Diagram of decreasing apertures, that is, increasing f-numbers, in one-stop increments; each aperture has half the light gathering area of the previous one.
In optics, the f-number (sometimes called focal ratio, f-ratio, f-stop, or relative aperture[1]) of an optical system is the ratio of the lens's focal length to the diameter of the entrance pupil[2]. It is a dimensionless number that is a quantitative measure of lens speed, an important concept in photography.
The f-number is given by
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac fD \
where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): f
is the focal length, and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): D
is the diameter of the entrance pupil (effective aperture). It is customary to write f-numbers preceded by f/[3], which forms a mathematical expression of the entrance pupil diameter in terms of f (a symbol denoting the focal length), and the f-number. For example, if the focal length is 16 mm and the entrance pupil diameter is 1 mm, the f-number is 16 and the aperture would be expressed as f/16. Ignoring differences in lens transmission efficiency, the greater the f-number, the darker the image projected by the lens. The amount of light transmitted from each object in the lens's field of view to each unit of area of the film (or sensor) decreases with the square of the f-number. Doubling the f-number decreases the exposure by a factor of four. To maintain the same exposure when doubling the f-number, the exposure time would need to be four times as long.
The pupil diameter is proportional to the diameter of the aperture stop of the system. In a camera, this is typically the diaphragm aperture, which can be adjusted to vary the size of the pupil, and hence the amount of light that reaches the film or image sensor. The common assumption in photography that the pupil diameter is equal to the aperture diameter is not correct for many types of camera lens, because of the magnifying effect of lens elements in front of the aperture.
A 100 mm focal length lens with an aperture setting of f/4 will have a pupil diameter of 25 mm. A 200 mm focal length lens with a setting of f/4 will have a pupil diameter of 50 mm. The 200 mm lens's f/4 opening is larger than that of the 100 mm lens but both will produce the same illuminance in the focal plane when imaging an object of a given luminance.
In other types of optical system, such as telescopes and binoculars, the same principle holds: the greater the focal ratio, the fainter the images created (measuring brightness per unit area of the image).
A
Canon 7 mounted with a 50 mm lens capable of an exceptional
f/0.95
A 35 mm lens set to
f/11, as indicated by the white dot above the f-stop scale on the aperture ring. This lens has an aperture range of
f/2.0 to
f/22
The term stop is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings. A stop can be a physical object: an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. The aperture stop is the aperture that limits the brightness of the image by restricting the input pupil size, while a field stop is a stop intended to cut out light that would be outside the desired field of view and might cause flare or other problems if not stopped.
In photography, stops are also a unit used to quantify ratios of light or exposure, with each added stop meaning a factor of two, and each subtracted stop meaning a factor of one-half. The one-stop unit is also known as the EV (exposure value) unit. On a camera, the aperture setting is usually adjusted in discrete steps, known as f-stops. Each "stop" is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop. This corresponds to a decrease of the pupil and aperture diameters by a factor of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \scriptstyle \sqrt{2}
or about 1.414, and hence a halving of the area of the pupil.
Modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately geometric sequence of numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the powers of the square root of 2: f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64, f/90, f/128, etc. Each element in the sequence is one stop lower than the element to its left, and one stop higher than the element to its right. The values of the ratios are rounded off to these particular conventional numbers, to make them easier to remember and write down. The sequence above can be obtained as following: f/1 = Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{f/1}{(\sqrt{2})^0} , f/1.4 = Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{f/1}{(\sqrt{2})^1} , f/2 = Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{f/1}{(\sqrt{2})^2} , f/2.8 = Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac{f/1}{(\sqrt{2})^3}
...
In the same way as one f-stop corresponds to a factor of two in light intensity, shutter speeds are arranged so that each setting differs in duration by a factor of approximately two from its neighbour. Opening up a lens by one stop allows twice as much light to fall on the film in a given period of time, therefore to have the same exposure at this larger aperture as at the previous aperture, the shutter is opened for half as long (i.e., twice the speed); the film will respond equally to these equal amounts of light, since it has the property known as reciprocity (this is less true for extremely long or short exposures, where we have reciprocity failure). Aperture, shutter speed, and film sensitivity are linked: for constant scene brightness, doubling the aperture area (one stop), halving the shutter speed (doubling the time open), or using a film twice as sensitive, has the same effect on the exposed image. For all practical purposes extreme accuracy is not required (mechanical shutter speeds were notoriously inaccurate as wear and lubrication varied, with no effect on exposure); it is not significant that aperture areas and shutter speeds do not vary by a factor of precisely two.
Photographers sometimes express other exposure ratios in terms of 'stops'. Ignoring the f-number markings, the f-stops make a logarithmic scale of exposure intensity. Given this interpretation, one can then think of taking a half-step along this scale, to make an exposure difference of "half a stop".
Most old cameras had a continuously variable aperture scale, with each full stop marked. Click-stopped aperture came into common use in the 1960s; the aperture scale usually had a click stop at every whole and half stop.
On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one stop. Steps of one-third stop (1/3 EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of film speeds. Half-stop steps are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions are clicked. As an example, the aperture that is one-third stop smaller than f/2.8 is f/3.2, two-thirds smaller is f/3.5, and one whole stop smaller is f/4. The next few f-stops in this sequence are
- f/4.5, f/5, f/5.6, f/6.3, f/7.1, f/8, etc.
To calculate the steps in a full stop (1 EV) one could use
- 20×0.5, 21×0.5, 22×0.5, 23×0.5, 24×0.5 etc.
The steps in a half stop (1/2 EV) series would be
- 20/2×0.5, 21/2×0.5, 22/2×0.5, 23/2×0.5, 24/2×0.5 etc.
The steps in a third stop (1/3 EV) series would be
- 20/3×0.5, 21/3×0.5, 22/3×0.5, 23/3×0.5, 24/3×0.5 etc.
As in the earlier DIN and ASA film-speed standards, the ISO speed is defined only in one-third stop increments, and shutter speeds of digital cameras are commonly on the same scale in reciprocal seconds. A portion of the ISO range is the sequence
- ... 16/13°, 20/14°, 25/15°, 32/16°, 40/17°, 50/18°, 64/19°, 80/20°, 100/21°, 125/22°...
while shutter speeds in reciprocal seconds have a few conventional differences in their numbers (1/15, 1/30, and 1/60 second instead of 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64).
In practice the maximum aperture of a lens is often not an integral power of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \scriptstyle \sqrt{2}
(i.e., Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \scriptstyle \sqrt{2}
to the power of a whole number), in which case it is usually a half or third stop above or below an integral power of Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \scriptstyle \sqrt{2}
.
Modern electronically-controlled interchangeable lenses, such as those used for SLR cameras, have f-stops specified internally in 1/8-stop increments, so the cameras' 1/3-stop settings are approximated by the nearest 1/8-stop setting in the lens.
Including aperture value AV: f/# = Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \sqrt{(2^{AV})}
| AV |
−1 |
0 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14 |
15 |
16 |
| f/# |
0.7 |
1.0 |
1.4 |
2 |
2.8 |
4 |
5.6 |
8 |
11 |
16 |
22 |
32 |
45 |
64 |
90 |
128 |
180 |
256 |
| f/# |
0.7 |
0.8 |
1.0 |
1.2 |
1.4 |
1.7 |
2 |
2.4 |
2.8 |
3.3 |
4 |
4.8 |
5.6 |
6.7 |
8 |
9.5 |
11 |
13 |
16 |
19 |
22 |
27 |
32 |
| f/# |
0.7 |
0.8 |
0.9 |
1.0 |
1.1 |
1.2 |
1.4 |
1.6 |
1.8 |
2 |
2.2 |
2.5 |
2.8 |
3.2 |
3.5 |
4 |
4.5 |
5.0 |
5.6 |
6.3 |
7.1 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
13 |
14 |
16 |
18 |
20 |
22 |
| f/# |
1.0 |
1.1 |
1.2 |
1.3 |
1.4 |
1.5 |
1.7 |
1.8 |
2 |
2.2 |
2.4 |
2.6 |
2.8 |
3.2 |
3.4 |
3.7 |
4 |
4.4 |
4.8 |
5.2 |
5.6 |
6.2 |
6.7 |
7.3 |
8 |
8.7 |
9.5 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
14 |
15 |
16 |
17 |
19 |
21 |
22 |
Sometimes the same number is included on several scales; for example, f/1.2 may be used in either a half-stop[4] or a one-third-stop system;[5] sometimes f/1.3 and f/3.2 and other differences are used for the one-third stop scale.[6]
F-stops are purely geometrical, the ratio of aperture to focal length, regardless of actual light transmitted. Since all lenses absorb some portion of the light passing through them (particularly zoom lenses containing many elements), f-numbers do not accurately correlate with light transmitted. F-numbers corrected to measure light transmission rather than aperture ratio, called T-stops (for Transmission-stops), are sometimes used instead of f-stops for determining exposure.[7] A real lens set to a particular T-stop will, by definition, transmit the same amount of light as an ideal lens with 100% transmission at the corresponding f-stop.
Use of f-numbers leads to exposure inaccuracy, particularly for lenses with many elements. This is particularly problematical in cinematography, where many images are seen in rapid succession and even small changes in exposure will be noticeable. To avoid the problem, lenses used in cinematography were bench-tested individually for actual light transmission and calibrated in T-stops, allowing fixed-focal-length turret-mounted lenses to be changed without affecting the overall scene brightness due to differences in transmission for the same f-number. Many modern cinematographic lenses are factory-calibrated in T-stops. In still photography, without the need for rigorous consistency of all lenses and cameras used, slight changes in exposure are less important, and are largely masked except for the highest-absorption lenses by film and sensor exposure latitude.
Since all lenses absorb some light, the T-number of any given aperture on a lens will always be greater (less light transmission) than the f-number. The T-stop corrects exposure for absorption of light, but the depth of field is determined by geometry; consequently, the depth of field for a given T-number will be slightly less than for the corresponding f-number; the discrepancy will be different for lenses of different degrees of absorption.
An example of the use of f-numbers in photography is the sunny 16 rule: an approximately correct exposure will be obtained on a sunny day by using an aperture of f/16 and the shutter speed closest to the reciprocal of the ISO speed of the film; for example, using ISO 200 film, an aperture of f/16 and a shutter speed of 1/200 second. The f-number may then be adjusted downwards for situations with lower light.
Comparison of
f/32 (top-left corner) and
f/5 (bottom-right corner)
Shallow focus with a wide open lens
Depth of field increases with f-number, as illustrated in the image here. This means that photographs taken with a low f-number will tend to have subjects at one distance in focus, with the rest of the image (nearer and farther elements) out of focus. This is frequently useful for nature photography, portraiture, and certain special effects. The depth of field of an image produced at a given f-number is dependent on other parameters as well, including the focal length, the subject distance, and the format of the film or sensor used to capture the image. Depth of field can be described as depending on just angle of view, subject distance, and entrance pupil diameter (as in von Rohr's method). As a result, smaller formats will have a deeper field than larger formats at the same f-number for the same distance of focus and same angle of view since entrance-pupil diameter goes by the format size at a given f-number. Therefore, reduced–depth-of-field effects, like those shown below, will require smaller f-numbers (and thus larger apertures and so potentially more complex optics) when using small-format cameras than when using larger-format cameras.
Picture sharpness also varies with f-number. The optimal f-stop varies with the lens characteristics. For modern standard lenses having 6 or 7 elements, the sharpest image is often obtained around f/5.6–f/8, while for older standard lenses having only 4 elements (Tessar formula) stopping to f/11 will give the sharpest image. The reason the sharpness is best at medium f-numbers is that the sharpness at high f-numbers is constrained by diffraction,[8] whereas at low f-numbers limitations of the lens design known as aberrations will dominate. The larger number of elements in modern lenses allow the designer to compensate for aberrations, allowing the lens to give better pictures at lower f-numbers. Light falloff is also sensitive to f-stop. Many wide-angle lenses will show a significant light falloff (vignetting) at the edges for large apertures. To measure the actual resolution of the lens at the different f-numbers it is necessary to use a standardized measurement chart like the 1951 USAF resolution test chart.
Photojournalists have a saying, "f/8 and be there", meaning that being on the scene is more important than worrying about technical details. The aperture of f/8 gives adequate depth of field, assuming a 35 mm or DSLR camera, minimum shutter-speed, and ISO film rating within reasonable limits subject to lighting.[9]
Computing the f-number of the human eye involves computing the physical aperture and focal length of the eye. The pupil can be as large as 6–7 mm wide open, which translates into the maximum physical aperture.
The f-number of the human eye varies from about f/8.3 in a very brightly lit place to about f/2.1 in the dark.[10] The presented maximum f-number has been questioned,[11] as it seems to only match the focal length that assumes outgoing light rays.[clarification needed] According to the incoming rays of light (what we actually see), the focal length of the eye is a bit longer, resulting in minimum f-number of f/3.2.
Note that computing the focal length requires that the light-refracting properties of the liquids in the eye are taken into account. Treating the eye as an ordinary air-filled camera and lens results in a different focal length, thus yielding an incorrect f-number.
Toxic substances and poisons (like Atropine) can significantly reduce the range of aperture. Pharmaceutical products such as eye drops may also cause similar side-effects. Tropicamide and Phenylephrine are used in medicine as mydriatics to dilate pupils for retinal and lens examination. These medications take effect in about 30–45 mins after instillation and last for about 8 hours. Atropine also is used in such way but its effects can last up to 2 weeks, along with the mydriatic effect; it produces cycloplegia (a condition in which the crystalline lens of the eye cannot accommodate to focus near objects). This effect goes away after 8 hours. Other medications offer the contrary effect. Pilocarpine is a miotic (induces miosis); it can make a pupil as small as 1 mm in diameter depending on the person and their ocular characteristics. Such drops are used in certain glaucoma patients to prevent acute glaucoma attacks.
File:Focal ratio.svg
Diagram of the
focal ratio of a simple optical system where
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): f
is the focal length and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): D
is the diameter of the
objective
In astronomy, the f-number is commonly referred to as the focal ratio (or f-ratio) notated as Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): N . It is still defined as the focal length Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): f
of an objective divided by its diameter Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): D
or by the diameter of an aperture stop in the system.
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): N = \frac fD \quad \xrightarrow {\times D} \quad f = ND
Even though the principles of focal ratio are always the same, the application to which the principle is put can differ. In photography the focal ratio varies the focal-plane illuminance (or optical power per unit area in the image) and is used to control variables such as depth of field. When using an optical telescope in astronomy, there is no depth of field issue, and the brightness of stellar point sources in terms of total optical power (not divided by area) is a function of absolute aperture area only, independent of focal length. The focal length controls the field of view of the instrument and the scale of the image that is presented at the focal plane to an eyepiece, film plate, or CCD.
For example, the SOAR 4m telescope has a small field of view (~f/16) which is useful for stellar studies. The LSST 8.4m telescope, which will cover the entire sky every 3 days has a very large field of view. Its short 10.3 meter focal length (f/1.2) is made possible by an error correction system which includes secondary and tertiary mirrors, a three element refractive system and active mounting and optics.[12]
The f-number accurately describes the light-gathering ability of a lens only for objects an infinite distance away.[13] This limitation is typically ignored in photography, where objects are usually not extremely close to the camera, relative to the distance between the lens and the film. In optical design, an alternative is often needed for systems where the object is not far from the lens. In these cases the working f-number is used. The working f-number Nw is given by
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): N_w \equiv {1 \over 2 \mathrm{NA}_i} \approx (1+|m|)N
,
where N is the uncorrected f-number, NAi is the image-space numerical aperture of the lens, and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): |m|
is the absolute value of lens's magnification for an object a particular distance away.[13] In photography, the working f-number is described as the f-number corrected for lens extensions by a bellows factor. This is of particular importance in macro photography.
The system of f-numbers for specifying relative apertures evolved in the late nineteenth century, in competition with several other systems of aperture notation.
In 1867, Sutton and Dawson defined "apertal ratio" as essentially the reciprocal of the modern f-number:[14]
In every lens there is, corresponding to a given apertal ratio (that is, the ratio of the diameter of the stop to the focal length), a certain distance of a near object from it, between which and infinity all objects are in equally good focus. For instance, in a single view lens of 6 inch focus, with a 1/4 in. stop (apertal ratio one-twenty-fourth), all objects situated at distances lying between 20 feet from the lens and an infinite distance from it (a fixed star, for instance) are in equally good focus. Twenty feet is therefore called the 'focal range' of the lens when this stop is used. The focal range is consequently the distance of the nearest object, which will be in good focus when the ground glass is adjusted for an extremely distant object. In the same lens, the focal range will depend upon the size of the diaphragm used, while in different lenses having the same apertal ratio the focal ranges will be greater as the focal length of the lens is increased. The terms 'apertal ratio' and 'focal range' have not come into general use, but it is very desirable that they should, in order to prevent ambiguity and circumlocution when treating of the properties of photographic lenses.
In 1874, John Henry Dallmeyer called the ratio Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): 1/N
the "intensity ratio" of a lens:[15]
The rapidity of a lens depends upon the relation or ratio of the aperture to the equivalent focus. To ascertain this, divide the equivalent focus by the diameter of the actual working aperture of the lens in question; and note down the quotient as the denominator with 1, or unity, for the numerator. Thus to find the ratio of a lens of 2 inches diameter and 6 inches focus, divide the focus by the aperture, or 6 divided by 2 equals 3; i.e., 1/3 is the intensity ratio.
Although he did not yet have access to Ernst Abbe's theory of stops and pupils,[16] which was made widely available by Siegfried Czapski in 1893,[17] Dallmeyer knew that his working aperture was not the same as the physical diameter of the aperture stop:[15]
It must be observed, however, that in order to find the real intensity ratio, the diameter of the actual working aperture must be ascertained. This is easily accomplished in the case of single lenses, or for double combination lenses used with the full opening, these merely requiring the application of a pair of compasses or rule; but when double or triple-combination lenses are used, with stops inserted between the combinations, it is somewhat more troublesome; for it is obvious that in this case the diameter of the stop employed is not the measure of the actual pencil of light transmitted by the front combination. To ascertain this, focus for a distant object, remove the focusing screen and replace it by the collodion slide, having previously inserted a piece of cardboard in place of the prepared plate. Make a small round hole in the centre of the cardboard with a piercer, and now remove to a darkened room; apply a candle close to the hole, and observe the illuminated patch visible upon the front combination; the diameter of this circle, carefully measured, is the actual working aperture of the lens in question for the particular stop employed.
This point is further emphasized by Czapski in 1893.[17] According to an English review of his book, in 1894, "The necessity of clearly distinguishing between effective aperture and diameter of physical stop is strongly insisted upon."[18]
J. H. Dallmeyer's son, Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer, inventor of the telephoto lens, followed the intensity ratio terminology in 1899.[19]
At the same time, there were a number of aperture numbering systems designed with the goal of making exposure times vary in direct or inverse proportion with the aperture, rather than with the square of the f-number or inverse square of the apertal ratio or intensity ratio. But these systems all involved some arbitrary constant, as opposed to the simple ratio of focal length and diameter.
For example, the Uniform System (U.S.) of apertures was adopted as a standard by the Photographic Society of Great Britain in the 1880s. Bothamley in 1891 said "The stops of all the best makers are now arranged according to this system."[20] U.S. 16 is the same aperture as f/16, but apertures that are larger or smaller by a full stop use doubling or halving of the U.S. number, for example f/11 is U.S. 8 and f/8 is U.S. 4. The exposure time required is directly proportional to the U.S. number. Eastman Kodak used U.S. stops on many of their cameras at least in the 1920s.
By 1895, Hodges contradicts Bothamley, saying that the f-number system has taken over: "This is called the f/x system, and the diaphragms of all modern lenses of good construction are so marked."[21]
Here is the situation as seen in 1899:
Piper in 1901[22] discusses five different systems of aperture marking: the old and new Zeiss systems based on actual intensity (proportional to reciprocal square of the f-number); and the U.S., C.I., and Dallmeyer systems based on exposure (proportional to square of the f-number). He calls the f-number the "ratio number," "aperture ratio number," and "ratio aperture." He calls expressions like f/8 the "fractional diameter" of the aperture, even though it is literally equal to the "absolute diameter" which he distinguishes as a different term. He also sometimes uses expressions like "an aperture of f 8" without the division indicated by the slash.
Beck and Andrews in 1902 talk about the Royal Photographic Society standard of f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11.3, etc.[23] The R.P.S. had changed their name and moved off of the U.S. system some time between 1895 and 1902.
By 1920, the term f-number appeared in books both as F number and f/number. In modern publications, the forms f-number and f number are more common, though the earlier forms, as well as F-number are still found in a few books; not uncommonly, the initial lower-case f in f-number or f/number is set in a hooked italic form: f, or f.[24] Notations for f-numbers were also quite variable in the early part of the twentieth century. They were sometimes written with a capital F,[25] sometimes with a dot (period) instead of a slash,[26] and sometimes set as a vertical fraction.[27]
The 1961 ASA standard PH2.12-1961 American Standard General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) specifies that "The symbol for relative apertures shall be f/ or f : followed by the effective f-number." Note that they show the hooked italic f not only in the symbol, but also in the term f-number, which today is more commonly set in an ordinary non-italic face.
- ^ Smith, Warren Modern Lens Design 2005 McGraw-Hill
- ^ Smith, Warren Modern Optical Engineering, 4th Ed. 2007 McGraw-Hill Professional
- ^ Smith, Warren Modern Optical Engineering, 4th Ed. 2007 McGraw-Hill Professional
- ^ Harry C. Box (2003). Set lighting technician's handbook: film lighting equipment, practice, and electrical distribution (3rd ed.). Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-80495-8. http://books.google.com/?id=YjAzP4i1oFcC&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136.
- ^ Paul Kay (2003). Underwater photography. Guild of Master Craftsman. ISBN 978-1-86108-322-7. http://books.google.com/?id=DvYMl-s1_9YC&pg=PA19.
- ^ David W. Samuelson (1998). Manual for cinematographers (2nd ed.). Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-51480-2. http://books.google.com/?id=IWkpoJKM_ucC&pg=PA145&lpg=PA145.
- ^ Eastman Kodak, "H2: Kodak Motion Picture Camera Films", November 2000 revision. Retrieved 2 September 2007.
- ^ Michael John Langford (2000). Basic Photography. Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-51592-7.
- ^ Levy, Michael (2001). Selecting and Using Classic Cameras: A User's Guide to Evaluating Features, Condition & Usability of Classic Cameras. Amherst Media, Inc. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-58428-054-5.
- ^ Hecht, Eugene (1987). Optics (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-11609-X. Sect. 5.7.1
- ^ http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/eye-resolution.html
- ^ Charles F. Claver; et al. (19 March 2007). LSST Reference Design. LSST Corporation. pp. 45–50. http://lsst.org/files/docs/LSST-RefDesign.pdf. Retrieved 10 January 2011
- ^ a b Greivenkamp, John E. (2004). Field Guide to Geometrical Optics. SPIE Field Guides vol. FG01. SPIE. ISBN 0-8194-5294-7. p. 29.
- ^ Thomas Sutton and George Dawson, A Dictionary of Photography, London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston, 1867, (p. 122).
- ^ a b John Henry Dallmeyer, Photographic Lenses: On Their Choice and Use—Special Edition Edited for American Photographers, pamphlet, 1874.
- ^ Southall, James Powell Cocke (1910). The principles and methods of geometrical optics: Especially as applied to the theory of optical instruments. http://books.google.com/?id=-r6LPy-nWPwC&pg=RA3-PA537&dq=theory-of-stops.
- ^ a b Siegfried Czapski, Theorie der optischen Instrumente, nach Abbe, Breslau: Trewendt, 1893.
- ^ Henry Crew, "Theory of Optical Instruments by Dr. Czapski," in Astronomy and Astro-physics XIII pp. 241–243, 1894.
- ^ Thomas R. Dallmeyer, Telephotography: An elementary treatise on the construction and application of the telephotographic lens, London: Heinemann, 1899.
- ^ C. H. Bothamley, Ilford Manual of Photography, London: Britannia Works Co. Ltd., 1891.
- ^ John A. Hodges, Photographic Lenses: How to Choose, and How to Use, Bradford: Percy Lund & Co., 1895.
- ^ C. Welborne Piper, A First Book of the Lens: An Elementary Treatise on the Action and Use of the Photographic Lens, London: Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ltd., 1901.
- ^ Conrad Beck and Herbert Andrews, Photographic Lenses: A Simple Treatise, second edition, London: R. & J. Beck Ltd., c. 1902.
- ^ Google search
- ^ Ives, Herbert Eugene (1920) (Google). Airplane Photography. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. pp. 61. http://books.google.com/?id=ypakouuKvwYC&pg=RA2-PA61. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
- ^ Mees, Charles Edward Kenneth (1920). The Fundamentals of Photography. Eastman Kodak. pp. 28. http://books.google.com/?id=V7MCVGREPfkC&q=aperture+lens+uniform-system+date:0-1930. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
- ^ Derr, Louis (1906) (Google). Photography for Students of Physics and Chemistry. London: Macmillan. pp. 83. http://books.google.com/?id=AN6d4zTjquwC&pg=PA83. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
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