The degree of Doctor of Humane Letters (; D.H.L.; or L.H.D.) is always conferred as an honorary degree, usually to those who have distinguished themselves in areas other than science, government, literature or religion, which are awarded degrees of Doctor of Science, Doctor of Laws, Doctor of Letters, or Doctor of Divinity, respectively.

Doctor of Humane Letters degrees should not be confused with academic degrees awarded on the basis of research, such as Doctor of Philosophy or Doctor of Theology, or professional doctorates such as Doctor of Ministry.

Category:Doctoral degrees Category:Honorary degrees

zh:文学博士

Region	Western Philosophy
Era	20th-century philosophy
Color	lightsteelblue
Name	Martha Nussbaum
Birth date	May 06, 1947
Birth place	New York City
School tradition	Analytic
Main interests	Political philosophy, Ethics
Notable ideas	Capability approachFeminism
Influences	AristotleStanley CavellCatharine MacKinnonJohn Stuart MillAdam SmithG. E. L. OwenJohn RawlsAmartya SenBernard Williams
Signature	}}

Martha Nussbaum (born Martha Craven on May 6, 1947), is an American philosopher with a particular interest in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, political philosophy and ethics.

Nussbaum, though not a lawyer, is currently Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago, a chair that includes appointments in the Philosophy Department, the Law School, and the Divinity School. She also holds Associate appointments in Classics and Political Science, is a member of the Committee on Southern Asian Studies, and a Board Member of the Human Rights Program. She previously taught at Harvard and Brown.

Biography

Nussbaum was born in New York City, the daughter of George Craven, a Philadelphia lawyer, and Betty Warren, an interior designer and homemaker; during her teenage years, Nussbaum attended the Baldwin School in Bryn Mawr. She described her upbringing as "East Coast WASP elite...very sterile, very preoccupied with money and status." She would later credit her impatience with "mandarin philosophers" as the "repudiation of my own aristocratic upbringing. I don't like anything that sets itself up as an in-group or an elite, whether it is the Bloomsbury group or Derrida."

She studied theatre and classics at New York University, getting a B.A. in 1969, and gradually moved to philosophy while at Harvard University, where she received an M.A. in 1972 and a Ph.D. in 1975, studying under G. E. L. Owen. This period also saw her marriage to Alan Nussbaum (divorced in 1987), conversion to Judaism, and the birth of her daughter Rachel, who is currently a history professor at Evergreen State College. Her interest in Judaism has continued and deepened: on August 16, 2008 she became a ''bat mitzvah'' in a service at Temple K. A. M. Isaiah Israel in Chicago's Hyde Park, chanting from the ''Parasha Va-etchanan'' and the ''Haftarah Nahamu'', and delivering a ''D'var Torah'' about the connection between genuine, non-narcissistic consolation and the pursuit of global justice.

Nussbaum claims that during her studies at Harvard, she encountered a tremendous amount of discrimination, including sexual harassment, and problems getting childcare for her daughter . When she became the first woman to hold the Junior Fellowship at Harvard, Nussbaum received a congratulatory note from a "prestigious classicist" who suggested that since "female fellowess" was an awkward name, she should be called ''hetaira'', for in Greece these educated courtesans were the only women who participated in philosophical symposia.

She taught philosophy and classics at Harvard in the 1970s and early 1980s, where she was denied tenure by the Classics Department in 1982. Nussbaum then moved to Brown University, where she taught until the mid-1990s. Her 1986 book ''The Fragility of Goodness'', on ancient Greek ethics, made her a well-known figure throughout the humanities. More recent work (''Frontiers of Justice'') establishes Nussbaum as a theorist of global justice.

Nussbaum's work on capabilities has often focused on the unequal freedoms and opportunities of women, and she has developed a distinctive type of feminism, drawing inspiration from the liberal tradition, but emphasizing that liberalism, at its best, entails radical rethinking of gender relations and relations within the family.

Nussbaum's other major area of philosophical work is the emotions. She has defended a ''neo-Stoic'' account of emotions that holds that they are appraisals that ascribe to things and persons, outside the agent's own control, great significance for the person's own flourishing. On this basis she has proposed analyses of grief, compassion, and love, and, in a later book, of disgust and shame.

Nussbaum has engaged in many spirited debates with other intellectuals, in her academic writings as well as in the pages of semi-popular magazines and book reviews and, in one instance, when testifying as an expert witness in court. She testified in the Colorado bench trial for ''Romer v. Evans'', arguing against the claim that the history of philosophy provides the state with a "compelling interest" in favor of a law denying gays and lesbians the right to seek passage of local non-discrimination laws. A portion of this testimony, dealing with the potential meanings of the term ''tolmêma'' in Plato's work, was the subject of controversy, and was called misleading and even perjurious by critics. She responded to these charges in a lengthy article, "Platonic Love and Colorado Law." The debate continued with a reply by one of her sternest critics, Robert P. George. Nussbaum has criticized Noam Chomsky as being among the "leftist intellectuals" who hold the belief that "one should not criticize one’s friends, that solidarity is more important than ethical correctness." She suggests that one can "trace this line to an old Marxist contempt for bourgeois ethics, but it is loathsome whatever its provenance." Among the people whose books she has reviewed critically are Allan Bloom, Harvey Mansfield, and Judith Butler. Her more serious and academic debates have been with figures such as John Rawls, Richard Posner, and Susan Moller Okin.

Nussbaum is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1988) and the American Philosophical Society. In 2008 she was elected a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy. She is a Founding President and Past President of the Human Development and Capability Association and a Past President of the American Philosophical Association, Central Division.

Major works

''The Fragility of Goodness''

''The Fragility of Goodness'' confronts the ethical dilemma that individuals strongly committed to justice are nevertheless vulnerable to external factors that may deeply compromise or even negate their human flourishing. Discussing literary as well as philosophical texts, Nussbaum seeks to determine the extent to which reason may enable self-sufficiency. She eventually rejects the Platonic notion that human goodness can fully protect against peril, siding with the tragic playwrights and Aristotle in treating the acknowledgment of vulnerability as a key to realizing the human good.

Her interpretation of Plato's ''Symposium'' in particular drew considerable attention. Under Nussbaum's consciousness of vulnerability, the re-entrance of Alcibiades at the end of the dialogue undermines Diotima's account of the ladder of love in its ascent to the non-physical realm of the forms. Alcibiades's presence deflects attention back to physical beauty, sexual passions, and bodily limitations, hence highlighting human fragility.

''Fragility'' made Nussbaum famous throughout the humanities. It garnered wide praise in academic reviews, and even drew acclaim in the popular media. Camille Paglia credited ''Fragility'' with matching "the highest academic standards" of the twentieth century, and The Times Higher Education called it "a supremely scholarly work." Nussbaum's fame extended her influence beyond print and into television programs like PBS's Bill Moyers.

''Cultivating Humanity''

''Cultivating Humanity'' appeals to classical Greek texts as a basis for defense and reform of the liberal education. Noting the Greek cynic philosopher Diogenes' aspiration to transcend "local origins and group memberships" in favor of becoming "a citizen of the world," Nussbaum traces the development of this idea through the Stoics, Cicero, and eventually modern liberalism of Adam Smith and Immanuel Kant. Nussbaum champions multiculturalism in the context of ethical universalism (utilitarianism), defends scholarly inquiry into race, gender, and human sexuality, and further develops the role of literature as narrative imagination into ethical questions.

At the same time, Nussbaum also censured certain scholarly trends. She excoriated deconstructionist Jacques Derrida as "simply not worth studying" and labels his analysis of Chinese culture "pernicious" and without "evidence of serious study." More broadly, Nussbaum criticized Michel Foucault for his "historical incompleteness and lack of conceptual clarity," but nevertheless singled him out for providing "the only truly important work to have entered philosophy under the banner of "postmodernism."" Nussbaum is even more critical of figures like Allan Bloom, Roger Kimball, and George Will for what she considers their "shaky" knowledge of non-Western cultures and inaccurate caricatures of today's humanities departments.

''The New York Times'' praised ''Cultivating Humanity'' as "a passionate, closely argued defense of multiculturalism" and hailed it as "a formidable, perhaps definitive defense of diversity on American campuses" Nussbaum was the 2002 recipient of the University of Louisville Grawmeyer Award in Education.

In 2010, Nussbaum published "Not For Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities," which extends the analysis of "Cultivating Humanity" to schools and universities in many different countries, arguing that liberal arts education, currently under threat all over the world, supplies skills without which democracies are unlikely to remain stable.

''Sex & Social Justice''

''Sex and Social Justice'' sets out to demonstrate that sex and sexuality are morally irrelevant distinctions that have been artificially enforced as sources of social hierarchy; thus feminism and social justice are fused by common concerns. Rebutting anti-universalist objections, Nussbaum proposes functional freedoms, or central human capabilities, as a rubric of social justice.

Nussbaum discusses at length the feminist critiques of liberalism itself, including the charge advanced by Alison Jaggar that liberalism demands "ethical egoism." Nussbaum notes that liberalism emphasizes respect for ''others'' as individuals, and further argues that Jaggar has elided the distinction between individualism and self-sufficiency. Nussbaum accepts Catharine MacKinnon's critique of abstract liberalism, assimilating the salience of history and context of group hierarchy and subordination, but concludes that this appeal is rooted in liberalism rather than a critique of it.

Addressing the practice of female genital mutilation, Nussbaum condemns the practice, citing deprivation of normative human functioning in its risks to health, impact on sexual functioning, violations of dignity, and conditions of non-autonomy. Emphasizing that female genital mutilation is carried out by brute force, its irreversibility, its non-consensual nature, and its links to customs of male domination, Nussbaum urges feminists to confront female genital mutilation as an issue of injustice.

Nussbaum also refines the concept of "objectification" as originally advanced by Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin. Nussbaum defines the idea of treating as an object with seven qualities: instrumentality, denial of autonomy, inertness, fungibility, violability, ownership, and denial of subjectivity. Her characterization of pornography as a tool of objectification puts Nussbaum at odds with sex-positive feminism. At the same time, Nussbaum argues in support of the legalization of prostitution, a position she reiterated in a 2008 essay following the Spitzer scandal, writing "the idea that we ought to penalize women with few choices by removing one of the ones they do have is grotesque".

''Sex and Social Justice'' was lauded by critics in the press. Salon declared, "She shows brilliantly how sex is used to deny some people – i.e., women and gay men – social justice." The New York Times praised the work as "elegantly written and closely argued." Kathryn Trevenen praised Nussbaum's effort to shift feminist concerns toward interconnected transnational efforts, and for explicating a set of universal guidelines to structure an agenda of social justice. Patrick Hopkins singled out for praise Nussbaum's "masterful" chapter on sexual objectification. Radical feminist Andrea Dworkin faulted Nussbaum for "consistent over-intellectualisation of emotion, which has the inevitable consequence of mistaking suffering for cruelty."

''Hiding from Humanity''

''Hiding from Humanity'' extends Nussbaum's work in moral psychology to probe the arguments for including two emotions — shame and disgust — as legitimate bases for legal judgments. Nussbaum argues that individuals tend to repudiate their bodily imperfection or animality through the projection of fears about contamination. This cognitive response is in itself irrational, because we cannot transcend the animality of our bodies. Noting how projective disgust has wrongly justified group subordination (mainly of women, Jews, and homosexuals), Nussbaum ultimately discards disgust as a reliable basis of judgment.

Turning to shame, Nussbaum argues that shame takes too broad a target, attempting to inculcate humiliation on a scope that is too intrusive and limiting on human freedom. Nussbaum sides with John Stuart Mill in narrowing legal concern to acts that cause a distinct and assignable harm.

In an interview with ''Reason'' magazine, Nussbaum elaborated, "Disgust and shame are inherently hierarchical; they set up ranks and orders of human beings. They are also inherently connected with restrictions on liberty in areas of non-harmful conduct. For both of these reasons, I believe, anyone who cherishes the key democratic values of equality and liberty should be deeply suspicious of the appeal to those emotions in the context of law and public policy."

Nussbaum's work was received with wide praise. The ''Boston Globe'' called her argument "characteristically lucid" and hailed her as "America's most prominent philosopher of public life." Her reviews in national newspapers and magazines garnered unanimous praise. In academic circles, Stefanie A. Lindquist of Vanderbilt University lauded Nussbaum's analysis as a "remarkably wide ranging and nuanced treatise on the interplay between emotions and law."

A prominent exception was Roger Kimball's review published in the ''New Criterion'', in which he accused Nussbaum of "fabricating" the renewed prevalence of shame and disgust in public discussions and says she intends to "undermine the inherited moral wisdom of millennia." He rebukes her for "contempt for the opinions of ordinary people" and ultimately accuses Nussbaum herself of "hiding from humanity."

Nussbaum has recently drawn on and extended her work on disgust to produce a new analysis of the legal issues regarding sexual orientation and same-sex conduct. Her book ''From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and the Constitution'' was published by Oxford University Press in 2009, as part of their "Inalienable Rights" series, edited by Geoffrey Stone.

''From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation & Constitutional Law''

In the 2010 book ''From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation & Constitutional Law'' Martha Nussbaum analyzes the role that disgust plays in law and public debate in the United States. The book primarily analyzes constitutional legal issues facing gay and lesbian Americans but also analyzes issues such as anti-miscegenation statutes, segregation, antisemitism and the caste system in India as part of its broader thesis regarding the "politics of disgust".

Nussbaum posits that the fundamental motivations of those advocating legal restrictions against gay and lesbian Americans is a "politics of disgust". These legal restrictions include blocking sexual orientation being protected under anti-discrimination laws (See: Romer v. Evans), sodomy laws against consenting adults (See: Lawrence v. Texas) and constitutional bans against same-sex marriage (See: California Proposition 8 (2008)).

She identifies the "politics of disgust" closely with Lord Devlin and his famous opposition to the Wolfenden report that recommended decriminalizing private consensual homosexual acts on the basis that those things would "disgust the average man". To Devlin, the mere fact some people or act may produce popular emotional reactions of disgust provides an appropriate guide for legislating. She also identifies the 'wisdom of repugnance' as advocated by Leon Kass as another "politics of disgust" school of thought as it claims that disgust "in crucial cases...repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power fully to articulate it."

Martha Nussbaum goes on to explicitly oppose the concept of a disgust-based morality as an appropriate guide for legislating. Nussbaum notes that popular disgust has been used throughout history as a justification for persecution. Drawing upon her earlier work on the relationship between disgust & shame, Nussbaum notes that at various times racism, antisemitism, sexism, have all been driven by popular revulsion.

In place of this "politics of disgust", Nussbaum argues for the Harm principle from John Stuart Mill as the proper basis for limiting individual liberties. Nussbaum argues the harm principle, which supports the legal ideas of consent, the age of majority and privacy, protects citizens while the "politics of disgust" is merely an unreliable emotional reaction with no inherent wisdom. Furthermore Nussbaum argues this "politics of disgust" has denied and continues to deny citizens humanity and equality before the law on no rational grounds and causes palpable social harms to the groups affected.

''From Disgust to Humanity'' earned acclaim in major U.S. publications, and prompted interviews in the ''New York Times'' and other magazines. One conservative magazine, The American Spectator, offered a dissenting view, writing, "[H]er account of the "politics of disgust" lacks coherence, and "the politics of humanity" betrays itself by not treating more sympathetically those opposed to the gay rights movement. The article also argues that book is marred by factual errors and inconsistencies.

The Capability approach

During the 1980s Nussbaum began a collaboration with economist Amartya Sen on issues of development and ethics which culminated in ''The Quality of Life'', published in 1993 by Oxford University Press. Together with Sen and a group of younger scholars, Nussbaum founded the Human Development and Capability Association in 2003. With Sen, she promoted the "capabilities approach" to development, which views capabilities ("substantial freedoms", such as the ability to live to old age, engage in economic transactions, or participate in political activities) as the constitutive parts of development, and poverty as capability-deprivation. This contrasts with traditional utilitarian views that see development purely in terms of economic growth, and poverty purely as income-deprivation. It is also universalist, and therefore contrasts with relativist approaches to development. Much of the work is presented from an Aristotelian perspective.

Nussbaum furthered the capabilities approach in ''Frontiers of Justice'' (2006), to expand upon social contractarian explanations of justice, as developed most extensively by John Rawls' in his ''Theory of Justice'', ''Political Liberalism'', ''The Law of Peoples'', and related works. Nussbaum argues that standard social contractarianism, while far better than utilitarianism in providing a satisfactory framework for justice, relies on the belief and assumption that cooperation is pursued for the purpose of securing mutual advantage. Views deriving from the classical tradition of the social contract, she argues, have great difficulty dealing with issues of basic justice and substantial freedom in situations where there are great asymmetries of power between the parties. As such, Nussbaum argues that the procedural justice-based approach of contractarianism therefore fails to address areas in which symmetrical advantage does not exist, namely, in the context of justice for the disabled, transnational justice, and justice for non-human animals ("the three frontiers").

Noting that Rawls himself acknowledged the failure of his theory of justice to comprehensively address these three frontiers, Nussbaum claims that Rawls's attempt to expand his theory to address one of these areas — transnational justice — is "ultimately unsatisfying" because he fails to follow through with the essential elements developed in ''A Theory of Justice'', namely, by relaxing some of the key assumptions about the parties to the original contract. Nussbaum argues that the contractarian approach cannot explain justice in the absence of free, equal and independent parties in an original position in which "all have something with which to bargain and none have too much" (with reference to Rousseau and Hume), concluding that the procedural perspective alone cannot provide an adequate theory of justice.

To address this perceived problem, Nussbaum introduces the capabilities approach, an outcome-oriented view that seeks to determine what basic principles, and adequate measure thereof, would fulfill a life of human dignity. She frames these basic principles in terms of ten capabilities, i.e. real opportunities based on personal and social circumstance. Nussbaum posits that justice demands the pursuit, for all citizens, of a minimum threshold of these ten capabilities. She further developed the idea of the threshold, with reference to constitutional law, in her Foreword to the 2007 Supreme Court issue of the ''Harvard Law Review'', "Constitutions and Capabilities: 'Perception' Against Lofty Formalism," which would ultimately appear in revised form as the book ''Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach'' (2011). ''Creating Capabilities'' presents the approach in a brief and accessible form for a general audience. Her book, ''Liberty of Conscience: In Defense of America's Tradition of Religious Equality'' (Basic Books 2008) explores the constitutional requirements of justice in the area of religious liberty. Nussbaum's major current work-in-progress, projected in the final chapter of ''Frontiers of Justice'', is a book on the moral psychology of the capabilities approach, which will bring together her work on the emotions with the analysis of social justice. This book is under contract to Harvard University Press. The book entitled ''The Cosmopolitan Tradition'' is also under contract to Harvard University Press.

Bibliography

''Aristotle's De Motu Animalium'' (1978)

''The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy'' (1986), ISBN 0521257689; Second edition (2001), ISBN 052179126X.

''Love's Knowledge'' (1990)

Nussbaum, Martha, and Amelie Oksenberg Rorty. ''Essays on Aristotle's'' De Anima (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992)

Nussbaum, Martha, and Amartya Sen. ''The Quality of Life''. (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1993)

''The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics'' (1994); Second edition with a new introduction by the author (2009), ISBN 9780691141312.

''Poetic Justice'' (1996)

''For Love of Country'' (1996)

''Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education'' (1997)

''Sex and Social Justice'' (1998)

''Plato's ''Republic'': The Good Society and The Deformation of Desire'' (1998)

''Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach'' (2000)

''Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions'' (2001)

''Hiding From Humanity: Disgust, Shame, and the Law'' (2004) (Trad. esp.: ''El ocultamiento de lo humano. Repugnancia, vergüenza y ley'', Buenos Aires/Madrid, Katz editores S.A, 2006, ISBN 9788460983545).

''Animal Rights: Current Debates and New Directions'' (edited with Cass Sunstein) (2004)

''Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership'' (2006)

''The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future'', (2007) ISBN 0-674-02482-6.

*Reviewed in Pankaj Mishra, "Impasse in India" ''The New York Review of Books'' 54/11 (28 June 2007) : 48-51

''Liberty of Conscience: In Defense of America's Tradition of Religious Equality'' (2008)

"From Disgust to Humanity: Sexual Orientation and Constitutional Law" (2010).

''Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities'', Princeton University Press, 2010. ISBN 9780691140643 (Trad. esp.: ''Sin fines de lucro. Por qué la democracia necesita de las humanidades'', Buenos Aires/Madrid, Katz editores S.A, 2010, ISBN 9788492946174).

Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach," Harvard University Press, 2011.

Awards and honors

Honorary degrees

She has 40 honorary degrees from colleges and universities in North America, Europe, and Asia, including from:

Mount Holyoke College,

Emory University,

Grinnell College,

Williams College,

The College of William and Mary,

The University of St Andrews (Scotland),

The University of Edinburgh (Scotland),

The Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium),

The University of Toronto (Canada),

The Ecole Normale Supérieure (Paris, France),

The New School University (New York City),

The University of Haifa (Israel),

Ohio State University,

Emory University,

Bielefeld University (Germany),

and Georgetown University (Washington, D.C.).

The Institute of Social Studies (ISS) awarded its honorary doctorate to her in 2006.

Awards

1990: Brandeis Creative Arts Award in Non-Fiction

1991: PEN Spielvogel-Diamondstein Award for the best collection of essays

1998: Ness Book Award of the Association of American Colleges and Universities (''Cultivating Humanity'')

2000: Book award of the North American Society for Social Philosophy (''Sex and Social Justice'')

2002: Grawemeyer Award in Education (''Cultivating Humanity'')

2003: Barnard College Medal of Distinction

2004: Association of American University Publishers Professional and Scholarly Book Award for Law (''Hiding From Humanity'')

2005: listed among the world's Top 100 intellectuals by ''Foreign Policy'' (as well as in 2008 and 2010) and ''Prospect'' magazines.

2007: Radcliffe Alumnae Recognition Award

2009: American Philosophical Society's Henry M. Phillips Prize in Jurisprudence.

See also

American philosophy

List of American philosophers

References

External links

"We need the Sting of Critical Reasoning" A Conversation with Martha Nussbaum

University of Chicago biography

Nussbaum bibliographies

Q&A; with Martha Nussbaum from ''The Guardian''

In depth with Martha Nussbaum on C-SPAN

Radio interview on ''Philosophy Talk''

Nussbaum on Islamic liberalism under fire in India in the ''Boston Review'

Profile at The International Institute of Social Studies

Interview with Martha C. Nussbaum: “If citizens are not independent, then what we have is not democracy, but instead some sort of fascism or totalitarianism”", Barcelona Metropolis, 2011.

Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century philosophers Category:21st-century philosophers Category:American philosophers Category:Analytic philosophers Category:Scholars of Greek philosophy Category:Jewish feminists Category:Jewish philosophers Category:Converts to Judaism Category:Women philosophers Category:New York University alumni Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Brown University faculty Category:Harvard University faculty Category:American Jews Category:Grawemeyer Award winners Category:Guggenheim Fellows Category:University of Chicago faculty Category:People from New York City Category:Virtue ethicists

ca:Martha Nussbaum de:Martha Nussbaum es:Martha Nussbaum fr:Martha Craven Nussbaum is:Martha Nussbaum it:Martha Nussbaum he:מרתה נוסבאום la:Martha Nussbaum nl:Martha Nussbaum ja:マーサ・ヌスバウム no:Martha Nussbaum pl:Martha Nussbaum pt:Martha Nussbaum ru:Нуссбаум, Марта fi:Martha Nussbaum sv:Martha Nussbaum

Elouise Pepion Cobell (1946-) is a banker and rancher, a Native American leader, and lead plaintiff in the groundbreaking litigation ''Cobell v. Kempthorne,'' which challenged the United States' mismanagement of trust funds belonging to more than 500,000 individual Native Americans. As Treasurer of the Blackfeet Tribe of Montana, she established the Blackfeet National Bank, the first national bank to be located on an Indian reservation and to be owned by a Native American tribe. She presently serves on the Board of the Native American Bank and First Interstate Bank.

While Treasurer of the Blackfeet Tribe, Ms. Cobell discovered many irregularities in the management of funds held in trust by the United States for the tribe and for individual Indians. Along with the Intertribal Monitoring Association (which she served as President), she attempted to seek reform in Washington, DC from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s without success. At that point she asked Dennis Gingold (renowned banking lawyer), Thaddeus Holt and the Native American Rights Fund (including John Echohawk and Keith Harper) to bring a suit forcing reform and an accounting of the trust funds belonging to individual Indians.

The case is known as ''Cobell v. Salazar'', and in 2010 the Obama administration offered a settlement of $3.4 billion of the longstanding class action suit. As of July 2011, notices are going out to the hundreds of thousands of individual Native Americans affected. Most will receive settlements of about $1800, but some may receive more.

Biography

Elouise Cobell is a member of the Blackfeet Indian Tribe of Montana and a great-granddaughter of Mountain Chief, one of the legendary Blackfeet leaders of the West.

She is the Executive Director of the Native American Community Development Corporation, a non-profit affiliate of Native American Bank. She also served as Chairperson for the Blackfeet National Bank, the first national bank located on an Indian reservation and owned by a Native American tribe. Her professional, civic experience and expertise includes serving as Co-Chair of Native American Bank, NA.; a Board Member for First Interstate Bank; a Trustee of the National Museum of the American Indian; as well as a member of other boards. She served for thirteen years as the Treasurer for the Blackfeet Indian Nation in Montana.

In addition to operating a working ranch with her husband, which produces cattle and crops, she is active in local agriculture and environmental issues. She founded the first Land Trust in Indian Country and serves as a Trustee for the Nature Conservancy of Montana.

Elouise Cobell is a graduate of Great Falls Business College and attended Montana State University. Her professional background is in accounting and community development.

Legacy and honors

1997, "Genius Grant" from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's Fellowship Program.

Awarded an honorary doctorate from Montana State University

2002, received the International Women's Forum award for "Women Who Make a Difference," in Mexico City.

2004, Jay Silverheels Achievement Award from the National Center for American Indian Enterprise Development.

2005, received a "Cultural Freedom Fellowship" from the Lannan Foundation, an award that cited her persistence in bringing to light the government's "more than a century of government malfeasance and dishonesty" with the Indian Trust.

2007, one of ten people to receive American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) Impact Award (for making the world a better place)

2011, awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from Dartmouth College as part of the college's 2011 Commencement ceremonies.

References

http://www.americanprogress.org/events/2006/4/b593305ct2151659.html

http://www.lannan.org/lf/bios/detail/elouise-cobell/

http://www.indiantrust.com/press/bio_cobell.php

http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2005/09/accounting_coup-3.html

http://www.brokenpromisesthemovie.com

Category:Living people Category:Female Native American leaders Category:Montana State University alumni Category:Blackfoot people Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:American bankers Category:MacArthur Fellows

ca:Elouise Cobell

name	Richard Stengel
birth place	New York
education	PrincetonChrist Church, Oxford
occupation	Magazine Editor, Journalist, Author
title	Managing Editor, ''Time''
spouse	Mary Pfaff
nationality	American
years active	1981 – present
url	}}

Richard "Rick" Stengel is an American editor, journalist and author and is ''Time'' magazine's 16th managing editor. While best known for his work for ''Time'', he has written a number of books including a collaboration with Nelson Mandela on Mandela's autobiography. Prior to taking up his role as managing editor of ''Time'' in 2006, Stengel was the president and chief executive officer of the National Constitution Center.

Early life and education

Stengel was born and brought up in New York. He attended Princeton University and played on the Princeton Tigers basketball team as part of the 1975 National Invitation Tournament. He graduated from Princeton ''magna cum laude'' in 1977. After college, he won a Rhodes Scholarship and travelled to England to study English and history at Christ Church, Oxford.

Career

Early career

Stengel joined ''Time'' in 1981 and contributed to the magazine through the early and mid-1980s, including articles on South Africa, which he also covered for ''Rolling Stone'' magazine. He became a senior writer and essayist for ''Time'', covering both the 1988 and 1996 presidential campaigns.

While working for ''Time'', Stengel also wrote for ''The New Yorker'', ''The New Republic'', ''Spy'', and the ''New York Times'' and appeared on television as a commentator, even contributing to ''Indecision '92'', the 1992 Comedy Central coverage of the Democratic Convention in New York. Using his experiences as a journalist as a basis, in 1998 Stengel taught a course at Princeton on "Politics and the Press". He was one of the original on-air contributors for MSNBC.

Stengel left ''Time'' in 1999, to become a senior advisor and chief speechwriter for Bill Bradley who ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination for the 2000 presidential election.

Time.com

Stengel returned to ''Time'' in 2000 and took on the role of managing editor of Time.com. As announced by Time Inc. in May 2000, Stengel replaced Richard Duncan in the role and took on the responsibilities of overseeing news coverage and editorial content. He later held several other roles at ''Time'', including a period as national editor of the magazine.

National Constitution Center

Stengel became the president and CEO of the National Constitution Center, a museum and education center in Philadelphia on March 1, 2004. He left his role as national editor of ''Time'' in February 2004 to replace Joseph M. Torsella as CEO of the center, with the role of raising the center's profile, adding to its endowment, and increasing the number of visitors. At the Constitution Center, Stengel was responsible for starting the Peter Jennings Institute, offering constitutional training for journalists; Constitution High, a charter school for students interested in history and government; summer teacher institutes; and brought the Liberty Medal to the organization.

Managing editor of ''Time''

In 2006 Stengel once again returned to ''Time'', this time as managing editor of the magazine. The appointment was announced on May 17, 2006 by the Editor in Chief of Time Inc., John Huey, and he officially entered the role on June 15, 2006 as the 16th managing editor of the magazine, which was in its 83rd year at the time. In his role as managing editor, Stengel oversees ''Time'' magazine, which is one of the largest magazines worldwide, and Time.com, as well as Time Books, and Time for Kids.

The first major initiative Stengel announced as managing editor was to change the magazine's newsstand date to Friday, starting in early 2007. Following this, Stengel implemented an ambitious graphic redesign and changes in the magazine's content, stating that he wanted the magazine to be more selective and to represent "knowledge" rather than "undigested information." He increased reporting on war and politics, giving ''Time'' a more focused editorial profile. In his first year as managing editor, Stengel selected "You" as ''Time'''s "Person of the Year", which was the subject of much media coverage and debate. In 2010, ''Time'' chose another social media-oriented "Person of the Year", Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg.

In 2008, Stengel approved the changing of ''Time'''s emblematic red border for only the second time since its adoption. The border was changed to green for a special issue focused on the environment. The cover, which included an altered version of Joe Rosenthal's iconic ''Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima'' photograph—substituting a tree for the American flag—was criticized by some veterans groups. Explaining the analogy, Stengel stated his belief that there "needs to be an effort along the lines of preparing for World War II to combat global warming and climate change".

Under Stengel's leadership, ''Time'' has reported on significant world events such as its coverage of the Iraq war, which he describes in an editorial as necessary in order to remind people not to "turn away", and the 2008 presidential campaign. Following the election, president-elect Barack Obama was selected by Stengel as "Person of the Year" for Obama's 14th appearance on ''Time'''s cover in 2008. Stengel writes editorials for ''Time'', including a 2010 piece explaining their use on ''Time'''s cover of a portrait of an 18-year-old Afghan woman whose nose and ears had been cut off by the Taliban as a punishment for running away from her in-laws. For a ''Time'' cover story in December 2010, Stengel interviewed WikiLeaks spokesperson Julian Assange over Skype, in which Assange called for the resignation of United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton.

Stengel was listed as number 41 on ''Newsweek'''s 2010 "Power 50" list in November 2010. He also regularly appears on shows such as CNN's ''American Morning'' and MSNBC's ''Morning Joe'' to promote the magazine.

National Service Movement

In September 2007, Stengel wrote a ''Time'' cover story called "The Case For National Service" in which he argued that Americans needed to redouble their efforts to get involved in community service and volunteerism, and that the presidential candidates needed to make the issue a top priority in the 2008 presidential campaign. Through this essay, Stengel became involved with national service groups Be the Change, City Year, Civic Enterprises, and others to form ServiceNation, a coalition of more than 100 organizations dedicated to promoting national service and volunteerism.

ServiceNation announced that it had secured both U.S. Presidential candidates to participate in Presidential Forum on National Service at Columbia University in New York City on September 11, 2008. Stengel served as co-moderator of the forum, along with PBS journalist Judy Woodruff, and both Senators Barack Obama and John McCain answered questions in front of a live audience at Columbia University about their plans for national service.

On September 12, 2008, Stengel was a featured speaker at the ServiceNation Summit in New York, along with Caroline Kennedy, Senator Hillary Clinton, First Lady Laura Bush and New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg. In February 2009, Stengel testified alongside Usher Raymond, former U.S. Senator Harris Wofford and others, in front of the United States House Committee on Education and Labor about the importance of national service, leading to the passage of the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act (H.R. 1388). Among other provisions, the bill helped to establish a Summer of Service Program, increase the number of AmeriCorps opportunities and establish a nationwide Call to Service Campaign.

Stengel was the recipient of two Citizen of the Year awards, including one for 2010, which was awarded on September 17, 2010 at the Annual National Conference on Citizenship. He has also been presented with the 2010 Lifetime of Idealism Award, awarded to him by City Year Washington, D.C. for "his commitment to promoting and expanding opportunities for Americans to serve".

Books

Stengel has authored several books including ''January Sun: One Day, Three Lives, A South African Town'', a non-fiction work about the lives of three men in rural South Africa, published in 1990 and ''You're Too Kind: A Brief History of Flattery'' a popular history of flattery, published in 2000. His most recently published book is called ''Mandela's Way: Fifteen Lessons on Life, Love and Courage'' which was released in March 2010 and is based on Stengel's personal interactions with Nelson Mandela. The book has drawn praise from President Bill Clinton, Deepak Chopra, and Harvard's Henry Louis Gates, Jr.

The book that Stengel is best known for is his collaboration with Nelson Mandela on Mandela's autobiography, ''Long Walk to Freedom''. In 1992 he signed a ghostwriting deal with publishers Little, Brown to work on the book, having first been cleared by the African National Congress as a suitable author. The book was published in 1995, and was praised by the ''Financial Times'', which stated: "Their collaboration produced surely one of the great autobiographies of the 20th century". Stengel later served as co-producer of the 1996 documentary film ''Mandela'', which was nominated for an Academy Award.

Personal life

Stengel is married to Mary Pfaff, a native of South Africa. They have two sons. The couple met while Stengel was in South Africa working on Nelson Mandela's autobiography and Mandela is godfather to their oldest son, Gabriel.

References

External links

Official biography from Time Inc.

Further reading

Category:American magazine editors Category:News editors Category:American Rhodes scholars Category:Princeton University alumni Category:Princeton Tigers men's basketball players Category:Living people Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Time (magazine) people

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{{infobox writer | name	Ruth Gruber | image Ruth_Gruber_April_2007.jpg | imagesize 200px | caption Gruber in 2007 | pseudonym | birth_date September 30, 1911 | birth_place New York, New York, | death_date | death_place | occupation Journalist, photographer, writer, humanitarian, U.S. government official | period | genre | subject | movement | influences | influenced | signature | website }}

Ruth Gruber (born September 30, 1911) is an American journalist, photographer, writer, humanitarian and a former United States government official.

Early life

Ruth Gruber was born in Brooklyn, New York, one of five children of Russian Jewish immigrant parents David and Gussie Gruber. She dreamed of becoming a writer and was encouraged by her parents to obtain higher education. At eighteen she won a postgraduate fellowship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In 1931, she won another fellowship from the Institute of International Education to study in Cologne, Germany. She received a Ph.D in one year from the University of Cologne in German Philosophy, Modern English Literature and Art History, becoming the youngest person in the world to receive a doctorate. During this time, Gruber had an extensive relationship with Virginia Woolf. While in Germany, Gruber witnessed Nazi rallies and after completing her studies and returning to America, she brought the awareness of the dangers of Nazism. Gruber's writing career began in 1932. In 1935, ''The New York Herald Tribune'' asked her to write a feature series about women under Fascism and Communism. While working for ''Herald Tribune'', she became the first foreign correspondent to fly through Siberia into the Soviet Arctic.

Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Interior

During World War II, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes appointed Gruber as his Special Assistant. In this role, she carried out a study on the prospects of Alaska for homesteading G.I.s after the war. In 1944, she was assigned a secret mission to Europe to bring one thousand Jewish refugees and wounded American soldiers from Italy to the US. Ickes made her "a simulated general" so in case the military aircraft she flew in was shot down and she was caught by the Nazis, she would be kept alive according to the Geneva Convention. Throughout the voyage, the Army troop transport ''Henry Gibbins'' was hunted by Nazi seaplanes and U-boats. Gruber's book ''Haven: The Dramatic Story of 1000 World War II Refugees and How They Came to America'' was based on case histories she recorded as she interviewed the refugees.

Since the U.S. Congress refused to lift the quota on Jewish immigration to the United States from Europe, President Roosevelt acted by executive authority and invited the group of one thousand to visit America. The refugees were to be guests of the president and upon arriving in New York, they were transferred to Fort Ontario, a decommissioned Army training base near Oswego, New York and locked behind a chain link fence with barbed wire. While U.S. government agencies argued about whether they should be allowed to stay or, at some point, be deported to Europe, Gruber lobbied to keep them through the end of the war. It was not until January 1946 that the decision was made to allow them to apply for American residency. This was the only attempt by the United States to shelter Jewish refugees during the war.

A 2001 film called ''Haven'' was based on Gruber's book, with Natasha Richardson portraying Ruth Gruber.

Post-war career

In 1946, Gruber took leave from her federal post to return to journalism. ''The New York Post'' asked her to cover the work of a newly created Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry on Palestine. The Committee was to decide the fate of 100,000 European Jewish refugees who were living in European camps as displaced persons (DP). Harry Truman pressed Great Britain to open the doors of British Mandate of Palestine. The committee members spent four months in Europe, Palestine, and the Arab countries and another month in Switzerland digesting their experiences. At the end of its deliberations, the committee's twelve members unanimously agreed that Britain should allow 100,000 Jewish immigrants to settle in Palestine. British foreign minister Ernest Bevin rejected the finding.

Eventually the issue was taken up by the recently established United Nations, which appointed a Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). Gruber accompanied UNSCOP as a correspondent for the ''New York Herald''.

Exodus 1947

Gruber witnessed the Exodus 1947 ship entering the Haifa harbor after it was attacked by the Royal Navy while making an attempt to deliver 4,500 Jewish refugees. To meet the refugees, Gruber flew to Cyprus, where she witnessed and photographed refugees detained by the British. The British then sent the refugees to Port-de-Bouc in France and Gruber went there.

However, the refugees refused to disembark, and after 18 days standoff, the British decided to ship the Jews back to Germany. Out of many journalists from around the world reporting on the affair, Gruber alone was allowed by the British to accompany the DPs back to Germany. Aboard the prison ship ''Runnymede Park'', Gruber photographed the refugees, confined in a wire cage with barbed wire on top, defiantly raising a Union Jack flag on which they had painted a swastika.

After 1950

In 1951, Gruber got married. She gave birth to two children, one of whom is epidemiologist David Michaels, and continued her journalistic travels. She wrote a popular column for ''Hadassah Magazine,'' "Diary of an American Housewife."

In 1978 she spent a year in Israel writing ''Raquela: A Woman of Israel,'' about an Israeli nurse, Raquela Prywes, who worked in a British detention camp and in a hospital in Beersheba. This book won the National Jewish Book Award in 1979 for Best Book on Israel.

In 1985 at the age of 74, she visited isolated Jewish villages in Ethiopia and described the rescue of the Ethiopian Jews in ''Rescue: The Exodus of the Ethiopian Jews''. Gruber has received many awards for her writing and humanitarian acts, including the Na'amat Golda Meir Human Rights Award and awards from the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Museum of Tolerance.

In 1991, Gruber published volume one of her autobiography ''Ahead of Time: My Early Years as a Foreign Correspondent.''

On October 21, 2008, Gruber was honored for her work defending free expression by the National Coalition Against Censorship.

2010 documentary ''Ahead of Time''

On September 10, 2010, a documentary film entitled ''Ahead of Time'' premiered at the Angelika Film Center in New York City. The film covers Gruber's life from 1911 to 1947.

Publications

Books

''Witness: One of the Great Correspondents of the Twentieth Century Tells Her Story'' Schocken (2007) ISBN 0805242430

''Virginia Woolf: The Will To Create As A Woman'', 2005

''Inside of Time: My Journey from Alaska to Israel'', 2002, 2004

''Exodus 1947: The Ship That Launched the Nation'', 1999 (ISBN 0-8129-3154-8), 2007

''Ahead of Time: My Early Years As a Foreign Correspondent'', 1991, 2001

''Rescue: The Exodus of the Ethiopian Jews'', 1987

''Haven: The Dramatic Story of 1000 World War II Refugees and How They Came to America'', 1983, 2000

''Raquela: A Woman of Israel'', 1978, 1985, 1993, 2000

''They Came to Stay'' (coauthor: Marjorie Margolies-Mezvinsky), 1976

''Die Bauern-Passion Von Waal'' (coauthors: Ursula Zeidler, Gerhard Eberts), 1976

''Felisa Rincon De Gautier: The Mayor of San Juan'', 1972

''Puerto Rico: island of promise''

''Israel on the seventh day'', 1968

''Israel today: Land of many nations'', 1958

''Israel without tears'', 1950

''Destination Palestine: The story of the Haganah ship Exodus 1947'', 1948

''I Went To The Soviet Union'', 1944

''I Went to the Soviet Arctic'', 1939, 1991

References

External links

''Ruth Gruber: A Documentary Film'' (2009) — official site

''Voices on Antisemitism'' Interview with Ruth Gruber from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Life's Worth of Living - Witnessing the Life of Foreign Correspondent, Ruth Gruber, in Her New Book "WITNESS"'' WNN - Women News Network, August 21, 2007

Ruth Gruber interview May 9, 2007 - BBC news, "The World" radio show.

Charting a New Map Seventy Years Later-Ruth Gruber in the Quest for Virginia Woolf by Lys Anzia 2006 Moondance magazine.

Ruth Gruber (Jewish Virtual Library)

Ruth Gruber (Jewish Women's Archive)

A Circle Completed: Ruth Gruber and Virginia Woolf

Chat with Ruth Gruber (About.com 20th Century History)

Miriam's Cup: Biography. Ruth Gruber

When Oswego Was a Haven (State University of New York at Oswego)

A Woman of Substance. Ruth Gruber flourishes, even in her 90s by Myrna Blyth. July 1, 2005

EXODUS 1947 Documentary Film By Elizabeth Rodgers & Robby Henson Includes Interview with Ruth Gruber

Category:1911 births Category:American journalists Category:Jewish American writers Category:Living people Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni