 115.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 57.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 149–152.
- ^ a b Malcolm X, End of White World Supremacy, p. 78.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 173–174.
- ^ Natambu, p. 182.
- ^ a b Cone, pp. 99–100.
- ^ a b West, Cornel (1984). "The Paradox of the Afro-American Rebellion". In Sayres, Sohnya; Stephanson, Anders; Aronowitz, Stanley et al.. The 60s Without Apology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8166-1336-6.
- ^ Cone, p. 91.
- ^ Lomax. When the Word Is Given. pp. 15–16. "Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people."
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 123.
- ^ Clegg. p. 115. "The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers—'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'—was typical of the attitude of the leadership."
- ^ Natambu, pp. 296–297
- ^ Ali, Muhammad (2004). The Soul of a Butterfly: Reflections on Life's Journey. with Hana Yasmeen Ali. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7432-5569-1.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 162.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 215–216.
- ^ "The Black Supremacists". TIME. August 10, 1959. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811191-1,00.html. Retrieved July 28, 2009. (Subscription required)
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 172.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Perry, p. 203.
- ^ King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. "He is very articulate... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous, ... or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief." Haley, Alex (January 1965). "The Playboy Interview: Martin Luther King". Playboy. http://www.playboy.com/playground/interviews/playboy-interview-martin-luther-king. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Cone, p. 113.
- ^ "Timeline". Malcolm X: Make It Plain, American Experience. PBS. May 19, 2005. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/malcolmx/timeline/timeline2.html. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
- ^ a b "Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy". The New York Times. December 2, 1963. p. 21. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0812FE35541A7B93C0A91789D95F478685F9. Retrieved July 28, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Natambu, pp. 288–290.
- ^ Perry, p. 242.
- ^ a b c d Handler, M. S. (March 9, 1964). "Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00D17FB395415738DDDA00894DB405B848AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Perry, pp. 230–234
- ^ a b Perry, p. 214.
- ^ Perry, pp. 251–252.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 18–22.
- ^ Perry, pp. 294–296.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 33–67.
- ^ Cone. p. 2. "There was no time for substantive discussions between the two. They were photographed greeting each other warmly, smiling and shaking hands."
- ^ Perry. p. 255. "Camera shutters clicked. The next day, the Chicago Sun-Times, the New York World Telegram and Sun, and other dailies carried a picture of Malcolm and Martin shaking hands."
- ^ Perry, pp. 257–259.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 23–44.
- ^ Perry, p. 261.
- ^ Perry, pp. 262–263.
- ^ DeCaro, p. 204.
- ^ Perry, pp. 263–265.
- ^ Perry, pp. 265–266.
- ^ Perry, p. 267.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 388–393.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 304–305.
- ^ a b Natambu, p. 308.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 62.
- ^ Natambu, p. 303.
- ^ Perry, p. 269.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 403.
- ^ Carson, p. 305.
- ^ Bethune, Lebert, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 226–231.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 113–126.
- ^ Bethune, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 231–233.
- ^ Malcolm X (December 3, 1964). "Malcolm X Oxford Debate". Malcolm X: A Research Site. http://www.brothermalcolm.net/2003/mx_oxford/index.html. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
- ^ Carson, p. 349.
- ^ Perry, p. 351.
- ^ Natambu, p. 312.
- ^ Kundnani, Arun (February 10, 2005). "Black British History: Remembering Malcolm's Visit to Smethwick". Independent Race and Refugee News Network. Institute of Race Relations. http://www.irr.org.uk/news/black-british-history-remembering-malcolms-visit-to-smethwick/. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Terrill, p. 9.
- ^ Karim, p. 128.
- ^ a b Perry, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Karim, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Massaquoi, Hans J. (September 1964). "Mystery of Malcolm X". Ebony.
- ^ Lord, Lewis; Thornton, Jeannye; Bodipo-Memba, Alejandro (November 15, 1992). "The Legacy of Malcolm X". U.S. News & World Report. p. 3. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/921123/archive_018698.htm. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
- ^ Kondo, p. 170.
- ^ Majied, Eugene (April 10, 1964). "On My Own". Muhammad Speaks. [[|Nation of Islam]]. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/images/sourcebook_img_111.jpg. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 248.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 264.
- ^ Carson, p. 473.
- ^ Carson, p. 324.
- ^ Perry, pp. 290–292.
- ^ Perry, pp. 352–356.
- ^ a b Kihss, Peter (February 22, 1965). "Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A15F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Karim, p. 191.
- ^ a b Evanzz, p. 295.
- ^ In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Alex Haley wrote that Malcolm said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it brothers." (p. 499.) According to a transcription of a recording of the shooting, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", which he repeated 10 times. (DeCaro, p. 274.)
- ^ Perry, p. 366.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 450.
- ^ Perry, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Talese, Gay (February 22, 1965). "Police Save Suspect From the Crowd". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20E12F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Kondo, p. 97.
- ^ Kondo, p. 110.
- ^ Rickford, p. 289.
- ^ "Malcolm X Killer Heads Mosque". BBC News. March 31, 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/71838.stm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Jacobson, Mark (October 1, 2007). "The Man Who Didn't Shoot Malcolm X". New York. http://nymag.com/news/features/38358/. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 474.
- ^ Rickford, p. 489
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 474–475.
- ^ Perry, p. 374. Alex Haley, in his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, says 22,000 (p. 519).
- ^ a b Rickford, p. 252.
- ^ DeCaro, p. 291
- ^ a b Arnold, Martin (February 28, 1965). "Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60615FD38591B7A93CAAB1789D85F418685F9. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ DeCaro, p. 290.
- ^ Davis, Ossie (February 27, 1965). "Malcolm X's Eulogy". The Official Website of Malcolm X. http://www.malcolmx.com/about/eulogy.html. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
- ^ Rickford, p. 255
- ^ Rickford, pp. 261–262.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (February 26, 1965). "Telegram from Martin Luther King, Jr. to Betty al-Shabazz". The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/documentsentry/telegram_from_martin_luther_king_jr_to_betty_al_shabazz/. Retrieved March 21, 2010.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 301.
- ^ Clegg, p. 232.
- ^ "Malcolm X". The New York Times. February 22, 1965. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20E13F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Rickford, p. 247.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 305.
- ^ Kenworthy, E. W. (February 26, 1965). "Malcolm Called a Martyr Abroad". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20D15F73F5812738DDDAF0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Evanzz, p. 306.
- ^ Rickford, p. 248.
- ^ Perry, p. 371.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 305–306.
- ^ Perry, p. 372.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 7–39.
- ^ a b Lomax, To Kill a Black Man, p. 198.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 294.
- ^ Bush, Roderick (1999). We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century. New York: New York University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8147-1317-4.
- ^ Friedly, Michael (1992). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-922-6.
- ^ Gardell, Mattias (1996). In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8223-1845-3.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 437, 492–495.
- ^ Evanzz, pp. 298–299.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 182–183, 193–194.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 305.
- ^ Rickford, p. 492.
- ^ Wartofsky, Alona (February 17, 1995). "'Brother Minister: The Martyrdom of Malcolm X'". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/brotherministerthemartyrdomofmalcolmx_c0098f.htm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Admission on Malcolm X". 60 Minutes. CBS News. May 14, 2000. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/05/10/60minutes/main194051.shtml. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Responds to Media Attacks". The Final Call. May 15, 2000. http://www.finalcall.com/columns/mlf/2000/mlf-60minutes05-15-2000.html. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 315–316.
- ^ Kelley, Robin D. G. (1999). "Malcolm X". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 1233.
- ^ Terrill, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Terrill, p. 184.
- ^ Lomax. When the Word Is Given. p. 91. "'I'll be honest with you,' Malcolm X said to me. 'Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me. It is absolutely impossible for us to differ.'"
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 67.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 171.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 24, 137–138.
- ^ Malcolm X, Speeches at Harvard, p. 119.
- ^ DeCaro, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah" (Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 80). On another occasion, he said "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet" (Malcolm X, Last Speeches, p. 46).
- ^ Lincoln, p. 95.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 96.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 33–35.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 43, 47.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 90.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 117.
- ^ a b Cone, p. 284.
- ^ Perry, p. 277.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 38–41.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 391.
- ^ Parks, Gordon, "Malcolm X: The Minutes of Our Last Meeting", Clarke, p. 122.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amhert, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-57392-963-9.
- ^ Marable, Manning; Nishani Frazier, John Campbell McMillian (2003). Freedom on My Mind: The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-231-10890-4.
- ^ Salley, Columbus (1999). The Black 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential African-Americans, Past and Present. New York: Citadel Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-8065-2048-3.
- ^ Cone, pp. 291–292.
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- ^ Perry, p. 379.
- ^ Turner, Richard Brent (2004). "Islam in the African-American Experience". In Bobo, Jacqueline; Hudley, Cynthia; Michel, Claudine. The Black Studies Reader. New York: Routledge. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-415-94554-7.
- ^ Perry, p. 380.
- ^ Sales, p. 187
- ^ Woodard, Komozi (1999). A Nation Within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) & Black Power Politics. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8078-4761-9.
- ^ Cone, p. 291.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 301–302.
- ^ Sales, p. 5.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 302.
- ^ Sales, p. 3.
- ^ Sales, p. 4
- ^ Haley, "Epilogue", Autobiography, p. 471.
- ^ Perry, p. 375.
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Works cited[link]
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- Clegg III, Claude Andrew (1997). An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-312-18153-6.
- Cone, James H. (1991). Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. ISBN 978-0-88344-721-5.
- DeCaro, Jr., Louis A. (1996). On the Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1864-3.
- Dyson, Michael Eric (1995). Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509235-6.
- Evanzz, Karl (1992). The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 978-1-56025-049-4.
- Karim, Benjamin; with Peter Skutches and David Gallen (1992). Remembering Malcolm. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-881-6.
- Kondo, Zak A. (1993). Conspiracys: Unravelling the Assassination of Malcolm X. Washington, D.C.: Nubia Press. OCLC 28837295.
- Lincoln, C. Eric (1961). The Black Muslims in America. Boston: Beacon Press. OCLC 422580.
- Lomax, Louis E. (1987) [1968]. To Kill a Black Man: The Shocking Parallel in the Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Los Angeles: Holloway House. ISBN 978-0-87067-731-1.
- Lomax, Louis E. (1963). When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. Cleveland: World Publishing. OCLC 1071204.
- Malcolm X; with the assistance of Alex Haley (1992) [1965]. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-37671-8.
- Malcolm X (1989) [1970]. By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-150-2.
- Malcolm X (1989) [1971]. The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Arcade. ISBN 978-1-55970-006-1.
- Malcolm X (1990) [1965]. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-3213-0.
- Malcolm X (1991) [1968]. The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-479-7.
- Marable, Manning (2011). Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02220-5.
- Marable, Manning (2009). "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life: A Historian's Adventures in Living History". In Marable, Manning; Aidi, Hishaam D. Black Routes to Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8400-5.
- Natambu, Kofi (2002). The Life and Work of Malcolm X. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-0-02-864218-5.
- Perry, Bruce (1991). Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America. Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill. ISBN 978-0-88268-103-0.
- Rickford, Russell J. (2003). Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1-4022-0171-4.
- Sales, Jr., William W. (1994). From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-480-3.
- Terrill, Robert (2004). Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment. Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-730-3.
- Wood, Joe, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: In Our Image. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-06609-3.
Further reading[link]
- Baldwin, James (2007) [1973]. One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's "The Autobiography of Malcolm X". New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27594-3.
- Boyd, Herb; Daniels, Ron; Karenga, Maulana et al., eds. (2012). By Any Means Necessary: Malcolm X: Real, Not Reinvented. Chicago: Third World Press. ISBN 978-0-88378-336-8.
- Breitman, George (1967). The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-004-8.
- Breitman, George; Porter, Herman; Smith, Baxter (1991) [1976]. The Assassination of Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-632-3.
- Cleage, Albert B.; Breitman, George (1968). Myths About Malcolm X: Two Views. New York: Merit. OCLC 615819.
- Collins, Rodnell P. (1998). Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X. Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-491-3.
- Conyers, Jr., James L.; Smallwood, Andrew P., eds. (2008). Malcolm X: A Historical Reader. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-228-2.
- DeCaro, Louis A. (1998). Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1932-9.
- Friedly, Michael (1995). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-40010-9.
- Gallen, David, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: As They Knew Him. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-850-2.
- Goldman, Peter (1979) [1973]. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00774-3.
- Jamal, Hakim A. (1972). From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9.
- Jenkins, Robert L. (2002). The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29264-4.
- Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. (1986). The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press. ISBN 978-0-932863-03-4.
- Leader, Edward Roland (1993). Understanding Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy. New York: Vantage Press. ISBN 978-0-533-09520-9.
- Lee, Spike; with Ralph Wiley (1992). By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of the Making of Malcolm X. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-56282-913-1.
- Shabazz, Ilyasah; with Kim McLarin (2002). Growing Up X: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-44495-0.
- Strickland, William; et al. (1994). Malcolm X: Make It Plain. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-017713-8.
- Terrill, Robert, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73157-7.
- T'Shaka, Oba (1983). The Political Legacy of Malcolm X. Richmond, Calif.: Pan Afrikan Publications. ISBN 978-1-878557-01-8.
- Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor (1989). The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution. London: Free Association Books. ISBN 978-1-85343-111-1.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Malcolm X |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Malcolm X |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- The Official Web Site of Malcolm X
- Malcolm X: Make It Plain
- malcolm-x.org
- Malcolm X: A Profile
- The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University
- Malcolm X Reference Archive
- Malcolm X: A Research Site
- Works by or about Malcolm X in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Interviews
- Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark, Spring 1963
- Video interview with Herman Blake, October 1963
- Interview with Louis Lomax, from When the Word Is Given (December 1963)
- Interview with A.B. Spellman, May 1964
- CBC television interview, January 1965
- The short film OPEN MIND Special: Race Relations in Crisis 6/12/63 - 11/13/92 (1963/1992) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
- Speeches
- Other links
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Malcolm X |
| Alternative names | Little, Malcolm; El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz |
| Short description | Nation of Islam leader |
| Date of birth | May 19, 1925 |
| Place of birth | North Omaha, Nebraska, United States |
| Date of death | February 21, 1965 |
| Place of death | New York City, New York, United States |
http://wn.com/Malcolm_X
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see Rosa Parks (disambiguation).
| Rosa Parks | |
|---|---|
 Rosa Parks in 1955, with Martin Luther King, Jr. in the background |
|
| Born | Rosa Louise McCauley (1913-02-04)February 4, 1913 Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S. |
| Died | October 24, 2005(2005-10-24) (aged 92) Detroit, Michigan, U.S. |
| Occupation | Civil rights activist |
| Known for | Montgomery Bus Boycott |
| Signature |  |
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was an African-American civil rights activist, whom the U.S. Congress called "the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement".[1]
On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blake's order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger. Parks' action was not the first of its kind to impact the civil rights issue. Others had taken similar steps, including Lizzie Jennings in 1854, Homer Plessy in 1892, Irene Morgan in 1946, Sarah Louise Keys in 1955, and Claudette Colvin on the same bus system nine months before Parks, but Parks' civil disobedience had the effect of sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Parks' act of defiance became an important symbol of the modern Civil Rights Movement and Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including boycott leader Martin Luther King, Jr., helping to launch him to national prominence in the civil rights movement.
At the time of her action, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for workers' rights and racial equality. Nonetheless, she took her action as a private citizen "tired of giving in". Although widely honored in later years for her action, she suffered for it, losing her job as a seamstress in a local department store. Eventually, she moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she found similar work. From 1965 to 1988 she served as secretary and receptionist to African-American U.S. Representative John Conyers. After retirement from this position, she wrote an autobiography and lived a largely private life in Detroit. In her final years she suffered from dementia, and became involved in a lawsuit filed on her behalf against American hip-hop duo OutKast on the song "Rosa Parks".
Parks eventually received many honors ranging from the 1979 Spingarn Medal to the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Gold Medal and a posthumous statue in the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall. Upon her death in 2005, she was the first woman and second non-U.S. government official granted the posthumous honor of lying in honor at the Capitol Rotunda. She was inducted into the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame in 2008.[2]
Contents |
Early years[link]
Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913, to Leona (Edwards) and James McCauley, respectively a carpenter and a teacher, and was of African-American, Cherokee-Creek,[3] and Scots-Irish ancestry.[4] Parks' great-grandfather was a Scottish-Irishman.[citation needed] She was small, even for a child, and she suffered poor health and had chronic tonsillitis. When her parents separated, she moved with her mother to Pine Level, just outside Montgomery, Alabama. There she grew up on a farm with her maternal grandparents, mother, and younger brother Sylvester, and began her lifelong membership in the African Methodist Episcopal Church. She attended rural schools[5] until the age of eleven, then enrolled at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery where she took academic and vocational courses. Parks then went on to a laboratory school set up by the Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes for secondary education but was forced to drop out to care for her grandmother, and later for her mother, after they became ill.[6]
Under Jim Crow laws, black and white people were segregated in virtually every aspect of daily life in the South, including public transportation. Bus and train companies did not provide separate vehicles for the different races but did enforce seating policies that allocated separate sections for blacks and whites. School bus transportation was unavailable in any form for black schoolchildren in the South. Parks recalled going to elementary school in Pine Level, where school buses took white students to their new school and black students had to walk to theirs: "I'd see the bus pass every day... But to me, that was a way of life; we had no choice but to accept what was the custom. The bus was among the first ways I realized there was a black world and a white world."[7]
Although Parks' autobiography recounts that some of her earliest memories are of the kindness of white strangers, her situation made it impossible to ignore racism. When the Ku Klux Klan marched down the street in front of her house, Parks recalls her grandfather guarding the front door with a shotgun.[8] The Montgomery Industrial School, founded and staffed by white northerners for black children, was burned twice by arsonists, and its faculty was ostracized by the white community.
In 1932, Rosa married Raymond Parks, a barber from Montgomery, at her mother's house. Raymond was a member of the NAACP, at the time collecting money to support the Scottsboro Boys, a group of black men falsely accused of raping two white women. After her marriage, Rosa took numerous jobs, ranging from domestic worker to hospital aide. At her husband's urging, she finished her high school studies in 1933, at a time when less than 7% of African Americans had a high school diploma. Despite the Jim Crow laws that made political participation by black people difficult, she succeeded in registering to vote on her third try.
In December 1943, Parks became active in the Civil Rights Movement, joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, and was elected volunteer secretary to its president, Edgar Nixon. Of her position, she later said, "I was the only woman there, and they needed a secretary, and I was too timid to say no."[9] She continued as secretary until 1957. In the 1940s, Parks and her husband were members of the Voters' League. Sometime soon after 1944, she held a brief job at Maxwell Air Force Base, a federally owned area where racial segregation was not allowed, and rode on an integrated trolley. Speaking to her biographer, Parks noted, "You might just say Maxwell opened my eyes up." Parks worked as a housekeeper and seamstress for a white couple, Clifford and Virginia Durr. The politically liberal Durrs became her friends and encouraged—and eventually helped sponsor—Parks to attend the Highlander Folk School, an education center for workers' rights and racial equality in Monteagle, Tennessee, in the summer of 1955.
Many people were moved by the brutal murder[10] of Emmett Till in August 1955. Parks later recalled that on November 27, 1955—only four days before she refused to give up her seat—she had attended a mass meeting in Montgomery which focused on this case as well as the recent murders of George W. Lee and Lamar Smith. The featured speaker at the meeting was T. R. M. Howard, a black civil rights leader from Mississippi who headed the Regional Council of Negro Leadership.[11]
Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott[link]
Main article: Montgomery Bus Boycott
By refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a white man, Parks was more clearly in violation of custom than of law. Nonetheless, her refusal amounted to an act of civil disobedience, resulted in her arrest and conviction by a local court, and proved to be the spark for the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
Montgomery buses: law and prevailing customs[link]
In 1900, Montgomery had passed a city ordinance for the purpose of segregating passengers by race. Conductors were given the power to assign seats to accomplish that purpose. According to the law, no passengers would be required to move or give up their seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other seats were available. Over time and by custom, however, Montgomery bus drivers had adopted the practice of requiring black riders to move whenever there were no white-only seats left.
The first four rows of seats on each Montgomery bus were reserved for white people. Buses had "colored" sections for black people—who made up more than 75% of the bus system's riders—generally in the rear of the bus. These sections were not fixed in size but were determined by the placement of a movable sign. Black people could sit in the middle rows until the white section was full. Then they had to move to seats in the rear, stand, or, if there was no room, leave the bus. Black people were not allowed to sit across the aisle from white people. The driver could move the "colored" section sign, or remove it altogether. If white people were already sitting in the front, black people could board to pay the fare, but then had to disembark and reenter through the rear door. Sometimes, the bus departed before the black customers who had paid could make it to the back entrance.[citation needed]
For years, the black community had complained that the situation was unfair, and Parks was no exception: "My resisting being mistreated on the bus did not begin with that particular arrest...I did a lot of walking in Montgomery."[5] Parks had her first run-in on the public bus on a rainy day in 1943, when the bus driver, James F. Blake, demanded that she get off the bus and reenter through the back door. As she began to exit by the front door, she dropped her purse. Parks sat down for a moment in a seat for white passengers to pick up her purse. The bus driver was enraged and barely let her step off the bus before speeding off.[citation needed]
Her refusal to move[link]
After a day at work at Montgomery Fair department store, Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus at around 6 p.m., Thursday, December 1, 1955, in downtown Montgomery. She paid her fare and sat in an empty seat in the first row of back seats reserved for blacks in the "colored" section, which was near the middle of the bus and directly behind the ten seats reserved for white passengers. Initially, she had not noticed that the bus driver was the same man, James F. Blake, who had left her in the rain in 1943. As the bus traveled along its regular route, all of the white-only seats in the bus filled up. The bus reached the third stop in front of the Empire Theater, and several white passengers boarded.
Following prevailing practice, bus driver Blake noted that the front of the bus was filled with white passengers and two or three white men were standing. He then moved the "colored" section sign behind Parks and demanded that four black people give up their seats in the middle section so that the white passengers could sit. Years later, in recalling the events of the day, Parks said, "When that white driver stepped back toward us, when he waved his hand and ordered us up and out of our seats, I felt a determination cover my body like a quilt on a winter night."[12]
By Parks' account, Blake said, "Y'all better make it light on yourselves and let me have those seats."[13] Three of them complied. Parks said, "The driver wanted us to stand up, the four of us. We didn't move at the beginning, but he says, 'Let me have these seats.' And the other three people moved, but I didn't."[14] The black man sitting next to her gave up his seat. Parks moved, but toward the window seat; she did not get up to move to the newly repositioned colored section.[15] Blake then said, "Why don't you stand up?" Parks responded, "I don't think I should have to stand up." Blake called the police to arrest Parks. When recalling the incident for Eyes on the Prize, a 1987 public television series on the Civil Rights Movement, Parks said, "When he saw me still sitting, he asked if I was going to stand up, and I said, 'No, I'm not.' And he said, 'Well, if you don't stand up, I'm going to have to call the police and have you arrested.' I said, 'You may do that.'"[16]
Rosa Parks' arrest
Booking photo of Parks
Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 1
Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 2
Fingerprint card of Parks
During a 1956 radio interview with Sydney Rogers in West Oakland several months after her arrest, when asked why she had decided not to vacate her bus seat, Parks said, "I would have to know for once and for all what rights I had as a human being and a citizen."[17]
She also detailed her motivation in her autobiography, My Story:
People always say that I didn't give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn't true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.[18]
When Parks refused to give up her seat, a police officer arrested her. As the officer took her away, she recalled that she asked, "Why do you push us around?" The officer's response as she remembered it was, "I don't know, but the law's the law, and you're under arrest."[19] She later said, "I only knew that, as I was being arrested, that it was the very last time that I would ever ride in humiliation of this kind..."[14]
Parks was charged with a violation of Chapter 6, Section 11 segregation law of the Montgomery City code,[20] even though she technically had not taken up a white-only seat—she had been in a colored section.[21] Edgar Nixon and Clifford Durr bailed Parks out of jail the evening of December 2.[22]
Montgomery Bus Boycott[link]
That evening, Nixon conferred with Alabama State College professor Jo Ann Robinson about Parks' case. Robinson, a member of the Women's Political Council (WPC), stayed up all night mimeographing over 35,000 handbills announcing a bus boycott. The Women's Political Council was the first group to officially endorse the boycott.
On Sunday, December 4, 1955, plans for the Montgomery Bus Boycott were announced at black churches in the area, and a front-page article in The Montgomery Advertiser helped spread the word. At a church rally that night, those attending agreed unanimously to continue the boycott until they were treated with the level of courtesy they expected, until black drivers were hired, and until seating in the middle of the bus was handled on a first-come basis.
Four days later, Parks was tried on charges of disorderly conduct and violating a local ordinance. The trial lasted 30 minutes. Parks was found guilty and fined $10, plus $4 in court costs.[14] Parks appealed her conviction and formally challenged the legality of racial segregation. In a 1992 interview with National Public Radio's Lynn Neary, Parks recalled:
I did not want to be mistreated, I did not want to be deprived of a seat that I had paid for. It was just time... there was opportunity for me to take a stand to express the way I felt about being treated in that manner. I had not planned to get arrested. I had plenty to do without having to end up in jail. But when I had to face that decision, I didn't hesitate to do so because I felt that we had endured that too long. The more we gave in, the more we complied with that kind of treatment, the more oppressive it became.[13]
On Monday, December 5, 1955, after the success of the one-day boycott, a group of 16 to 18 people gathered at the Mt. Zion AME Zion Church to discuss boycott strategies. The group agreed that a new organization was needed to lead the boycott effort if it were to continue. Rev. Ralph David Abernathy suggested the name "Montgomery Improvement Association" (MIA).[23] The name was adopted, and the MIA was formed. Its members elected as their president a relative newcomer to Montgomery, a young and mostly unknown minister of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.[24]
That Monday night, 50 leaders of the African American community gathered to discuss the proper actions to be taken in response to Parks' arrest. Edgar Nixon said, "My God, look what segregation has put in my hands!"[25] Parks was the ideal plaintiff for a test case against city and state segregation laws. While the 15-year-old Claudette Colvin, unwed and pregnant, had been deemed unacceptable to be the center of a civil rights mobilization, King stated that Mrs. Parks was regarded as "one of the finest citizens of Montgomery—not one of the finest Negro citizens, but one of the finest citizens of Montgomery."[5] Parks was securely married and employed, possessed a quiet and dignified demeanor, and was politically savvy.
The day of Parks' trial — Monday, December 5, 1955 — the WPC distributed the 35,000 leaflets. The handbill read, "We are...asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial ... You can afford to stay out of school for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off the buses Monday."[26]
It rained that day, but the black community persevered in their boycott. Some rode in carpools, while others traveled in black-operated cabs that charged the same fare as the bus, 10 cents. Most of the remainder of the 40,000 black commuters walked, some as far as 20 miles (30 km). In the end, the boycott lasted for 381 days. Dozens of public buses stood idle for months, severely damaging the bus transit company's finances, until the law requiring segregation on public buses was lifted.
Through her role in sparking the boycott, Parks played an important part in internationalizing the awareness of the plight of African Americans and the civil rights struggle. King wrote in his 1958 book Stride Toward Freedom that Parks' arrest was the precipitating factor, rather than the cause, of the protest: "The cause lay deep in the record of similar injustices."[27] He stated, "Actually, no one can understand the action of Mrs. Parks unless he realizes that eventually the cup of endurance runs over, and the human personality cries out, 'I can take it no longer.'"[28]
Later years[link]
File:Rosaparks bus.jpg
Parks on a Montgomery bus on December 21, 1956, the day Montgomery's public transportation system was legally integrated. Behind Parks is Nicholas C. Chriss, a UPI reporter covering the event.
After her arrest, Parks became an icon of the Civil Rights Movement but suffered hardships as a result. She lost her job at the department store, and her husband quit his job after his boss forbade him to talk about his wife or the legal case. Parks traveled and spoke extensively. In 1957, Raymond and Rosa Parks left Montgomery for Hampton, Virginia; mostly because she was unable to find work, but also because of disagreements with King and other leaders of Montgomery's struggling civil rights movement. In Hampton, she found a job as a hostess in an inn at the historically black Hampton Institute. Later that year, after the urging of her brother and sister-in-law, Sylvester & Daisy McCauley, Rosa Parks, her husband Raymond, and her mother Leona McCauley, moved to Detroit, Michigan.
Parks worked as a seamstress until 1965 when African-American U.S. Representative John Conyers hired her as a secretary and receptionist for his congressional office in Detroit. She held this position until she retired in 1988.[5] In a telephone interview with CNN on October 24, 2005, Conyers recalled, "You treated her with deference because she was so quiet, so serene — just a very special person ... There was only one Rosa Parks".[29] Later in life, Parks served as a member of the Board of Advocates of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.[citation needed]
The 1970s was a decade of loss and suffering for Parks, though more due to personal problems than racism or other social issues. Her family was plagued with illness; she and her husband had suffered stomach ulcers for years and both required hospitalization. More serious was when her brother Sylvester, her husband Raymond, and her mother Leona all were diagnosed with cancer within a relatively short period of time, causing Parks to sometimes have to visit three hospitals in the same day. In spite of her fame and constant speaking engagements (most of the money for which, above expenses, she donated to civil rights causes) Parks was not a wealthy woman. She lived on her salary and her husband's pension. Medical bills and time missed from work caused financial strain that required her to accept assistance from church groups and admirers. Her husband died of throat cancer on August 19, 1977 and her brother, her only sibling and to whom she was very close, died of cancer the following November. Personal ordeals caused her to become increasingly removed from the civil rights movement; in her memoir she writes that it was a major blow to her when she learned from a newspaper that Fannie Lou Hamer, once a close friend, had died several months before. An injury from an accidental fall while walking on an icy sidewalk briefly hospitalized Parks with two broken bones, causing her considerable and recurring pain thereafter and convincing her to move into an apartment for senior citizens. There she nursed her mother, Leona Edwards McCauley, through the final stages of her own illnesses (cancer and geriatric dementia) until she died in 1979 at the age of 92.
In 1980 Parks, now widowed and without immediate family, rededicated herself to founding and fund raising for civil rights and educational organizations. She co-founded the Rosa L. Parks Scholarship Foundation for college-bound high school seniors,[30][31] to which she donated most of her speaker fees. In February 1987 she co-founded, with Elaine Eason Steele, the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development, an institute that runs the "Pathways to Freedom" bus tours which introduce young people to important civil rights and Underground Railroad sites throughout the country. Though her health declined as she entered her seventies, she continued to make as many appearances and devote as much energy as possible to these endeavors.
In 1992, Parks published Rosa Parks: My Story, an autobiography aimed at younger readers which details her life leading up to her decision not to give up her seat. In 1995, she published her memoirs, titled Quiet Strength, which focuses on the role that her faith had played in her life. On August 30, 1994, Joseph Skipper, an African-American drug addict, attacked 81-year-old Parks in her home. The incident sparked outrage throughout the United States. After his arrest, Skipper said that he had not known he was in Parks' home but recognized her after entering. Skipper asked, "Hey, aren't you Rosa Parks?" to which she replied, "Yes." She handed him $3 when he demanded money, and an additional $50 when he demanded more. Before fleeing, Skipper struck Parks in the face.[32] Skipper was arrested and charged with various breaking and entering offenses against Parks and other neighborhood victims. He admitted guilt and, on August 8, 1995, was sentenced to eight to 15 years in prison.[33] Suffering anxiety upon returning to her too small central Detroit house following the ordeal, she moved into Riverfront Towers, a secure high rise apartment building where she lived for the rest of her life.
In 1994 the Ku Klux Klan applied to sponsor a portion of United States Interstate 55 in Saint Louis County and Jefferson County, near St. Louis, Missouri, for clean up (which allowed them to have signs stating that this section of highway was maintained by the organization). Since the state could not refuse the KKK's sponsorship, the Missouri legislature voted to name the highway section the "Rosa Parks Highway". When asked how she felt about this honor, she is reported to have commented, "It is always nice to be thought of."[34][35]
In 1999 Parks filmed a cameo appearance for the television series Touched by an Angel. It was to be her last appearance on film as health problems made her increasingly an invalid.
In March 1999, a lawsuit (Rosa Parks v. LaFace Records) was filed on Parks' behalf against American hip-hop duo OutKast and LaFace Records, claiming that the group had illegally used Rosa Parks' name without her permission for the song "Rosa Parks", the most successful radio single of OutKast's 1998 album Aquemini.[36] The lawsuit was settled April 15, 2005. In the settlement agreement, OutKast and their producer and record labels paid Parks an undisclosed cash settlement and agreed to work with the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development in creating educational programs about the life of Rosa Parks. The record labels and OutKast admitted to no wrongdoing. It is not known whether Parks' legal fees were paid for from her settlement money or by the record companies.[37]
A comedic scene in the 2002 film Barbershop featured a cantankerous barber, played by Cedric the Entertainer, arguing with co-workers and shop patrons that other African Americans before Parks had resisted giving up their seats in defiance of Jim Crow laws, and that she had received undeserved fame because of her status as an NAACP secretary. Activists Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton launched a boycott against the film, contending it was "disrespectful", but NAACP president Kweisi Mfume stated he thought the controversy was "overblown."[38] The scene offended Parks, who boycotted the NAACP 2003 Image Awards ceremony, which Cedric hosted.[39]
In 2002 Parks received an eviction notice from her $1800 per month apartment due to non-payment of rent. Parks herself was incapable of managing her own financial affairs by this time due to age related physical and mental decline, and her rent was paid from a collection taken by Hartford Memorial Baptist Church in Detroit. When her rent again became delinquent and her impending eviction was highly publicized in 2004, executives of the company that owned her apartment building announced that they had forgiven the back rent and that Parks, by then 91 and in extremely poor health, was welcome to live rent free in the building for the remainder of her life.[40] Allegations that her financial affairs had been mismanaged began during the eviction proceedings and continued after her death among her heirs and various organizations.
Death and funeral[link]
Parks resided in Detroit until she died of natural causes at the age of 92 on October 24, 2005, about 7:00 pm EDT, in her apartment on the east side of the city. She and her husband never had children and she outlived her only sibling. She was survived by her sister-in-law, 13 nieces and nephews and their families, and several cousins, most of them residents of Michigan or Alabama.
City officials in Montgomery and Detroit announced on October 27, 2005, that the front seats of their city buses would be reserved with black ribbons in honor of Parks until her funeral. Parks' coffin was flown to Montgomery and taken in a horse-drawn hearse to the St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church, where she lay in repose at the altar on October 29, 2005, dressed in the uniform of a church deaconess. A memorial service was held there the following morning. One of the speakers, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, said that if it had not been for Parks, she would probably have never become the Secretary of State. In the evening the casket was transported to Washington, D.C., and taken, aboard a bus similar to the one in which she made her protest, to lie in honor in the U.S. Capitol.
On October 28, 2005, the United States House of Representatives approved a resolution passed the previous day by the United States Senate to honor Parks by allowing her body to lie in honor in the Capitol. Since the founding of the practice of lying in state, or honor, in the Rotunda in 1852, Parks was the 31st person, the first American who had not been a U.S. government official, and the second non-government official (after Frenchman Pierre L'Enfant) to be paid this tribute. She was also the first woman and the second black person to lie in honor.[41][42] An estimated 50,000 people viewed the casket there, and the event was broadcast on television on October 31, 2005. This was followed by another memorial service at a different St. Paul AME church in Washington on the afternoon of October 31, 2005.
For two days, she lay in repose at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History in Detroit. Parks' funeral service, seven hours long, was held on Wednesday, November 2, 2005, at the Greater Grace Temple Church in Detroit. After the funeral service, an honor guard from the Michigan National Guard laid the U.S. flag over the casket and carried it to a horse-drawn hearse, which had been intended to carry it, in daylight, to the cemetery. As the hearse passed the thousands of people who had turned out to view the procession, many clapped and cheered loudly and released white balloons. Rosa was interred between her husband and mother at Detroit's Woodlawn Cemetery in the chapel's mausoleum. The chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel just after her death.[43] Parks had previously prepared and placed a headstone on the selected location with the inscription "Rosa L. Parks, wife, 1913–."
Awards and honors[link]
The Rosa Parks Congressional Gold Medal bears the legend "Mother of the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement".
Parks received most of her national accolades very late in life, with relatively few awards and honors being given to her until many decades after the Montgomery Bus Boycott. In 1979, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People awarded Parks the Spingarn Medal,[44] its highest honor,[45] and she received the Martin Luther King Jr. Award the next year. She was inducted into the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame in 1983 for her achievements in civil rights.[46] In 1990, she was called at the last moment to be part of the group welcoming Nelson Mandela, who had just been released from his imprisonment in South Africa. Upon spotting her in the reception line, Mandela called out her name and, hugging her, said, "You sustained me while I was in prison all those years."[47] In 1992, she received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award along with Dr. Benjamin Spock and others at the Kennedy Library and Museum in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1995, she received the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award in Williamsburg, Virginia.
On September 9, 1996, President Bill Clinton presented Parks with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given by the U.S. executive branch. In 1998, she became the first recipient of the International Freedom Conductor Award given by the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center. The next year, Parks was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award given by the U.S. legislative branch and received the Detroit-Windsor International Freedom Festival Freedom Award. Parks was a guest of President Bill Clinton during his 1999 State of the Union Address. That year, Time magazine named Parks one of the 20 most influential and iconic figures of the 20th century.[26] In 2000, her home state awarded her the Alabama Academy of Honor,[48] as well as the first Governor's Medal of Honor for Extraordinary Courage.[49] She was awarded two dozen honorary doctorates from universities worldwide, and was made an honorary member of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority.
The Rosa Parks Library and Museum on the campus of Troy University in Montgomery was dedicated to her on December 1, 2000. It is located on the corner where Parks boarded the famed bus. The most popular items in the museum are the interactive bus arrest of Mrs. Parks and a sculpture of Parks sitting on a bus bench. The documentary Mighty Times: The Legacy of Rosa Parks received a 2002 nomination for Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject. She collaborated that year in a TV movie of her life starring Angela Bassett.
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Parks on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[50]
On October 30, 2005, President George W. Bush issued a proclamation ordering that all flags on U.S. public areas both within the country and abroad be flown at half-staff on the day of Parks' funeral.
Metro Transit in King County, Washington placed posters and stickers dedicating the first forward-facing seat of all its buses in Parks' memory shortly after her death,[51][52] and the American Public Transportation Association declared December 1, 2005, the 50th anniversary of her arrest, to be a "National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day".[53] On that anniversary, President George W. Bush signed Pub.L. 109-116, directing that a statue of Parks be placed in the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall. In signing the resolution directing the Joint Commission on the Library to do so, the President stated:
By placing her statue in the heart of the nation's Capitol, we commemorate her work for a more perfect union, and we commit ourselves to continue to struggle for justice for every American.[54]
On February 5, 2006, at Super Bowl XL, played at Detroit's Ford Field, long-time Detroit residents Coretta Scott King and Parks were remembered and honored by a moment of silence. The Super Bowl was dedicated to their memory.[citation needed]
In 1976 Detroit renamed 12th Street "Rosa Parks Boulevard."[55]
A portion of the Interstate 10 freeway in Los Angeles is named in her honor.
In the Los Angeles County MetroRail system, the Imperial Highway/Wilmington station, where the Blue Line connects with the Green Line, has been officially named the "Rosa Parks Station".
Nashville, Tennessee, renamed MetroCenter Boulevard (8th Avenue North) (US 41A and TN 12) in September 2007 as Rosa L. Parks Boulevard.[56]
In Grand Rapids, Michigan, a plaza in the heart of the city is named Rosa Parks Circle.
On July 14, 2009, the Rosa Parks Transit Center opened in Detroit at the corner of Michigan and Cass Avenues.[57]
See also[link]
- African American Women, 1960's
- Black Indians in the United States
- Cleveland Court Apartments 620–638
- Elizabeth Jennings Graham
- John Mitchell, Jr. (editor)
- Racism in the United States
- Timeline of the African American Civil Rights Movement
References[link]
- ^ Pub.L. 106-26, accessed 13 November 2011. The quoted passages can be seen by clicking through to the text or PDF.
- ^ "Inductees". Alabama Women's Hall of Fame. State of Alabama. http://www.awhf.org/inductee.html. Retrieved February 20, 2012.
- ^ Douglas Brinkley, Rosa Parks, Chapter 1, excerpted from the book published by Lipper/Viking (2000), ISBN 0-670-89160-6. Chapter excerpted on the site of the New York Times. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
- ^ James Webb, "Why You Need to Know the Scots-Irish", Parade, October 3, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2008.
- ^ a b c d Shipp, E. R. (2005-10-25). "Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies". New York Times. p. 2. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/25/us/25parks.html?pagewanted=2. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
- ^ Shraff, Anne (2005). Rosa Parks: Tired of Giving In. Enslow. pp. 23–27. ISBN 978-0-7660-2463-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=J37vgZvCI78C&pg=PA23&dq=Industrial+School+for+Girls+in+Montgomery+Rosa+Parks&hl=en&ei=r1rLTp2bCaPw0gGq5Nwk&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Industrial%20School%20for%20Girls%20in%20Montgomery%20Rosa%20Parks&f=false.
- ^ "The Story Behind the Bus". Rosa Parks Bus. The Henry Ford. http://www.thehenryford.org/exhibits/rosaparks/story.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-01.
- ^ Congressional Record Volume 141, Number 176 (Wednesday, November 8, 1995) Citing The Washington Post Magazine Oct. 8, 1995, A Person Who Wanted To Be Free by Walt Harrington
- ^ Feeney, Mark (October 25, 2005). "Rosa Parks, civil rights icon, dead at 92". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/obituaries/articles/2005/10/25/rosa_parks_civil_rights_icon_whose_single_act_sparked_a_movement_at_92/. Retrieved 2009-07-31.
- ^ Justice Department to Investigate 1955 Emmett Till Murder, United States Department of Justice, May 2004, accessed May 27, 2007. In the document, R. Alexander Acosta, Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division, states, "This brutal murder and grotesque miscarriage of justice outraged a nation and helped galvanize support for the modern American civil rights movement."
- ^ David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, Black Maverick: T. R. M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), pp. 138-39.
- ^ Williams, Donnie; Wayne Greenhaw (2005). The Thunder of Angels: The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the People who Broke the Back of Jim Crow. Chicago Review Press. p. 48. ISBN 1-55652-590-7.
- ^ a b "Parks Recalls Bus Boycott, Excerpts from an interview with Lynn Neary", National Public Radio, 1992, linked at Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies, NPR, October 25, 2005. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
- ^ a b c "Civil rights icon Rosa Parks dies at 92", CNN, October 25, 2005. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
- ^ Audio interview of Parks linked from "Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies", National Public Radio, October 25, 2005. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
- ^ Williams, Juan (2002). Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965. Penguin Books. p. 66. ISBN 0-14-009653-1.
- ^ Marsh, Charles (2006). The Beloved Community: How Faith Shapes Social Justice from the Civil Rights to Today. Basic Books. p. 21. ISBN 0-465-04416-6.
- ^ Parks, Rosa; James Haskins (1992). Rosa Parks: My Story. Dial Books. p. 116. ISBN 0-8037-0673-1.
- ^ Rosa Parks Interview (video and text of interview), Academy of Achievement, 2 June 1995, accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ Wright, Roberta Hughes (1991). The Birth of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Charro Press. p. 27. ISBN 0-9629468-0-X.
- ^ Hawken, Paul (2007). Blessed Unrest: How the Largest Movement in the World Came Into Being, and Why No One Saw it Coming. Viking. p. 79. ISBN 0-670-03852-0.
- ^ Burns, Stewart (1997). Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott. UNC Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-8078-4661-9.
- ^ Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.. HarperCollins. p. 432. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
- ^ Shipp, E. R. (October 25, 2005). "Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies". New York Times: p. 1. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/25/national/25parks.html. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
- ^ Parks, Rosa; James Haskins (1992). Rosa Park: My Story. Dial Books. p. 125. ISBN 0-8037-0673-1.
- ^ a b Rita Dove, "Heroes and Icons: Rosa Parks: Her simple act of protest galvanized America's civil rights revolution", (Time), June 14, 1999. Retrieved July 4, 2008.
- ^ Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.. HarperCollins. p. 437. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
- ^ Washington, James M. (1991). A Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr.. HarperCollins. p. 424. ISBN 0-06-064691-8.
- ^ "Parks remembered for her courage, humility". CNN. 2005-10-30. http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/10/25/parks.reax/index.html. Retrieved 2008-07-01.
- ^ "Editorial: Rosa Parks' legacy: non-violent power", Madison Daily Leader, 1 October 2005. Accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ The Rosa L. Parks Scholarship Foundation, main page, accessed 13 November 2011. (Not a citation for Parks's role as a founder, just for the foundation itself.)
- ^ Associated Press, "Assailant Recognized Rosa Parks," Detroit Free Press, 3 September 1994. Story accessible online as printed in the Reading Eagle, 2 September 1994; accessed online 13 November 2011.
- ^ "Man Gets Prison Term For Attack on Rosa Parks", San Francisco Chronicle, August 8, 1995.
- ^ Happy Birthday, Rosa Parks! by Ilena Rosenthal, Women's eNews, February 4, 2003 (retrieved on February 2, 2009).
- ^ The Name Game, Snopes.com, last updated 3 December 2007. Accessed 13 November 2001.
- ^ Wallinger, Hanna (2006). Transitions: Race, Culture, and the Dynamics of Change. LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster. p. 126. ISBN 3-8258-9531-9.
- ^ Jet Vol. 107, No. 18, May 2, 2005
- ^ Associated Press, 'Barbershop' actor to host Image Awards, Los Angeles Times, 25 January 2003. Accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ "Rosa Parks boycotts NAACP awards ceremony". Recordnet.com. Associated Press. March 9, 2003. http://www.recordnet.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030309/A_NEWS/303099980. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
- ^ Associated Press, Landlord won't ask Rosa Parks to pay rent, MSNBC, 6 December 2004. Accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ "Those Who Have Lain in State". Architect of the Capitol. 2009-12-01. http://www.aoc.gov/cc/capitol/lain_in_state.cfm. Retrieved 2009-12-01.
- ^ Memorial or Funeral Services in the Capitol Rotunda, senate.gov (United States Senate); content cited to Architect of the Capitol. Accessed 23 November 2011.
- ^ Santiago Esparza, "Parks to remain private in death" Detroit News, November 3, 2005. Available online at the Internet Archive, archived June 14, 2008. Retrieved July 5, 2008.
- ^ Springarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today, NAACP, no date but list goes through 2010. Accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ NAACP Honors Congressman Conyers With 92nd Spingarn Medal, NAACP press release, April 3, 2007. Retrieved July 9, 2008.
- ^ Rosa L. Parks, Michigan Women's Hall of Fame. Accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ Rosa Parks: freedom rider, Ruth Ashby, Sterling Publishing ISBN 978-1-4027-4865-3
- ^ "Alabama Puts Rosa Parks In Its Academy Of Honor". Chicago Tribune. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/keyword/rosa-parks/featured/2. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
- ^ Rosa Parks Museum Dedicated During Civil Rights Movement Anniversary Gala in Montgomery. Jet. December 18, 2000. p. 8. http://books.google.de/books?id=CbYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=rosa+parks+Governor%27s+Medal+of+Honor+for+Extraordinary+Courage&source=bl&ots=NECPHPeRhY&sig=xbfRnhFSFnrur5oYWoPxKgVlRzs&hl=de&sa=X&ei=TNTsTrnwHNCj-gbrlvSJAg&ved=0CEkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=rosa%20parks%20Governor%27s%20Medal%20of%20Honor%20for%20Extraordinary%20Courage&f=false. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
- ^ "Rosa Parks Honored on Metro Bus Fleet[dead link]", King County Metro Online. Retrieved July 5, 2008.[dead link]
- ^ Local Digest item "Buses are memorial to Rosa Parks", Seattle Times, 1 November 2005.Accessed 13 November 2011.
- ^ "National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day". American Public Transportation Association. 20070927220506. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070927220506/http://www.apta.com/rosa/index.cfm. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ "President Signs H.R. 4145 to Place Statue of Rosa Parks in U.S. Capitol". 2005-12-01. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/12/20051201-1.html. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ "Rosa L. Parks Collection. Papers, 1955-1976". Walter P. Reuther Library. p. 1. http://www.reuther.wayne.edu/files/UP000775.pdf. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
- ^ "Tennessee Career Center at Metro Center". Department of Labor and Workforce Development. http://www.tn.gov/labor-wfd/cc/cccounty_files/davidson.htm. Retrieved December 17, 2011.
- ^ Bill Shea (9 July 2009). "Detroit's Rosa Parks Transit Center opens Tuesday". Crain's Business Detroit. http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20090709/FREE/907099997. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
Further reading[link]
- Editorial. 1974. "Two decades later." New York Times (May 17): 38. ("Within a year of Brown, Rosa Parks, a tired seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama, was, like Homer Plessy sixty years earlier, arrested for her refusal to move to the back of the bus.")
- Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit, Columbia University Press, 1983.
- Rosa Parks with James Haskins, Rosa Parks: My Story New York: Scholastic Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-590-46538-4
- Brinkley, Douglas. Rosa Parks: A Life, Penguin Books, October 25, 2005. ISBN 0-14-303600-9
External links[link]
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This audio file was created from a revision of the "Rosa Parks" article dated 2005-11-29, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
- Rosa Parks Library and Museum at Troy University
- The Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development
- Parks article in the Encyclopedia of Alabama
- Rosa Parks bus on display at the Henry Ford Museum
- Multimedia and interviews
- Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies - National Public Radio
- Civil Rights Pioneer Rosa Parks 1913–2005 - Democracy Now! democracynow.org
- Rosa Parks:the woman who changed a nation Parks interviewed by Kira Albin
- Biography and 1995 interview at achievement.org
- The Departure Of Rosa Parks (Trumpet & Symphony Orchestra) by American composer David J. Sosnowski
- Jeanne Theoharis lecture on Parks at Black Women and the Radical Tradition
- Others
- A Guide to Materials for Parks from the Library of Congress
- Complete audio/video and newspaper archive of the Montgomery Bus Boycott
- An essay on the life of Parks
- Biography on women's history website
- Rosa Parks: cadre of working-class movement that ended Jim Crow
- print media reaction to Parks' death in the Newseum archive of front page images from 2005-10-25.
- Rosa Parks at the Internet Movie Database
Related information[link]
| Honorary titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Ronald Reagan |
Persons who have lain in state or honor in the United States Capitol rotunda October 30, 2005 – October 31, 2005 |
Succeeded by Gerald Ford |
|
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|
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Parks, Rosa Louise McCauley |
| Alternative names | McCauley, Rosa Louise |
| Short description | African American civil rights activist, seamstress |
| Date of birth | February 4, 1913 |
| Place of birth | Tuskegee, Alabama, United States |
| Date of death | October 24, 2005 |
| Place of death | Detroit, Michigan, United States |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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