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Sexual ethics (also referred to as sexual morality) refers to those aspects of ethics that deal with issues arising from all aspects of sexuality and human sexual behaviour. Broadly speaking, sexual ethics relates to community and personal standards relating to the conduct of interpersonal relationships, and deals with issues of consent, sexual relations before marriage and/or while married, including issues of marital fidelity and premarital and non-marital sex, issues related to sexuality, questions about how gender and power are expressed through sexual behavior, questions about how individuals relate to society, and questions about how individual behavior impacts public health concerns.

Ethical dilemmas which involve sex can often appear in situations where there is a significant power difference or where there is a pre-existing professional relationship between the participants, when there is an age difference, or where consent is partial or uncertain. Sexual ethics can also include the ethics of procreation.

Terminology and philosophical context[link]

The terms "ethics" and "morality" are often used interchangeably, but sometimes "ethics" is reserved for interpersonal interactions and "morality" is used to cover both interpersonal and inherent questions.^[1]

However, not all approaches to applied ethics agree that there is an inherent morality:

• Moral nihilism is the meta-ethical view that nothing is inherently right or wrong, and that all value judgments are either human constructs, or meaningless.
• Moral relativism is the meta-ethical view that moral judgments are subjective. In some cases this is merely descriptive, in other cases this approach is normative - the idea that morality should be judged in the context of each culture's convictions and practices.
• Moral universalism is the meta-ethical view that moral judgments are objectively true or false, that everyone should behave according to the same set of normative ethics.

In philosophic terminology, hedonism is the idea that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, making the "pursuit of happiness" the primary human goal. This may be combined with nihilism in a selfish morality, or with utilitarianism to seek maximization of happiness for everyone. Some religions derive a normative sexual ethics from their texts or teachings, and these range from nihilistic utilitarianism to more complex, fixed systems for determining right and wrong.

Many practical questions arise regarding human sexuality, such as whether sexual norms should be enforced by law, given social approval, or changed. Answers to these questions can be considered on a scale from permissive social liberalism to restrictive social conservatism. Considerable controversy continues over which system of ethics or morality best promotes human happiness, and which, if any, is inherently right.

Flirting[link]

Flirting is an expression of sexuality and a common form of social interaction whereby one person obliquely indicates a romantic and/or sexual interest towards another. However, flirting undertaken for amusement, with no intention of developing any further relationship, poses ethical dilemmas and sometimes faces disapproval from others, either because it can be misinterpreted as more serious, or it may be viewed as "cheating" if the person flirting is already in a romantic relationship with someone else; or if the person to whom flirting is directed is in an exclusive or a serious relationship.

Consent[link]

Consent is a key issue in sexual ethics. Almost all systems of ethics insist, as a minimum, that all participants consent to a sexual activity. Sexual ethics (which is reflected in laws) also considers whether a person is capable of giving consent and the sort of acts they can consent to. In western countries, the legal concept of "informed consent" often sets the public standards on this issue. Children, the mentally handicapped, the mentally ill, animals, and people under the influence of drugs or alcohol might be considered in certain situations as lacking an ability to give an informed consent. Another issue surrounding consent is who is legally entitled not to give, or to withdraw, sexual consent. Rape of a wife by a husband remains legal in many countries, and was long legal in many others, because the law of those countries considers consent to marriage the equivalent of consent to sex. In the United States, Maouloud Baby v. State of Maryland is a state court case ruling that a person can withdraw sexual consent, and that continuing sexual activity in the absence of consent constitutes rape.

Sexual acts which are illegal, and often considered unethical, because of the absence of consent include rape and molestation.

Enthusiastic consent is typically the focus of liberal sexual ethics, rather than marriage.^[2][3][4]

Age of Consent[link]

Age of Consent is also a key issue in sexual ethics. It is a controversial question of whether or not minors should be allowed to have sex for recreation. The debate includes whether or not minors can meaningfully consent to have sex with each other, and whether they can meaningfully consent to have sex with adults. In many places in the world people are not legally allowed to have sex until they reach a set age. It is often debated whether or not people under the age of Consent are capable of having consensual sexual relationships.

Marriage[link]

In all cultures, consensual sexual intercourse is acceptable within marriage. Some cultures do exist in which sexual intercourse is controversial, if not totally unacceptable outside of marriage.

As the philosopher Michel Foucault has noted, such societies often create spaces or heterotopias outside of themselves where sex outside of marriage can be practised. According to his theory this was the reason for the often unusual sexual ethics displayed by persons living in brothels, asylums, onboard ships, or in prisons. Sexual expression was freed of social controls in such places whereas within society, sexuality has been controlled through the institution of marriage which socially sanctions the sex act. Many different types of marriage exist, but in most cultures that practice marriage, extramarital sex without the approval of the partner is often considered to be unethical. There are a number of complex issues that fall under the category of marriage.

When one member of a marital union has sexual intercourse with another person without their consent, it may be considered to be infidelity. In some cultures this act may be considered ethical if the spouse consents, or acceptable as long as the partner is not married, while other cultures might view any sexual intercourse outside of marriage as unethical, with or without consent.

Furthermore, the institution of marriage brings up the issue of premarital sex wherein people who may choose to at some point in their lives marry, engage in sexual activity with partners who they may or may not marry. Various cultures have different attitudes about the ethics of such behavior, some condemning it while others view it to be normal and acceptable.

Premarital sex[link]

Premarital sex is sexual activity between two people who are not married to each other. Usually, both parties are unmarried. This might be objected to on religious or moral grounds, while individual views within a given society can vary greatly.^[5][6] Cultural acceptance of premarital sex varies between cultures and time periods. In law, sex outside of marriage may be called "fornication". There still exist laws regarding fornication in some places, which may or may not be enforced depending on the current prevailing societal views in the jurisdiction. The term premarital sex, implies an origin where the word referred to sex prior to marriage; in this context it usually meant sex between young people who were not yet married. This definition may also still be used today.

Extramarital sex[link]

Extramarital sex is sex occurring outside of marriage, usually referring to when a married person engages in sexual activity with someone other than their marriage partner. Generally there are moral as well as religious objections to sexual relationships by a married person outside of the marriage, which is often referred to in law or religion as adultery. Others may call it infidelity or "cheating".

In contrast, there are some cultures, groups or individual relationships in which extramarital sex is an accepted norm. In today's western cultures some people practice "polyamory", otherwise known as responsible non-monogamy, or "open marriage". The ethical practice requires honest dialogue and consent of those involved.

Individuals and societies[link]

Abuse of power[link]

Most societies disapprove of a person in a position of power to engage in sexual activity with a subordinate. This is often considered unethical simply as a breach of trust. When the person takes advantage of a position of power in the workplace, this may constitute sexual harassment, because subordinates may be unable to give proper consent to a sexual advance because of a fear of repercussions.

Child-parent incest is also seen as an abuse of a position of trust and power, in addition to the inability of a child to give consent. Incest between adults may not involve this lack of consent, and is therefore less clearcut for most observers. Many professional organizations have rules forbidding sexual relations between members and their clients. Examples in many countries include psychiatrists, psychologists, therapists, doctors, and lawyers. In addition, laws exist against this kind of abuse of power by priests, preachers, teachers, religious counselors, and coaches.

Manipulation and personal gain[link]

Sex is 'valuable' (in the sense that it is a basic human drive - though it is not technologically productive in its own right), and because of this it can be used toward unethical ends. It can also be used as a means of direct economic exchange such as in various forms of sex work and pornography where sex is exchanged directly for currency in various marketplaces. The ethics of such markets existing have been questioned particularly by feminists such as Gloria Steinem, Germaine Greer, and Naomi Wolf. Radical feminists argue that the sex industry exploits women, contributes to sexism, and is a way of maintaining patriarchy; that prostitution is a form of male domination and oppression of women, and, as a result of such views on prostitution, Sweden, Norway and Iceland have enacted laws which outlaw the buying, but not the selling of sexual services (the client commits a crime, but not the prostitute). Other sex positive feminists such as Wendy McElroy support the commercialization of sex as a means of empowering women. It is also the case that several religions within South Asia and the Middle East have their own viewpoints on pornography, even the type of pornography which would be viewed with triviality within most Western Nations.^{[citation needed]}

Religious sexual ethics[link]

Many cultures consider ethics to be intertwined with religious faith and the problem of being ethical as a matter of following various religious dogma established by some religious authority. Along with all those activities listed above, some acts that might be considered ethical or unethical from a religious standpoint:

• Contraception
  • Religious views on birth control
    • Christian views on contraception
    • Jewish views on contraception
• Masturbation
• Promiscuity
• various Paraphilias

Homosexuality[link]

In ancient Athens, sexual attraction between men was the norm with writers as Plato and Aristophanes writing extensive treatises on the benefits of homosexual love. In the Levant, however, persons who committed homosexual acts were stoned to death at the same period in history that Socrates dallied with young Alcibiades. As presented by Plato in his Symposium, Socrates did not "dally" with young Alcibiades, and instead treated him as his father or brother would when they spent the night sharing a blanket. And in Xenophon's Symposium Socrates strongly speaks against men kissing each other, saying that doing so will make them slavish, i.e., risk something that seems akin to an addiction to homosexual acts.

Most modern secular ethicists since the heyday of Utilitarianism, e.g. T.M. Scanlon and Bernard Williams, have constructed systems of ethics whereby homosexuality is a matter of individual choice and where ethical questions have been answered by an appeal to non-interference in activities involving consenting adults. However, Scanlon's system, notably, goes in a slightly different direction from this, and requires that no person who meets certain criteria could rationally reject a principle that either sanctions or condemns a certain act. Under Scanlon's system it is difficult to see how one would construct a principle condemning homosexuality outright, although certain acts, such as rape, would still be fairly straightforward cases of unethical behavior.

The human rights of homosexuals are still contested in most parts of the world.

Paraphilia[link]

Public health[link]

In countries where public health is considered a public concern, there is also the issue of how sex impacts the health of individuals. In such circumstances, where there are health impacts resulting from certain sexual activities, there is the question of whether individuals have an ethical responsibility to the public at large for their behavior. Such concerns might involve the regular periodic testing for sexually transmitted diseases, disclosure of infection with sexually transmitted diseases, responsibility for taking safer sex precautions, ethics of sex without using contraception, leading to an increased level of unplanned pregnancies and unwanted children, and just what amount of personal care an individual needs to take in order to meet his or her requisite contribution to the general health of a nations citizens.

Public decency[link]

Legal and social dress codes are often related to sexuality. See also decency.

See also[link]

Sexuality portal

• Anti-pornography movement
• Antisexualism
• Bugchasing and giftgiving
• Covert incest
• Religion and sexuality
  • Catholicism and sexuality
• Sexual objectification
• Swinging lifestyle

References[link]

Notes

Further reading

• Bertrand Russell. Our Sexual Ethics, 1936
• Janet Smith. Natural Law and Sexual Ethics
• Dag Øistein Endsjø: Sex and Religion. Teachings and Taboos in the History of World Faiths. Palgrave MacMillan, New York 2011.
• Philosophy of sexuality. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Sister Margaret A. Farley, R.S.M., Ph.D is an ethicist and the Gilbert L. Stark Professor of Christian Ethics at Yale Divinity School. A Sister of Mercy, she was the first woman appointed to serve full-time on the YDS faculty and shared with Henri Nouwen the distinction of being the first Roman Catholic faculty member at the Divinity School. She now has the status of professor emerita.

She began her career at Yale Divinity School in 1971 and earned her Ph.D. there two years later. In 1984 she was one of 97 theologians and religious persons who signed A Catholic Statement on Pluralism and Abortion, calling for pluralism and discussion within the Catholic Church regarding the Church's position on abortion.^[1] She appeared on the cover of the Yale Alumni Magazine in 1986 in connection with a feature article on teachers of note. She has written six books to date, including Just Love: A Framework for Christian Social Ethics published in 2006 by the Continuum International Publishing Group.

She received the John Courtney Murray Award from the Catholic Theological Society of America (CTSA). She has served as president of both the CTSA as well as the Society of Christian Ethics.

In 2008 she received the Grawemeyer Award in Religion.^[2]

She participated in the Sisters of Mercy study on tubal ligation. She has also followed, in particular, the U.S. Catholic Bishops' Conference pastoral letter on the role of women as well as a special international synod called by Pope John Paul II to reassess the results of Vatican II "in light of new needs".

All-Africa conference[link]

Sister Farley and Sister Eileen P. Hogan founded the All-Africa Conference, a project intended to bring together African women religious to develop strategies for responding to the pandemic of HIV/AIDS in Africa.^[3]

References[link]

External links[link]

• http://archivesdestan.blogspot.com/2005_04_03_archive.html
• http://www.yale.edu/divinity/notes/050516/notes_050516_mf.shtml
• http://www.yale.edu/divinity/cv/MFARLEY.pdf

Hank Hanegraaff in St. Louis, Mo. August 30, 2007.

Hendrik "Hank" Hanegraaff (born 1950) also known as the Bible Answer Man is an American author, radio talk-show host and advocate of evangelical Christianity. He was born in the Netherlands and raised in the United States since childhood. He is married with 12 children.^[1] He is an outspoken figure within the Christian countercult movement where he has established a reputation for his criticisms of non-Christian religions, new religious movements or cults and heresies within conservative Christianity. He is also an apologist on doctrinal and cultural issues.

Career[link]

Prior to becoming a leading figure in the Christian countercult movement, Hanegraaff was closely affiliated with the ministry of D. James Kennedy of Coral Ridge Presbyterian church in Florida. During his association with Kennedy in the 1980s, Hanegraaff applied memory-based techniques (such as acrostic mnemonics) to summarise strategies, methods and techniques in Christian evangelism. His work bears resemblances to memory dynamics techniques developed in speed-reading courses and in memory training programs used in some executive business courses.

During the late 1980s Hanegraaff became associated with Walter Martin (1928-1989) at the Christian Research Institute (CRI), the conservative Protestant countercult and apologetic ministry which Martin founded in 1960.

After Martin's death from heart failure in June 1989, Hanegraaff became president of CRI. As part of his role as ministry president, Hanegraaff assumed the role from Martin of anchorman on the radio program The Bible Answer Man. Hanegraaff also became a conference speaker and itinerant preacher in churches, pursuing the general ministry charter of CRI. Shortly after the release of Dan Brown's novel, he co-authored The DaVinci Code: Fact or Fiction? with Lutheran apologist Paul Maier. His most recent publication to date is Has God Spoken?, from Thomas Nelson in 2011.

The content of The Bible Answer Man show includes answering questions about Christian doctrine, biblical interpretation, and denominational particularities, as well as special focuses on particular issues when a notable figure is a guest, such as frequent shows focused on Mormonism when former Mormons appear in studio as guests to speak from their experiences.

Personal life[link]

Christian Research Institute[link]

During his tenure at Christian Research Institute, a rift between Hanegraaff and the family of the late Martin grew amid accusations of changing CRI's mission, and the improper use of its not-for-profit status.^[2] In 2003, an audit by Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability found financial irregularities at the CRI, resulting in a "significant reimbursement."^[3]

2007 Defamation Suit[link]

Hanegraaff filed a defamation suit against a longtime critic William Alnor for statements made in a fundraising letter alleging mail fraud.^[4] The lawsuit was thrown out, the court finding that Hanegraaff did not prove "actual malice.”^[5]

Despite its warm reception by evangelicals, the book Counterfeit Revival (as well as Christianity in Crisis) was harshly criticized by many Pentecostal and charismatic leaders such as Don Williams,^[6] William DeArteaga^[7] and Michael L. Brown.^[8]

Worldwide Church of God[link]

Throughout the 1990s, Hanegraaff engaged in dialogue with Joseph Tkach, Jr. and other leaders of the heterodox Worldwide Church of God (WCG), now known as Grace Communion International (GCI). The WCG was founded in the 1930s by Herbert W. Armstrong, and had long been regarded as a cult by evangelicals, primarily for its denial of the Trinity and other traditional Christian doctrines. Following Armstrong's death in 1986, the group re-evaluated many of its teachings, including the British Israel doctrine and various eschatological predictions.

Hanegraaff was one of a handful of evangelical apologists – along with, e.g., Ruth A. Tucker (author of Another Gospel) who assisted in the reforms. The biggest changes to ensure their acceptance among evangelicals, were in accepting the doctrine of the Trinity and Salvation by Grace through Faith.

The story is told in the 1997 book Transformed by Truth by Joseph Tkach, with a foreword by Hanegraaff. The book, now out of print, is posted chapter by chapter on the GCI Web site.^[9]

Other works[link]

Hanegraaff has defended the historicity of the Resurrection of Christ in print and on radio.

He has been outspoken against the theory of Evolution, in favour of creationism. However, Hanegraaff has distanced himself from teaching any specific form, such as young earth creationism.^[10] In conjunction with the Christian Research Institute, he has asked "Why put heavy emphasis on a doctrine that can stand in the way of some peopleʹs arriving at Christian faith when it is not even certain that the biblical data supports the obstacle in question?"^[11] By questioning whether the biblical data supports the "obstacle" of such things as common evolutionary timeframes, some people (including Ken Ham) have seen this as shifting towards the position of an giving preference to a much longer timeframe^[10] - like Old Earth, Gap, Day-Age or Progressive creationism.

Hanegraaff is noted for his belief that Biblical inerrancy can be proven on a rational basis. He has also followed his predecessor, Walter Martin, in opposing what he describes as "pseudo-Christian" cults, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormons. In recent times he has co-authored three novels with Sigmund Brouwer.

Word-Faith movement[link]

In his 1993 book Christianity in Crisis, Hanegraaff charged the Word-Faith movement with heretical teachings, saying that many of the Word-Faith groups were cults, and that those who knowingly accepted the movement's theology were "clearly embracing a different gospel, which is in reality no gospel at all."^[12]

Counterfeit Revival[link]

Hanegraaff revisited some of the same issues in his 1997 book Counterfeit Revival, in which he rejected the claims of many charismatic teachers such as Rodney Howard Browne concerning what became known as the Toronto Blessing. The Toronto Blessing was associated with the Vineyard church located near the Toronto airport, and was characterized by spontaneous and sustained outbursts of bodily phenomena such as laughing, crying, animal noises, and dancing. The proponents of this blessing believed this was a special time of refreshing bestowed on churches by the Holy Spirit. A different set of phenomena and claims subsequently emanated from churches in Brownsville, Pensacola, Florida, and became known as the Brownsville Revival.

One of the book's primary arguments is that many ostensible "manifestations of the Spirit" in charismatic, Pentecostal, and third wave affiliated churches are caused by psychological manipulation of parishioners, and that many of the "signs and wonders" claimed by these churches are fraudulent or result from manipulation, peer pressure, subtle suggestions, altered states of consciousness from repetitive chanting or singing, and expectations of supernatural events. Hanegraaff argues that many of the practices within these movements are not biblically sanctioned or appropriate, but have underlying aspects of scripture which are misinterpreted. He notes these movements rely too much on subjective experiences or feelings.

Counterfeit Revival was criticized in Christianity Today magazine's review of the book. The review, while acknowledging that Counterfeit Revival "exposes some real excesses and imbalances" in the Toronto Blessing, also states that Counterfeit Revival is a "misleading, simplistic, and harmful book, marred by faulty logic, outdated and limited research".^[13]

Works[link]

• Hank Hanegraaff (1993). Christianity in Crisis. Eugene: Harvest House Pub. ISBN 0-89081-976-9. 
• Counterfeit Revival (Dallas: Word, 1997).
• The FACE That Demonstrates the Farce of Evolution (Nashville: Word, 1998).
• (General editor), The Kingdom of the Cults (Minneapolis: Bethany, 1997).
• Millennium Bug Debugged (Minneapolis: Bethany, 1998).
• Resurrection (Nashville: Word, 2000).
• The Prayer of Jesus (Nashville: Word, 2001).
• Fatal Flaws (Nashville: Word, 2003).
• Bible Answer Book (Nashville: J. Countryman, 2004).
• (with Sigmund Brouwer) The Last Disciple (A Novel), (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 2004).
• (with Sigmund Brouwer) The Last Sacrifice (A Novel), (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 2005).
• The Apocalypse Code: Find Out What the Bible REALLY Says About the End Times . . . and Why It Matters Today (Thomas Nelson, 2007)
• (with Sigmund Brouwer) Fuse of Armageddon (A Novel), (Wheaton: Tyndale House, 2007)

See also[link]

• Christian countercult movement
• List of anti-cult organizations and individuals
• Christian Research Institute

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Walter Martin, The Kingdom of the Cults, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1965; revised in several editions published by Bethany House in 1967, 1977, 1985, 1997 and 2003).
• J. Gordon Melton, "The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective," in Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker, edited by James A. Beckford & James T. Richardson, (Routledge, London, 2003), pp. 102-113.

External links[link]

• Hank Hanegraaff Blog

Joe Dallas is a prominent figure in the ministry for sexual addiction recovery and reparative therapy.

Biography[link]

Joe Dallas is founder of Genesis Counseling which specializes in "sexual addiction recovery and homosexuality.."^[1] Dallas is the keynote speaker at one of the monthly weekend retreats on sexual purity titled, Every Man's Battle (sponsored by New Life Ministries).^[2] Dallas focuses on healing "Sexual Addiction, Responding to Pro-gay Theology, Ministering to Parents of Lesbians/Gays, Developing Ministerial Responses to Homosexuals, Apologetics Approaches to the ‘Gay Debate’"^[3] He has also written three books and discussed them in the media.^[4]

Genesis Counseling claims that homosexuality can be altered and that they are "Reclaiming Godly Sexuality through the Saving Work of Jesus Christ,The Sancifying Work of the Holy Spirit and the Body Ministry of the Christian Church."^[1] Joe Dallas is active in opposing what he sees as the gay agenda^[5] claiming "I’m not sure we can defeat the pro-gay lobby or prevent their goals from being achieved. But win or lose, I don’t want to stand before God and say I did nothing when I had the opportunity to fight."^[6]

Dallas has encouraged Exodus International to also stand against the gay agenda which would seek to promote homosexuality.^[6] He served for three years as Chair of the Exodus International Board of Directors and is a member of the American Association of Christian Counselors.^[3]

Books[link]

• Desires in Conflict: Hope for Men Who Struggle with Sexual Identity (2003) ISBN 978-0-7369-1211-2
• When Homosexuality Hits Home: What to Do When a Loved One Says They're Gay (2004) ISBN 978-0-7369-1201-3
• The Gay Gospel?: How Pro-Gay Advocates Misread the Bible (2007) ISBN 978-0-7369-1834-3

References[link]

External links[link]

• Genesis Counseling