Data ( /ˈdeɪtə/ DAY-tə, /ˈdætə/ DA-tə, or /ˈdɑːtə/ DAH-tə) are values of qualitative or quantitative variables, belonging to a set of items. Data in computing (or data processing) are often represented by a combination of items organized in rows and multiple variables organized in columns. Data are typically the results of measurements and can be visualised using graphs or images. Data as an abstract concept can be viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived. Raw data, i.e., unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, characters and is a relative term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next. Field data refers to raw data collected in an uncontrolled in situ environment. Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording.

The word data is the plural of datum, neuter past participle of the Latin dare, "to give", hence "something given". In discussions of problems in geometry, mathematics, engineering, and so on, the terms givens and data are used interchangeably. Such usage is the origin of data as a concept in computer science or data processing: data are numbers, words, images, etc., accepted as they stand.

Usage in English[link]

In English, the word datum is still used in the general sense of "an item given". In cartography, geography, nuclear magnetic resonance and technical drawing it is often used to refer to a single specific reference datum from which distances to all other data are measured. Any measurement or result is a datum, but data point is more usual,^[1] albeit tautological. Both datums (see usage in datum article) and the originally Latin plural data are used as the plural of datum in English, but data is commonly treated as a mass noun and used with a verb in the singular form, especially in day-to-day usage. For example, This is all the data from the experiment. This usage is inconsistent with the rules of Latin grammar and traditional English (These are all the data from the experiment). Even when a very small quantity of data is referenced (one number, for example) the phrase piece of data is often used, as opposed to datum. The debate over appropriate usage is ongoing.^[2][3][4]

The IEEE Computer Society, allows usage of data as either a mass noun or plural based on author preference.^[5] Other professional organizations and style guides^[6] require that authors treat data as a plural noun. For example, the Air Force Flight Test Center specifically states that the word data is always plural, never singular.^[7]

Data is most often used as a singular mass noun in educated everyday usage.^[8][9] Some major newspapers such as The New York Times use it either in the singular or plural. In the New York Times the phrases "the survey data are still being analyzed" and "the first year for which data is available" have appeared within one day.^[10] In scientific writing data is often treated as a plural, as in These data do not support the conclusions, but it is also used as a singular mass entity like information. British usage now widely accepts treating data as singular in standard English,^[11] including everyday newspaper usage^[12] at least in non-scientific use.^[13] UK scientific publishing still prefers treating it as a plural.^[14] Some UK university style guides recommend using data for both singular and plural use^[15] and some recommend treating it only as a singular in connection with computers.^[16]

Meaning of data, information and knowledge[link]

The terms data, information and knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts. The main difference is in the level of abstraction being considered. Data is the lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally, knowledge is the highest level among all three.^[17] Data on its own carries no meaning. For data to become information, it must be interpreted and take on a meaning. For example, the height of Mt. Everest is generally considered as "data", a book on Mt. Everest geological characteristics may be considered as "information", and a report containing practical information on the best way to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be considered as "knowledge".

Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.

Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to distinguish between data and information; data are symbols while information occurs when symbols are used to refer to something.^[18]

It is people and computers who collect data and impose patterns on it. These patterns are seen as information which can be used to enhance knowledge. These patterns can be interpreted as truth, and are authorized as aesthetic and ethical criteria. Events that leave behind perceivable physical or virtual remains can be traced back through data. Marks are no longer considered data once the link between the mark and observation is broken.^[19]

Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An analog computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents a datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted "0" and "1". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet.

Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for metadata is "ancillary data." The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books.

See also[link]

References[link]

This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

External links[link]

Look up data in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Data is a singular noun (a detailed assessment)

Dan Bull
Dan Bull at the Digital Economy Bill demonstrations in London, 24 March 2010
Background information
Birth name	Daniel Bull
Also known as	Douglby, Dan Bull
Born	(1986-03-27) March 27, 1986 (age 26) Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, England
Origin	Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, England
Genres	Hip hop
Occupations	Rapper, songwriter
Years active	2006–present
Labels	Unsigned
Website	itsdanbull.com

Dan Bull is an English rapper and songwriter known for his politically orientated lyrics and specific addressing of high profile figures in his music. His music has been featured in the British press as part of attempts to save BBC Radio 6,^[1][2] campaign against the Digital Economy Bill,^[3] and protest in favour of filesharing.^[4]

Musical career[link]

[edit] 2006 - Present: Other Work (Youtube)

Dan Bull has released songs on subjects such as digital rights, the music industry, and gaming.^[5][6][7] Bull's actions have gained attention, specifically from the TalkTalk Group who requested to team up with him against the Digital Economy Bill.^[8]

Gaming Raps

Dan has acquired many of his fans through the creation of gaming raps. He has created songs about Grand Theft Auto V, Minecraft, Assassin's Creed, Star Wars: The Old Republic, Modern Warfare, Mass Effect, League of Legends, and Skyrim. The Epic Skyrim Rap is his most popular video, with over 4.5 million views.

[edit] 2009: Safe

Safe tells the story of a young man who attempts suicide at the same time as a global thermonuclear holocaust and awakens in a new, ambiguous nirvana. Along the way, Dan Bull covers such topics as summer sunshine, friendship, love and loss, alienation, politics, death, religion, suicide and insanity.^{[9][unreliable source?]}

[edit] 2011: Face

Bull announced via his blog that the upcoming album would be available in early 2011. Stating that: "It’s going to be a continuation of the narrative of my first album, but will have a very different feel and mood overall."^[10] The album focuses on topics such as medical recovery, war, love, Asperger's syndrome, alcoholism, and pride. Face was released in December 2011. The 12-track album includes ten brand new songs as well as the 2010 tracks America and John Lennon.

[edit] 2012: Sharing is caring

Dan Bull announced via his website that he was aiming to get into the UK and Global charts with his new track "Sharing is caring." He offered it on iTunes, Play.com, Amazon and on torrent via The Pirate Bay. To people who bought all 10 versions of his track, they would be thanked in a music video of his, given that they notify him with sufficient proof. The lyrical content in the different versions of his track were targeted at popular social networking sites, Facebook, Twitter. and Google+. He also offered the instrumental by itself, voice only versions, and remixes of each track.^[11] The Animal Circus remix reached the top of the Reggae charts on Amazon UK, and second place in the World category.^[12]

Discography[link]

Studio albums

• Safe (2009)
• Face (2011)

Videos[link]

• Dear Lily (2009)
• Doorways (2009)
• Free Gary (2009)
• Generation Gaming (2009)
• Dear Andy (2010)
• Dear Mandy (2010)
• Death of ACTA (2010)
• Dear Auntie (2010)
• SOPA Cabana (2011)
• Bye Bye BPI (2012)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• YouTube

Rick Smolan
Rick Smolan in the Sausalito headquarters of his production company, "Against All Odds Productions"

Rick Smolan is an American photographer. He is CEO of Against All Odds Productions.^[1]

Background[link]

Smolan is a 1972 graduate of Dickinson College. He has worked for TIME, LIFE and National Geographic. Smolan created the best-selling 'Day in the Life' photography series and is CEO of Against All Odds Productions, which specializes in the design and execution of large-scale global photographic projects that combine compelling story-telling with state-of-the-art technology. Fortune Magazine selected Against All Odds as "One of the 25 Coolest Companies in America". Eight of the company's projects have been featured on the covers of Fortune magazine, Time magazine, Newsweek and US News & World Report.

Photography projects[link]

The Obama Time Capsule[link]

Spanning a three year period from the tumultuous campaign, through Obama’s first 100 days, The Obama Time Capsule captures the challenges and opportunities facing America’s 44th President as he takes his place on the world stage.

America at Home and UK at Home[link]

America at Home and UK at Home were published in April 2008. For these books, 150 of the world's top photojournalists and tens of thousands of amateur photographers fanned out around the United States and the United Kingdom to shoot digital photos of the most important place in their lives: home. Both books offer readers the ability to receive customized dust jackets for their books. AMERICA AT HOME and UK AT HOME were sponsored by IKEA.

Blue Planet Run: The Race to Provide Clean Drinking Water to the World[link]

"Blue Planet Run: The Race to Provide Clean Drinking Water to the World" was released in November 2007. The book provides readers with an extraordinary look at the water problems facing humanity and some of the hopeful solutions being pursued by large and small companies, by entrepreneurs and activists, and by nongovernmental organizations and foundations. One hundred percent of the royalties from this book are being used to provide clean drinking water to people around the world who desperately need it.

America 24/7[link]

"America 24/7" was the largest photographic event in U.S. history. Smolan and his long time friend and business partner David Elliot Cohen sent 1,000 top photojournalists (including 36 Pulitzer Prize winners) across the United States for a week to create an extraordinary snapshot of American life. 25,000 stringers, students and amateurs also submitted images to the project website.

24 Hours in Cyberspace: Painting on the Walls of the Digital Cave[link]

Held online on February 8, 1996 it was "the largest one-day online event" up to that date.^[2] "The project brought together the world's top photographers, editors, programmers, and interactive designers to create a digital time capsule of online life. The original website is still available online, frozen in time, at "24 Hours in Cyberspace" "^[2] A photographic exhibition was unveiled at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History on 23 January 1997, featuring 70 photos from the project.^[3]

Passage to Vietnam: Through the Eyes of 70 Photographers[link]

Seventy award-winning photojournalists with unprecedented access to every corner of Vietnam created an intimate portrait of this intriguing country, 20 years after the war's end. The project was created in partnership with Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen’s Interval Research.

One Digital Day: How the Microchip Is Changing Our World[link]

"One Digital Day: How the Microchip is Changing Our World" was published in June 1998 in conjunction with the celebration of Intel's 30th anniversary. The book features more than 200 photographs, taken on that single day, revealing a world that only science-fiction writers once dared envision.

The Planet Project: Your Voice, Your World[link]

"The Planet Project: Your Voice Your World", was the largest real time online poll in Internet history. 3,000 pollsters were sent to the most remote places on earth armed with Palm Pilots containing 220 questions in 8 languages aimed at determining what it means to be a human being at the dawn of the millennium. The 8-language web site was visited by 1.6 million people from 241 countries who answered more than 28 million questions. 'The Planet Project' generated 781 million media impressions worldwide.

From Alice to Ocean[link]

In 1977 National Geographic assigned Smolan to photograph a story about an Australian woman, Robyn Davidson, who traveled across Australia with camels. Davidson later wrote a book about it, Tracks (1980). Smolan's photography appeared both in the magazine andTracks. In the early 1990s, Smolan published his pictures of the trip, in From Alice to Ocean; which has the distinction of being the first interactive story-and-photo CD made for public release.

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• Biography
• America, Moment by Moment:Rick Smolan ’72 shapes the largest collaborative photography project ever - Dickinson College
• Interview about 24 Hours in Cyberspace
• TED: Rick Smolan: A girl, a photograph, a homecoming
• Fast Company Video Interview