The differences in plumage of a Blue Grosbeak, from top to bottom, between a breeding male (alternate plumage) a non-breeding male (basic plumage), a female and a related Indigo Bunting

Plumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a number of different colour morphs. Differences in plumage are used by ornithologists and birdwatchers in order to distinguish between species and collect other species specific information.^{[citation needed]}

Humphrey-Parkes (H-P) moult and plumage terminology[link]

Almost all species of birds moult at least annually, usually after the breeding season, known as the pre-basic moult. This resulting covering of feathers, which will last either until the next breeding season or until the next annual moult, is known as the basic plumage. Many species undertake another moult prior to the breeding season known as the pre-alternate moult, the resulting breeding plumage being known as the alternate plumage or nuptial plumage. The alternate plumage is often brighter than the basic plumage, for the purposes of sexual display, but may also be cryptic in order to hide incubating birds that might be vulnerable on the nest.^[1]

The Humphrey-Parkes terminology requires some attention to detail to name moults and plumages correctly.^[2]

Eclipse plumage[link]

Many ducks have bright, colourful plumage, exhibiting strong sexual dimorphism to attract the females. However, they moult into a dull plumage in the non-breeding season. This drab female-like appearance is the eclipse plumage. When they shed feathers to go into eclipse, the ducks become flightless for a short period of time. Some duck species remain in eclipse for one to three months in the summer, while other would retain the cryptic plumage until the next spring when they undergo another moult to return to their breeding plumage. Although mainly found in the Anatidae, a few other species (for example the Red Junglefowl) also have an eclipse plumage.

Abnormal plumages[link]

Axanthic budgerigar

An albino African penguin.

There are hereditary as well as non-hereditary variations in plumage that are rare and termed as abnormal or aberrant plumages. Melanism refers to an excess of black or dark colours. Erythromelanism or erythrism is the result of excessive reddish brown erythromelanin deposition in feathers that normally lack melanin. Melanin of different forms combine with xanthophylls to produce colour mixtures and when this combination is imbalanced it produces colour shifts that are termed as schizochroisms (including xanthochromism – overabundance of yellow – and axanthism – lack of yellow – which are commonly bred in cagebirds such as budgerigars). A reduction in eumelanin leads to non-eumelanin schizochroism with an overall fawn plumage while a lack of phaeomelanin results in grey coloured non-phaeomelanin schizochroism. Carotenism refers to abnormal distribution of carotenoid pigments.

The term "dilution" is used for situations where the colour is of a lower intensity overall; it is caused by decreased deposition of pigment in the developing feather, and can thus not occur in structural coloration (i.e. "dilute blue" does not exist); pale structural colors are instead achieved by shifting the peak wavelength at which light is refracted^{[citation needed]}. Dilution regularly occurs in normal plumage (grey, buff, pink and cream colours are usually produced by this process), but may in addition occur as an aberration (e.g. all normally black plumage becoming grey).^[3]

In some birds – many true owls (Strigidae), some nightjars (Caprimulgidae) and a few cuckoos (Cuculus and relatives) being widely known examples – there is colour polymorphism. This means that two or more colour variants are numerous within their populations during all or at least most seasons and plumages; in the above-mentioned examples a brown (phaeomelanin) and grey (eumelanin) morph exist, termed "hepatic form" particularly in the cuckoos. Other cases of natural polymorphism are of various kinds; many are melanic/nonmelanic (some paradise-flycatchers, Terpsiphone, for example), but more unusual types of polymorphism exist – the face colour of the Gouldian Finch (Erythrura^{[verification needed]} gouldiae) or the courtship types of male Ruffs (Philomachus pugnax).^{[citation needed]}

Albinism[link]

Albinism in birds is rare, occurring to any extent in perhaps one in 1800 individuals (Terres 1980). It involves loss of colour in all parts including the iris of the eyes, bills, skin, legs and feet. It is usually the result of a genetic mutation causing the absence of tyrosinase, an enzyme essential for melanin synthesis. Leucism (which includes what used to be termed as "partial albinism") refers to loss of pigments in some or all parts of feathers. A bird that is albino (from the Latin albus, "white") has white feathers in place of coloured ones on some portion of its body. A bird that is naturally white, such as a swan, goose, or egret, is not an albino, nor is a bird that has seasonally alternating white plumage.^[4]

Four degrees of albinism have been described. The most common form is termed partial albinism, in which local areas of the bird's body, such as certain feathers, are lacking the pigment melanin. The white areas may be symmetrical, with both sides of the bird showing a similar pattern. In imperfect albinism, the pigment is partially inhibited in the skin, eyes, or feathers, but is not absent from any of them. Incomplete albinism is the complete absence of pigment from the skin, eyes, or feathers, but not all three.^[4]

A young completely albino crow in Malacca, Malaysia.

A completely albino bird is the most rare. The eyes in this case are pink or red, because blood shows through in the absence of pigment in the irises. The beak, legs, and feet are very pale or white. Albino adults are rare in the wild because their eyesight is poor resulting in greater risk of predation.^[5]. They are likely easier targets for predators because their colour distinguishes them from their environment. Falconers have observed that their trained birds are likely to attack a white pigeon in a flock because it is conspicuous. A complete albino often has weak eyesight and brittle wing and tail feathers, which may reduce its ability to fly. In flocks, albinos are often harassed by their own species. Such observations have been made among red-winged blackbirds, barn swallows, and African penguins. In a nesting colony of the latter, three unusual juveniles—one black-headed, one white-headed, and one full albino—were shunned and abused by companions.^[4]

Albinism has been reported in all orders and in 54 families of North American birds. The American robin and house sparrow led bird species in the incidence of albinism. Albinistic white appears to replace brown pigments more often than red or yellow ones; records suggest a greater incidence in crows, ravens, and hawks than in goldfinches or orioles.^[4]

Abnormally white feathers are not always due to albinism. Injury or disease may change their color, including dietary deficiencies or circulatory problems during feather development. Aging may also turn a bird's feathers white.^[4]

Pigmentation conditions[link]

• Albinism, the lack of melanin pigmentation
• Leucism, a condition similar to albinism in animals, characterized by reduced pigmentation in general
• Melanism (or melanosis), unusually dark melanin pigmentation
• Xanthochromism, unusually yellow pigmentation
• Ino budgerigar mutation, the occurrence of this mutation in captive-bred Budgerigars

See also[link]

• Animal coloration
• Plume hunting

References[link]

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (April 2010)

Yukari Tamura (田村 ゆかり, Tamura Yukari^?, born February 27, 1976 in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture), is a popular Japanese singer-songwriter and voice actress, affiliated with the talent agency I'm Enterprise. Affectionately called Yukarin by her fans, she is also known for her high-pitched voice and interest in Lolita fashion. She made her debut as a voice actress in 1997, releasing her debut single "Yūki o Kudasai" on March 26, 1997.

While also a well-known seiyū, several of her releases have been used as opening and ending themes for anime series, while some have reached the Oricon top 100 singles and album charts. Her role as Nanoha Takamachi in the Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha series contributed to a rise in her popularity, as several of her singles ("Little Wish ~lyrical step~", "Spiritual Garden", "Hoshizora no Spica", "Beautiful Amulet") were used as the ending themes for the franchise's anime adaptations.

Life and career[link]

Born in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture, Tamura gained notoriety as an advocate for the Lolita fashion movement, wearing Lolita-style clothing in public, as well as for her music releases, often in music videos and on the covers of her CD releases. In 2001, Tamura formed a unit called Yamato nadeshiko with another well known seiyū, Yui Horie. Two singles were released, Mō Hitori no Watashi and Merry Merrily - the latter of which was an insert song in the Love Hina Christmas Special.

On January 1, 2007, Tamura's talent management agency changed from Arts Vision to I'm Enterprise, a subsidiary of Arts Vision, and on April 1, 2007, Tamura's record company officially changed from Konami to King Records, however, there was no material effect to Tamura because the actual record production of Konami is carried out by King Records. She has also featured as a narrator of Japanese anime satellite television network Animax.

Notable roles[link]

Leading roles indicated in bold

Discography[link]

Concerts[link]

Publications[link]

• Sora Iro

  Released October 10, 2007

References[link]

• "Music Picks". Newtype USA 6 (6): p. 118. June 2007. ISSN 1541-4817. 
• Nakagami, Yoshikatsu (October 2007). "The Official Art of AIR". Newtype USA 6 (10): pp. 135–141. ISSN 1541-4817. 

External links[link]

• (Japanese) Yukari Tamura's official website
• (Japanese) Yukari Tamura at King Records
• Yukari Tamura at the Seiyuu database
• Yukari Tamura at Anime News Network's Encyclopedia
• Yukari Tamura discography at MusicBrainz