Name	Chevrolet Biscayne
Manufacturer	Chevrolet
Parent company	General Motors
Production	1958-1972 (U.S.)
Predecessor	Chevrolet 210
Class	Full-size
Layout	FR layout
Related	Chevrolet Impala

Name	First generation
Production	1958-1960
Model years	1958-1960
Transmission	3-speed manual4-speed manual2-speed Powerglide automatic
Engine	Blue Flame I6 V8 V8
Body style	2-door coupe4-door sedan
Assembly	Arlington, Texas, United States Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Related	Chevrolet Bel AirChevrolet Impala

Name	Second generation
Production	1960-1964
Model years	1961-1964
Transmission	3-speed manual4-speed manual3-speed Powerglide automatic
Engine	I6 I6 (1963-64) V8 V8 (1961) V8 (1962-64) V8
Body style	2-door coupe2-door Hardtop (1961-62)4-door sedan4-door station wagon (1962-64)
Assembly	Arlington, Texas, United States Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Related	Chevrolet Bel AirChevrolet Impala

Name	Third generation
Production	1964-1970
Model years	1965-1970
Transmission	3-speed manual4-speed manualPowerglide auto3-speed Turbo Hydramatic automatic
Engine	I6 (1965-66) I6 (1965-70) V8 (1965-67) V8 (1965-67) V8 (1968) V8 (1969-70) V8 (1969-70) V8 (1965-66) V8 (1965-70) V8 (1967-70)
Body style	2-door coupe (1965-69)4-door sedan4-door station wagon
Assembly	Arlington, Texas, United States Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Related	Chevrolet Bel AirChevrolet ImpalaChevrolet Caprice

Name	Fourth generation
Production	1970-1975 (U.S.)
Model years	1971-1975 (U.S.)
Engine	V8 V8 V8 I6
Body style	4-door sedan
Platform	B-body
Related	Chevrolet Bel AirChevrolet ImpalaChevrolet Caprice
Assembly	Arlington, Texas, United States Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Transmission	3-speed manual (standard, 1971-1973 on all six-cylinder cars)3-speed Turbo-Hydramatic automatic (optional 1971-1973 on six-cylinder cars; standard on V-8 powered cars from mid-1971 onwards)

The Chevrolet Biscayne was a series of automobile produced by Chevrolet for model years 1958 through 1972.

History

Named after a show car displayed at the 1955 General Motors Motorama, the Biscayne was the least expensive model in the Chevrolet full-size car range (except in 1958), which also included the Delray, Bel Air, Impala and Caprice. At its inception for the 1958 model year, the Biscayne was available as a 2 or 4 door pillared sedan. A Biscayne station wagon was available from 1962-68. The station wagon models used a different series of names than the other models from 1958–61, and again from 1969-72. The 2-door sedan was dropped after 1969, and consequently from 1970-72 the only Biscayne model available was a 4-door sedan. In 1958, the Delray was priced below the Biscayne, but was discontinued the following year.

Biscaynes were produced primarily for the fleet market, though they were also available to the general public — particularly to those who wanted low-cost, no-frills transportation with the convenience, room and power of a full-size automobile. While most Biscaynes were sold with a six-cylinder engine through the late 1960s, the V8 engine became the more popular powerplant by the early 1970s.¹. Power steering and power brakes were made standard in 1970, while the TurboHydramatic transmission was standard on all cars ordered with a V8 engine starting midway through the 1971 model year.

Like the slightly upscale Bel Air, Biscaynes were easily identified by the use of two taillights per side; the only exceptions to this were in 1959 and 1972. The more expensive Impala (and later Caprice) had three taillights per side. The Biscayne was largely devoid of exterior chrome trim and was normally fitted with small hubcaps, though several exterior trim pieces and upgraded wheel covers were available at extra cost. Interior trim was spartan, with lower-grade cloth and vinyl or all-vinyl upholstery trim, a standard steering wheel with center horn button, and rubber floor mats. Slight upgrades were made throughout the life of the series — for instance, the 1964 models came standard with deluxe steering wheel with horn ring, deep-twist carpeting and foam-cushioned front seats.

Many of the luxury convenience options available on the more expensive full-sized Chevrolet models, such as power windows, were not available on the Biscayne. However, customers could purchase a Biscayne with any of Chevrolet's high-output big-block V8 engines and performance-oriented transmissions, including the floor-mounted 4-speed manual transmission with Hurst shifter and low-ratio final drive. Original production numbers of cars built this way were very low, and examples of these high-performance cars are highly sought after by collectors today. Notably, Baldwin Chevrolet of Long Island, New York, became famous for offering the "Street Racer Special," a 1968 Biscayne coupe with dealer-fitted high-performance 427 cubic-inch V8, and heavy-duty suspension components, turning the Biscayne into a serious drag car. Biscaynes with high-performance equipment were often nicknamed "Bisquick" by enthusiasts.

However, the absence of most exterior and fancy interior trimmings remained through the life of the series, as the slightly costlier Chevrolet Bel Air offered more interior and exterior trimmings at a price still significantly lower than the mid-line Chevrolet Impala.

Biscayne Fleetmaster

In 1960, a lower-priced, sparsely trimmed version of the Biscayne called the Fleetmaster was produced. Aimed primarily at the fleet market, the Fleetmaster included a lower grade of upholstery than the standard Biscayne and deleted routine convenience items such as a cigarette lighter, door armrests, and passenger-side sun visor. In addition, many parts were painted rather than chrome plated. Both two- and four-door sedans were available.

A number of economy-minded options were available exclusive to the Fleetmaster model, although the performance-oriented engines and transmissions were also available (for police applications or performance-oriented customers who wanted the lightest car possible). The Fleetmaster was dropped after 1961.

End of the model

Production of the Biscayne for the United States market ended in 1972. However, the Biscayne name survived in Canada through the 1975 model year, with a 350 cubic-inch V8 engine and TurboHydramatic automatic transmission made standard in 1974.

Footnotes

¹ A total of 76,800 Biscaynes were equipped with V8 engines compared to 16,700 six cylinder engine models years 1970, 1971 and 1972. Biscayne engine distribution (V8/I6) 23,100/12,300 (1970); 34,700/2,900 (1971); and 19,000/1,500 (1972), or one six cylinder power Biscayne for every 4.5 V8 cars produced. (Gunnell)

References

.

Biscayne Category:Coupes Category:Full-size vehicles Category:Rear wheel drive vehicles Category:Sedans Category:Station wagons Category:1950s automobiles Category:1960s automobiles Category:1970s automobiles Category:Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States Category:Canadian automobiles

Name	Sir Isaac Newton
Alt	Head and shoulders portrait of man in black with shoulder-length gray hair, a large sharp nose, and an abstracted gaze
Caption	Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton(age 46)
Birth date	January 04, 1643[OS: 25 December 1642]
Birth place	Woolsthorpe-by-ColsterworthLincolnshire, England
Residence	England
Nationality	English
Ethnicity	Caucasian
Death date	March 31, 1727[OS: 20 March 1726]
Death place	Kensington, Middlesex, England
Fields	physics, mathematics, astronomy, natural philosophy, alchemy, Christian theology
Workplaces	University of CambridgeRoyal SocietyRoyal Mint
Alma mater	Trinity College, Cambridge
Doctoral advisor
Academic advisors	Isaac BarrowBenjamin PulleynWilliam Whiston
Known for	Newtonian mechanicsUniversal gravitationInfinitesimal calculusOpticsBinomial seriesNewton's methodPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
Influences	Henry MorePolish Brethren
Influenced	Nicolas Fatio de DuillierJohn Keill
Religion	Arianism; for details see article
Signature	Isaac Newton signature.svg
Signature alt	Is. Newton
Footnotes	His mother was Hannah Ayscough. His half-niece was Catherine Barton.

Sir Isaac Newton PRS (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727 ) at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had not adopted the Gregorian calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug (≈ 1.1 litres). When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them." involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique. Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes. In late 1668 Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680-1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.

Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his niece and her husband, until his death in 1727. and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt, God said "Let Newton be" and all was light.

Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676:

If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.

From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England). Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System. Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an antitrinitarian. In an age notable for its religious intolerance, there are few public expressions of Newton's radical views, most notably his refusal to take holy orders and his refusal, on his death bed, to take the sacrament when it was offered to him.

In a view disputed by Snobelen, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Arian view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most Protestants. Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on 23 March 1699 at Tyburn gallows.

Laws of motion

The famous three laws of motion (stated in modernised form): Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force.

Newton's Second Law states that an applied force, $\backslash vec\{F\}$, on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, $\backslash vec\{p\}$, with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as :$\backslash vec\; F\; =\; \backslash frac\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}\backslash vec\; p\}\{\backslash mathrm\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}\}t\}\; \backslash ,\; =\; \backslash ,\; \backslash frac\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}\}\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}t\}\; (m\; \backslash vec\; v)\; \backslash ,\; =\; \backslash ,\; \backslash vec\; v\; \backslash ,\; \backslash frac\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}m\}\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}t\}\; +\; m\; \backslash ,\; \backslash frac\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}\backslash vec\; v\}\{\backslash mathrm\{d\}t\}\; \backslash ,.$

If applied to an object with constant mass (dm/dt = 0), the first term vanishes, and by substitution using the definition of acceleration, the equation can be written in the iconic form

:$\backslash vec\; F\; =\; m\; \backslash ,\; \backslash vec\; a\; \backslash \; .$

The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of Aristotle, in which it was believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only needed in order to change an object's state of motion. The SI unit of force is the newton, named in Newton's honour.

Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite direction back onto the first object. A common example is of two ice skaters pushing against each other and sliding apart in opposite directions. Another example is the recoil of a firearm, in which the force propelling the bullet is exerted equally back onto the gun and is felt by the shooter. Since the objects in question do not necessarily have the same mass, the resulting acceleration of the two objects can be different (as in the case of firearm recoil).

Unlike Aristotle's, Newton's physics is meant to be universal. For example, the second law applies both to a planet and to a falling stone.

The vector nature of the second law addresses the geometrical relationship between the direction of the force and the manner in which the object's momentum changes. Before Newton, it had typically been assumed that a planet orbiting the sun would need a forward force to keep it moving. Newton showed instead that all that was needed was an inward attraction from the sun. Even many decades after the publication of the Principia, this counterintuitive idea was not universally accepted, and many scientists preferred Descartes' theory of vortices.

Apple analogy

Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.

Cartoons have gone further to suggest the apple actually hit Newton's head, and that its impact somehow made him aware of the force of gravity, though this is not reported in the biographical manuscript by William Stukeley, published in 1752, and made available by the Royal Society. It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory. John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:

In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.

The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".

Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726, in which Newton recalled:

when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It was occasioned by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he to himself. Why should it not go sideways or upwards, but constantly to the Earth's centre? Assuredly the reason is, that the Earth draws it. There must be a drawing power in matter. And the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the Earth must be in the Earth's centre, not in any side of the Earth. Therefore does this apple fall perpendicularly or towards the centre? If matter thus draws matter; it must be proportion of its quantity. Therefore the apple draws the Earth, as well as the Earth draws the apple."

In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree."

Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King's School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later. The staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.

Writings

Method of Fluxions (1671)

Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)

De Motu Corporum in Gyrum (1684)

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)

Opticks (1704)

Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25)

Arithmetica Universalis (1707)

The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728)

Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)

An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)

See also

De Motu (Berkeley's essay)

Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

Finite difference#Newton_series

Gauss–Newton algorithm

History of calculus

Ismaël Bullialdus

Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy

List of multiple discoveries#17th century

Newton disc

Newton fractal

Newton polygon

Newton polynomial

Newton (unit)

Newton's cannonball

Newton's cradle

Newton's inequalities

Newton's notation

Newton's reflector

Newton's theorem of revolving orbits

Newton's theorem about ovals

Newton–Cotes formulas

Newton–Euler equations

Newtonianism

Schrödinger–Newton equations

Footnotes and references

References

This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics 152 |doi=10.1038/182149a0 |pages=149}} 145 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017 |pages=136 }}

Further reading

Bardi, Jason Socrates. The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time. 2006. 277 pp. excerpt and text search

.

Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000). 256 pp. excerpt and text search ISBN 0-684-84392-7

Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard, eds. Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy. MIT Press, 2001. 354 pp. excerpt and text search

See this site for excerpt and text search.

Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online

 – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972). 297}}

Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein

Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.

Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958,1978. ISBN 0-674-46853-8.

Newton, Isaac (1642–1727). The Principia: a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California (1999)

Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp. 147–9; "Discoveries" pp. 150–4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946).

The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time | location = Sydney | publisher = The Book Company | year = 1996}} (edited by A. H. White; originally published in 1752)

Religion

Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism

Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), 342pp . Pp. xvii + 325. 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts

Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" British Journal for the History of Science 34: 417–438. in JSTOR, argues that his calculus had a theological basis

Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp. 169–208 in JSTOR

Snobelen, Stephen D. "Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite," British Journal for the History of Science 32: 381–419. in JSTOR

Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 58, No. 1 (January, 1997), pp. 57–80 in JSTOR

Wiles, Maurice. Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries. (1996) 214pp, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp 77–93 on Newton excerpt and text search,

Primary sources

Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, (1999). 974 pp.

* Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California Press, 1996. 299 pp.

Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672. Cambridge U. Press, 1984. 627 pp.

* Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition

* Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.

Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press. (1934).

 – 8 volumes

Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77)

Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), online edition

Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton, 1850. – Google Books

Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse.

Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I. B. Cohen and R. E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson.

External links

Newton biography (University of St Andrews)

ScienceWorld biography by Eric Weisstein

Dictionary of Scientific Biography

The Newton Project

The Newton Project - Canada

Rebuttal of Newton's astrology

Newton's Religious Views Reconsidered

Newton's Royal Mint Reports

Newton's Dark Secrets NOVA TV programme

from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

*Isaac Newton, by George Smith

*Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, by George Smith

*Newton's Philosophy, by Andrew Janiak

*Newton's views on space, time, and motion, by Robert Rynasiewicz

Newton's Castle Educational material

The Chymistry of Isaac Newton Research on his Alchemical writings

FMA Live! Program for teaching Newton's laws to kids

Newton's religious position

The "General Scholium" to Newton's Principia

Kandaswamy, Anand M. The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context

Newton's First ODE – A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series

The Mind of Isaac Newton Images, audio, animations and interactive segments

Enlightening Science Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion

Writings by him

Newton's works - full texts, at the Newton Project

Newton's Principia – read and search

Descartes, Space, and Body and A New Theory of Light and Colour, modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett

Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light'', full text on archive.org

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