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Pramoedya Ananta Toer (EYD: Pramudya Ananta Tur) (6 February 1925 – 30 April 2006) was an Indonesian author of novels, short stories, essays, polemic and histories of his homeland and its people. His works span the colonial period, Indonesia's struggle for independence, its occupation by Japan during the Second World War, as well as the post-colonial authoritarian regimes of Sukarno and Suharto, and are infused with personal and national history.

Pramoedya's writings sometimes fell out of favor with the colonial and later the authoritarian native governments in power. Pramoedya faced censorship in Indonesia during the pre-reformation era despite the fact that he was well known outside Indonesia. During the changeover to the Suharto regime Pramoedya was caught up in the shifting tides of political change and power struggles in Indonesia. He was seen as a holdover from the previous regime (even though he had struggled with the former regime as well) and was banished for years to Buru island where political prisoners were kept. It was there that he composed his most famous work, the Buru Quartet. Not permitted access to writing materials, he recited the story orally to other prisoners before it was written down and smuggled out. Pramoedya opposed some policies of founding President Sukarno as well as the New Order regime of Suharto, Sukarno's successor. Political criticisms were often subtle in his writing, although he was outspoken against colonialism and racism. During the many years in which he suffered imprisonment and house arrest, he became a cause célèbre for advocates of human rights and freedom of expression.

Early years[link]

Pramoedya was born on February 6, 1925, in the town of Blora in the heartland of Java, then a part of the Dutch East Indies. He was the firstborn son in his family; his father was a teacher, who was also active in Boedi Oetomo (the first recognized indigenous national organization in Indonesia) and his mother was a rice trader. His maternal grandfather had taken the pilgrimage to Mecca.^[1] As it is written in his semi-autobiographical collection of short stories "Cerita Dari Blora", his name was originally Pramoedya Ananta Mastoer. But he felt that the family name Mastoer (his father's name) seemed too aristocratic. The Javanese prefix "Mas" refers to a man of the higher rank in a noble family. Consequently he omitted "Mas" and kept Toer as his family name. He went on to the Radio Vocational School in Surabaya but had barely graduated from the school when Japan invaded Surabaya (1942).

During World War II, Pramoedya (like many Indonesian Nationalists, Sukarno and Suharto among them) at first supported the occupying forces of Imperial Japan. He believed the Japanese to be the lesser of two evils, compared to the Dutch. He worked as a typist for a Japanese newspaper in Jakarta. As the war went on, however, Indonesians were dismayed by the austerity of wartime rationing and by increasingly harsh measures taken by the Japanese military. The Nationalist forces loyal to Sukarno switched their support to the incoming Allies against Japan; all indications are that Pramoedya did as well.

On August 17, 1945, after the news of Allied victory over Japan reached Indonesia, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesian independence. This touched off the Indonesian National Revolution against the forces of the British and Dutch. In this war, Pramoedya joined a paramilitary group in Karawang, Kranji (West Java) and eventually was stationed in Jakarta. During this time he wrote short stories and books, as well as propaganda for the Nationalist cause. He was eventually imprisoned by the Dutch in Jakarta in 1947 and remained there until 1949, the year the Netherlands recognized Indonesian independence. While imprisoned in Bukit Duri from 1947 to 1949 for his role in the Indonesian Revolution, he wrote his first major novel The Fugitive.

Post-Independence prominence[link]

In the first years after the struggle for independence, Pramoedya wrote several works of fiction dealing with the problems of the newly founded nation, as well as semi-autobiographical works based on his wartime memoirs. He was soon able to live in the Netherlands as part of a cultural exchange program. In the years that followed, he took an interest in several other cultural exchanges, including trips to the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, as well as translations of Russian writers Maxim Gorky and Leo Tolstoy.

In Indonesia, Pramoedya built up a reputation as a literary and social critic, joining the left-wing writers' group Lekra and writing in various newspapers and literary journals. His writing style became more politically charged, as evidenced in his story Korupsi (Corruption), a critical fiction of a civil servant who falls into the trap of corruption. This created friction between him and the government of Sukarno.

From the late 1950s, Pramoedya began teaching literary history at the left-wing Universitas Res Publica. As he prepared material, he began to realise that the study of Indonesian language and literature had been distorted by the Dutch colonial authorities. He sought out materials that had been ignored by colonial educational institutions, and which had continued to be ignored after independence.

Having spent time in China, he became greatly sympathetic to the Indonesian Chinese over the persecutions they faced in postcolonial Indonesia. Most notably, he published a series of letters addressed to an imaginary Chinese correspondent discussing the history of the Indonesian Chinese, called Hoakiau di Indonesia (History of the Overseas Chinese in Indonesia). He criticized the government for being too Java-centric and insensitive to the needs and desires of the other regions and peoples of Indonesia. As a result, he was arrested by the Indonesian military and jailed at Cipinang prison for nine months.

Imprisonment under Suharto[link]

In October 1965 there was a coup and the army took power after alleging that the assassination of several senior generals was masterminded by the Communist Party of Indonesia. The transition to Suharto's New Order followed, and Pramoedya's position as the head of People's Cultural Organisation, a literary wing of the Indonesian Communist Party caused him to be considered a communist and enemy of the "New Order" regime. During the violent anti-Communist purge, he was arrested, beaten, and imprisoned by Suharto's government and named a tapol ("political prisoner"). His books were banned from circulation, and he was imprisoned without trial, first in Nusa Kambangan off the southern coast of Java, and then in the penal colony of Buru in the eastern islands of the Indonesian archipelago.

He was banned from writing during his imprisonment on the island of Buru, but still managed to compose - orally - his best-known series of work to date, the Buru Quartet, a series of four historical fiction novels chronicling the development of Indonesian nationalism and based in part on his own experiences growing up. The English titles of the books in the quartet are This Earth of Mankind, Child of All Nations, Footsteps, and House of Glass. The main character of the series, Minke, a Javanese minor royal, was based in part on an Indonesian journalist active in the nationalist movement, Tirto Adhi Surjo.

The quartet includes strong female characters of Indonesian and Chinese ethnicity, and address the discriminations and indignities of living under colonial rule, the struggle for personal and national political independence. Like much of Pramoedya's work they tell personal stories and focus on individuals caught up in the tide of a nation's history.

Pramoedya had done research for the books before his imprisonment in the Buru prison camp. When he was arrested his library was burned and much of his collection and early writings were lost. On the prison colony island of Buru he was not permitted even to have a pencil. Doubting that he would ever be able to write the novels down himself, he narrated them to his fellow prisoners. With the support of the other prisoners who took on extra labor to reduce his workload, Pramoedya was eventually able to write the novels down, and the published works derive their name "Buru Quartet" from the prison where he produced them. They have been collected and published in English (translated by Max Lane) and Indonesian, as well as many other languages. Though the work is considered a classic by many outside of Indonesia, publication was banned in Indonesia causing one of the most famous of Indonesia's literary works to be largely unavailable to the country's people whose history it addressed. Copies were scanned by Indonesians abroad and distributed via the Internet to people inside the country.

Pramoedya's works on colonial Indonesia recognised the importance of Islam as a vehicle for popular opposition to the Dutch, but his works are not overtly religious. He rejected those who used religion to deny critical thinking, and on occasion wrote with considerable negativity to the religiously pious. One author has speculated this may have resulted from a low number of Hajjis in his native Blora and resentment of his Haji grandfather's divorce and abandonment of his grandmother.

Release and subsequent works[link]

Pramoedya was released from imprisonment in 1979, but remained under house arrest in Jakarta until 1992. During this time he released The Girl From the Coast, another semi-fictional novel based on his grandmother's own experience (volumes 2 and 3 of this work were destroyed along with his library in 1965). He also wrote Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (1995); A Mute's Soliloquy, an autobiography based on the letters that he wrote for his daughter from imprisonment in Buru but were not allowed to be sent, and Arus Balik (1995).

Toer's grave in Karet Bivak Cemetery, Jakarta

He wrote many columns and short articles criticizing the Indonesian government. He wrote a book Perawan Remaja dalam Cengkraman Militer (Young Virgins in the Military's Grip), a documentary written in the style of a novel showcasing the plight of Javanese women who were forced to become comfort women during the Japanese occupation. They were brought to the island of Buru where they were sexually abused, and ended up staying there instead of returning to Java. Pramoedya made their acquaintance when he himself was a political prisoner on the Buru island in the 1970s.

Pramoedya was hospitalized on April 27, 2006, for complications brought on by diabetes and heart disease. He was also a heavy smoker of clove cigarettes and had endured years of abuse while in detention. He died on April 30, 2006 at the age of 81. Pramoedya earned several accolades, and was frequently discussed as Indonesia's and Southeast Asia's best candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature.

Pramoedya's writings on Indonesia are not unlike those of Salman Rushdie's on India in addressing the international and regional currents caused by political events in history and how these events flowed through his homeland and buffeted its people. Pramoedya also shares a personal history of hardship and detention for his efforts of self-expression and the political aspects of his writings, and struggled against the censorship of his work by the leaders of his own people.

Awards[link]

• 1988 PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award.
• 1989 The Fund for Free Expression Award, New York, USA.
• 1992 English P.E.N Centre Award, Great Britain.
• 1992 Stichting Wertheim Award, Netherland.
• 1995 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts.
• 1999 Doctor Honoris Causa from the University of Michigan.
• 1999 Chancellor's Distinguished Honor Award from the University of California, Berkeley.
• 2000 Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Republic of France.
• 2000 11th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize.
• 2004 Norwegian Authors' Union award for his contribution to world literature and his continuous struggle for the right to freedom of expression.
• 2004 Pablo Neruda Award, Chile
• 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll by the Prospect.

Major works[link]

• Kranji-Bekasi Jatuh (1947)
• Perburuan (The Fugitive) (1950)
• Keluarga Gerilya (1950)
• Bukan Pasar Malam (1951)
• Cerita dari Blora (1952)
• Gulat di Jakarta (1953)
• Korupsi (Corruption) (1954)
• Midah - Si Manis Bergigi Emas (1954)
• Cerita Calon Arang (The King, the Witch, and the Priest) (1957)
• Hoakiau di Indonesia (1960)
• Panggil Aku Kartini Saja I & II (1962)
• The Buru Quartet
  • Bumi Manusia (This Earth of Mankind) (1980)
  • Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of All Nations) (1980)
  • Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) (1985)
  • Rumah Kaca (House of Glass) (1988)
• Gadis Pantai (The Girl from the Coast) (1982)
• Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute's Soliloquy) (1995)
• Arus Balik (1995)
• Arok Dedes (1999)
• Mangir (1999)
• Larasati (2000)

Notes[link]

1. ^ Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 53. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-521-54262-2|0-521-54262-2]]. 

Further reading[link]

Books on Pramoedya Ananta Toer

• Citra Manusia Indonesia dalam Karya Pramoedya Ananta Toer, by A. Teeuw, Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta, 1997. (Indonesian)
• Pramoedya Ananta Toer dan Sastra Realisme Sosialis, by Eka Kurniawan, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 2006. (Indonesian)
• Exile : Pramoedya Ananta Toer in conversation with Andre Vltchek and Rossie Indira (Chicago, Ill. : Haymarket Books, 2006). ISBN 1-931859-28-0. (English)

External links[link]

• On the Death of Pramoedya Ananta Toer - by Tariq Ali
• Pramoedya Ananta Toer information page
• Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 81, Indonesian Novelist, Dies (The New York Times, April 30)
• Equinox Publishing
• Pramoedya and Politics

Sitor Situmorang
Born	1924 Harianboho, North Sumatra
Language	Indonesian
Nationality	Indonesia
Ethnicity	Batak
Genres	Poet, essayist, writer of short stories

Sitor Situmorang (October 2, 1924) is a prominent Indonesian poet, essayist and writer of short stories. Situmorang was born in Harianboho, North Sumatra, and educated in Jakarta. He worked as a journalist and literary critic in Medan, Yogyakarta and Jakarta for a variety of newspapers and periodicals. ^[1]

Sitor was considered by A Teeuw as an Indonesia’s preeminent poet from Angkatan ’45 (The Generation of ’45) after the decease of Chairil Anwar. “His views were deeply influenced by French existentialism of the early fifties, and his poetic forms, as pointed by Subagio, display remarkable similarities with French symbolism (Subagio Sastrowardojo 1976).”^[2] Despite the European influence, he is still deeply rooted in his Batak culture.^[3]

Early Life[link]

He was born in North Tapanuli, North Sumatra and moved to Jakarta to study at AMS. After graduating from AMS, he went to the US to further study cinematography at The University of California (1956-57. ^[4]

When he grew up, Indonesia was under the Dutch rule where a European-style education was provided only for a small minority of the population. Therefore, during high school he studied mostly European literature and Dutch which he found disturbing and provoked his sense of nationalism. When he was 15, he was inspired to translate Saijah and Adinda (a poem), a part of Max Havelar by Multatuli, from Dutch to Batak which was his mother tongue even though his Dutch was limited for this kind of literature. This was the starting point of his interest in literature where he felt invigorated to start reading more and more of Indonesian and western literature and became aspired to be a writer someday. ^[4]

Career[link]

He started his career as a journalist in North Sumatra at Suara Nasional (1945 – 1946) and Waspada (1947). He was assigned to Yogyakarta (1947-1948) and later worked for Berita Indonesia and Warta Dunia (1957). ^[1]

His first poem “Kaliurang” was written in 1948 in the style of Pujangga Baru and published at Siasat, ten years after he translated Saijah dan Adinda by Multatuli. In the same year, he wrote a review of Gema Tanah Air, an anthology compiled by H.B. Jassin. ^[4]

During 1950 - 1953, he stayed in Amsterdam and Paris to observe European cultures, funded by a scholarship from a Netherland foundation. ^[4] His brief stay in Paris influenced some of his works, such as Pertempuran dan Salju di Paris (1956, collection of short stories) and Paris la Nuit ^[5] (2002, collection of poems).

He published Surat Kertas Hijau (Green Paper Letters) in 1954, a poem collection where he expressed his emotional and intellectual crisis of love and national identity. ^[4]

This publication established him as a prominent and respected poet.^[6]

Since 1950 he has been actively involved in cultural polemic, particularly on the shape and direction of Indonesia culture. He became a prominent member of the Insitute of National Culture (Lembaga Kebudayaan Nasional /LKN), which was closely tied to Soekarno, the President of Indonesia at the time. Following the fall of Soekarno era in 1965, he was imprisoned in 1967 and was released in 1976 without any trial. ^[6]

He was once taught Bahasa Indonesia at Leiden University, Netherlands during 1982-1990. ^[4]

Selected Works[link]

He won awards for his works: Pertempuran dan Salju di Paris (Struggle and Snow in Paris), (1956, collection of short stories) from Jakarta Arts Council and Peta Perjalanan (Travel Guide ), (1976, collection of poems) from Badan Musawarat Kebudayaan Nasional ^[4]

Some of his works have been translated to other languanges such as : Paris La Nuit (Paris at Night, 2001), a collection of poetry, into French, English and Russian,^[7] and Rindu Kelana into English.^[6]

Collections of Poems[link]

• Surat Kertas Hijau (Green Paper Letters), (1954)
• Dalam Sajak (In Poems), (1955)
• Wajah Tak Bernama (Face Without a Name), (1956)
• Zaman Baru (A New Era), (1962)
• Dinding Waktu (Wall of Time), (1976)
• Peta Perjalanan (Travel Guide ), (1976) – Poetry Award from Jakarta Arts Council winner
• Bunga di atas Batu : si Anak Hilang (Flowers on Stone: The Prodigal Son)
• Rindu Kelana (To Love, To Wander), 1994 – translated in 1996 by John McGlynn, The Lontar Foundation

Collections of Short Stories[link]

• Pertempuran dan Salju di Paris (Struggle and Snow in Paris), ( 1956) – winner of Hadiah Sastra Nasional BMKN
• Pangeran (The Prince),(1963)
• Danau Toba (The Lake Toba),(1981)

Others/Related Works[link]

• Jalan Mutiara (Road of Pearls, collection of plays), (1954)
• Sastra Revolusioner , essay collections (1965)
• Sitor Situmorang Sastrawan 45, Penyair Danau Toba, autobiography (1981)
• Toba na Sae (1993), local history
• Guru Somalaing dan Modigliani Utusan Raja Rom, (1993), local history.
• Betlehem (1954) by M. Nijhoff, translation
• Rindu Kelana (The Need to Wander), (2004) short documentary by Ed Pesta Sirait – The Lontar Foundation

References[link]

External Links[link]