Map of ancient Lucania

Lucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. To the north it adjoined Campania, Samnium and Apulia, and to the south it was separated by a narrow isthmus from the district of Bruttium. It thus comprised almost all the modern region of the Basilicata, with the greater part of the province of Salerno (the so-called Cilento) and a portion of that of Cosenza. The precise limits were the river Silarus on the north-west, which separated it from Campania, and the Bradanus, which flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, on the north-east; while the two little rivers Laus and Crathis, flowing from the ridge of the Apennines to the sea on the west and east, marked the limits of the district on the side of the Bruttii.

Geography[link]

Almost the whole is occupied by the Apennines, here an irregular group of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches the western sea, and is continued from the lofty knot of mountains on the frontiers of Samnium, nearly due south to within a few miles of the Gulf of Policastro, and thenceforward is separated from the sea by only a narrow interval until it enters the district of the Bruttii. Just within the frontier of Lucania rises Monte Pollino, 7,325 ft (2,233 m), the highest peak in the southern Apennines. The mountains descend by a much more gradual slope to the coastal plain of the Gulf of Tarentum. Thus the rivers which flow to the Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared with those that descend towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of these the most important are the Bradanus (Bradano), the Casuentus (Basento), the Aciris (Agri), and the Siris (Sinni). The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit of the province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii, but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the mountains of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the western side is the Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern boundary, and has two important tributaries in the Calor (Calore Lucano or Calore Salernitano) and the Tanager (Tanagro or Negro) which joins it from the south.

Origin of the name[link]

There are several hypotheses on the origin of the name Lucania, inhabited by Lucani, an Osco-Samnite population from central Italy. Lucania might be derived from Greek Leukos meaning "white", cognate of Latin Lux ("Light"). According to another hypothesis, Lucania might be derived from Latin word Lucus meaning "Sacred Wood" (lucus = lux; or from verb lucere), or from Greek Lykos meaning "Wolf".

History[link]

The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing the name Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about the middle of the 5th century BC. Before that period it was included under the general name of Oenotria, which was applied by the Greeks to the southernmost portion of Italy. The mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes known as Oenotrians and Choni, while the coasts on both sides were occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised a protectorate over the interior (see Magna Graecia). The Lucanians were a southern branch of the Samnite or Sabellic race, who spoke the Oscan language. They had a democratic constitution save in time of war, when a dictator was chosen from among the regular magistrates. A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in Greek characters, from the 4th or 3rd century BC, and some coins with Oscan legends of the 3rd century.^[1] The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast) from the borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern extremity of Italy. Subsequently the inhabitants of the peninsula, now known as Calabria, broke into insurrection, and under the name of Bruttians established their independence, after which the Lucanians became confined within the limits already described. After this we find them engaged in hostilities with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who was called in by that people to their assistance, 334 BC. In 298 BC (Livy x. II seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291 BC), Paestum (273), and above all Tarentum (272). Subsequently they were sometimes in alliance, but more frequently engaged in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. On the landing of Pyrrhus in Italy (281 BC) they were among the first to declare in his favor, and found themselves exposed to the resentment of Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the mercy of the Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced to subjection (272 BC). Notwithstanding this they espoused the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216 BC), and their territory during several campaigns was ravaged by both armies. The country never recovered from these disasters, and under the Roman government fell into decay, to which the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites against Rome (90-88 BC) gave the finishing stroke. In the time of Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance, and owing to the decrease of population and cultivation the malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part of the province was given up to pasture, and the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities, but none of great importance.

For administrative purposes under the Roman empire, Lucania was always united with the district of the Bruttii, a practice continued by Theodoric.^[2] The two together constituted the third region of Augustus.

Cities and towns[link]

The towns on the east coast were Metapontum, a few miles south of the Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Sins, on the river of the same name. Close to its southern frontier stood Sybaris, which was destroyed in 510 ac., but subsequently replaced by Thurii. On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the Roman government as Paestum; below that came Elea or Velia, Pyxus, called by the Romans Buxentum, and Laüs, near the frontier of the province towards Bruttium. Of the towns of the interior the most considerable was Potentia, still called Potenza. To the north, near the frontier of Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged more properly to Apulia); while due south from Potentia was Grumentum, and still farther in that direction were Nerulum and Muranum. In the upland valley of the Tanagrus were Atina, Forum Popilii and Consilinum (near Sala Consilina); Eburi (Eboli) and Volceii (Buccino), though to the north of the Silarus, were also included in Lucania. The Via Popilia traversed the district from N. to S., entering it at the NW. extremity; the Via Herculia, coming southwards from the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and Grumentum, joined the Via Popilia near the S.W edge of the district: while another nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of less importance ran W. from Potentia to the Via Popilia, N.E. to the Via Appia and E. from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea. (T. As.)

Later use[link]

The modern name Basilicata originates from the 10th century AD, when the area was under Byzantine control. The region was renamed and divided into Eastern and Western Lucania (Lucania Orientale and Lucania Ocidentale) for a short period of time during the Carbonari revolution of 1820-21, and from the latter half of the 19th century there was campaigning to reinstate the name. The change was made in 1932, in accordance with the fascist regime's appropriation of symbols from the Roman Empire, and was thus undone shortly after the war, in 1947. Lucania is still in vernacular use as a synonym to Basilicata. ^[3]

Notes[link]

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Carlo Levi
Carlo Levi in 1947 (portrait by Carl Van Vechten)
Born	(1902-11-29)November 29, 1902 Turin, Italy
Died	January 4, 1975(1975-01-04) (aged 72) Rome, Italy
Nationality	Italian
Field	Painting, Literature, Medicine
Training	Self taught, University of Turin (for doctorate)
Movement	Contemporary
Works	Gli amanti (The Lovers) (1955)
Patrons	Felice Casorati
Awards	Senator of the Italian Republic

Dr. Carlo Levi (Italian pronunciation: [ˈkarlo ˈlɛːvi]) (November 29, 1902 – January 4, 1975) was an Italian-Jewish painter, writer, activist, anti-fascist, and doctor.

He is best known for his book Cristo si è fermato a Eboli (Christ Stopped at Eboli), published in 1945, a memoir of his time spent in exile in Lucania, Italy, after being arrested in connection with his political activism. In 1979, the book became the basis of a movie of the same name, directed by Francesco Rosi. Lucania, now called Basilicata, is historically one of the poorest and most backward regions of the impoverished Italian south. Levi's lucid, non-ideological and sympathetic description of the daily hardships experienced by the local peasants helped to propel the "Problem of the South" into national discourse after the end of the World War II.

Early life[link]

Levi was born in Turin, Piedmont, to wealthy Jewish physician Ercole Levi and Annetta Treves, the sister of Claudio Treves, an important socialist leader in Italy. Levi graduated from high school (Liceo Alfieri) in 1917. Upon graduation, Levi attended the University of Turin, where he studied medicine and, in 1924, graduated with high marks. While at university, Levi had become friends with Piero Gobetti who sparked Levi's interests in political activism that would continue throughout his life. Soon after graduation from the University of Turin, Levi exhibited some of his works at the XIV Venice Biennale.^[1]

Levi never completely abandoned his medical studies and served as assistant to Prof. Micheli at the University of Turin's Clinic from 1924 to 1928, working on research involving hepatopathy and diseases of bile tract. From 1924 to 1928, Levi continued his specialization studies in Paris with Professor Bourguignon among others, although by 1927 Levi had decided to dedicate his life to painting. Levi's early time in Paris, as a painter and as a student of medicine, brought him into contact with many notable personalities of the 20th century, including Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Alberto Moravia, Giorgio de Chirico, and others. Levi lived almost exclusively in Paris from 1932 to 1934 and even attended the funeral in 1933 of his uncle (his mother's brother), Claudio Treves.^[2]

Political activism and exile[link]

In 1929, along with Carlo and Nello Rosselli he founded an anti-fascist movement called Giustizia e Libertà, becoming a leader of the Italian branch along with Leone Ginzburg, a Russian Jew from Odessa who had emigrated with his parents to Italy.

As a result of his activism and involvement with anti-fascist movements, Levi was arrested and exiled to Aliano (Gagliano in the book), a town in a remote area of Italy called Lucania from 1935 to 1936. There he encountered a poverty almost unknown in prosperous northern Italy. While there, Levi worked on the side as one of the doctors for the villagers, although he had never practiced medicine after graduating from medical school. During his exile he spent much of his time painting.

After his release, he moved to France and lived there from 1939 to 1941. In 1941, he returned to Italy, and was later arrested in Florence and imprisoned in the Murate prison. He was released following Benito Mussolini's arrest and sought refuge across the street from the Pitti Palace, where he wrote his Cristo si è fermato a Eboli.

After World War II, he moved to Rome and served for a time as the editor of Italia libera, the publication of the Partito d'Azione, an anti-fascist organization that grew out of the republican tradition. He continued to write and paint, exhibiting in Europe and the United States. His written works include L'Orologio (The Watch) (1950), Le parole sono pietre (Words Are Stones) (1955), and Il Futuro ha un Cuore Antico (The Future has an Ancient Heart) (1956). In 1963, he was elected to the Senate as an independent on the Communist Party ticket; he was re-elected to the Senate in 1968 and served there until 1972. He died of pneumonia in Rome on January 4, 1975. He is buried in Aliano. The 'Persiana' Gallery in Palermo exhibited his last work, Apollo and Daphne, executed on a goatskin drum the day before he was admitted to hospital.

Works[link]

Tile autographed by Carlo Levi at Alassio.

Below is a list of important works written by Carlo Levi. Publisher (where appropriate) and date of publication follow each work^[3]:

• Paura della pittura (1942)
• Cristo si è fermato a Eboli (Einaudi, 1945)
• Paura della libertà (1946)
• L'orologio (Einaudi, 1950)
• Le parole sono pietre (Einaudi, 1955)
• II futuro ha un cuore antico (Einaudi, 1956; won the Premio Viareggio)
• La doppia notte dei tigli (Einaudi, 1959)
• Un volto che ci somiglia (Ritratto dell'Italia) (Einaudi, 1960)
• Tutto il miele è finito (Einaudi, 1964)
• Quaderno a cancelli (Einaudi, 1979; published posthumously)
• Coraggio dei miti (Scrìtti contemporanei 1922-1974) (De Donato, 1975; published posthumously)
• Carlo Levi inedito: con 40 disegni della cecità, Donato Sperduto (ed.), Edizioni Spes, Milazzo, 2002.

Levi also wrote numerous prefaces and introductions for many authors throughout his lifetime. There have also been collections of Levi's works published after his death, notably essays, miscellaneous writings and poetry.

Essays[link]

• Levi, Carlo, Roma fuggitiva: una città e i suoi dintorni. Saggi. Roma: Donzelli, 2002. (ISBN 879896954)
• Levi, Carlo, Fleeting Rome: In Search of the Dolce Vita. Essays. John Wiley & Sons, 2004. (ISBN 978-0-470-87183-6)
• Levi, Carlo, Stanislao G. Pugliese, and Carlo Levi. Fear of Freedom: With the Essay, "Fear of Painting". New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. (ISBN 0-231-13996-9)
• Carlo Levi inedito: con 40 disegni della cecità, Donato Sperduto (ed.), Edizioni Spes, Milazzo, 2002.

References[link]