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A psychedelic substance is a psychoactive drug whose primary action is to alter cognition and perception. Psychedelics are part of a wider class of psychoactive drugs known as hallucinogens, a class that also includes related substances such as dissociatives and deliriants. Unlike other drugs such as stimulants and opioids which induce familiar states of consciousness, psychedelics tend to affect and explore the mind in ways that result in the experience being qualitatively different from those of ordinary consciousness. The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as trance, meditation, yoga, and dreaming.

Origin of term[link]

The term psychedelic is derived from the Greek words ψυχή (psyche, "mind") and δηλείν (delein, "to manifest"), hence "mind-manifesting", the implication being that psychedelics can access and develop unused potentials of the human mind.^[1] The word was coined in 1957 by British psychiatrist, Humphrey Osmond, loathed by American ethnobotanist, Richard Schultes, but championed by the American psychologist, Timothy Leary.^[2]

Aldous Huxley had suggested to Humphrey Osmond in 1957 his own coinage phanerothymic (Greek "phanero-" visible + Greek "thymic" spiritual, thus "visible spirituality"). Recently, the term entheogenic has come into use to denote the use of psychedelic drugs in a positive and non-recreational context.

Action[link]

Psychedelic drugs act contrastingly according to substance on the processes of various serotonergic receptors, namely the 5-HT group and ligand gated ion channels. This action results in either excited or inhibited levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, inositol trisphosphate and diglyceride, neurochemicals responsible for a variety of biological functions. In the psychedelic experience, they effect a drastic cognitive and perceptual alteration and delineation of thought, accompanying all manner of hallucinations.

Traditional use[link]

Psychedelics have a long history of traditional use in medicine and religion, where they are prized for their perceived ability to promote physical and mental healing. In this context, they are often known as entheogens. Native American practitioners using mescaline-containing cacti (most notably peyote, San Pedro, and Peruvian Torch) have reported success against alcoholism, and Mazatec practitioners routinely use psilocybin mushrooms for divination and healing. Ayahuasca, which contains the powerful psychedelic DMT, is used in Peru and other parts of South America for spiritual and physical healing as well as in religious festivals.

Examples[link]

'Classic' or serotonergic psychedelics (agonists for the 5-HT_2A serotonin receptors) include LSD, psilocybin (the active constituent of psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as "magic mushrooms"), mescaline (the active constituent of Peyote), and DMT (the active constituent of Ayahuasca and potentially an endogenous psychedelic compound). A few newer synthetics such as MDMA and 2C-B have also enjoyed some popularity. Cannabis, one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs in the world, produces effects similar to low doses of classic psychedelics, though at higher doses or in susceptible individuals it can be quite psychedelic, depending on the strain.

Pharmacological classes and effects[link]

[edit] Serotonergic or 'classical' psychedelics (5-HT_2A receptor agonists)

This class of psychedelics includes the classical hallucinogens, including the ergolines like LSD and LSA, tryptamine-based compounds like psilocybin and DMT, and phenethylamine-based compounds like mescaline and 2C-B. Many of the tryptamines and phenethylamines cause remarkably similar effects, despite their different chemical structure. However, most users report that the two families have subjectively different qualities in the "feel" of the experience, which are difficult to describe. At lower doses, these include sensory alterations, such as the warping of surfaces, shape suggestibility, and color variations. Users often report intense colors that they have not previously experienced, and repetitive geometric shapes are common. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental alterations of sensory perception, such as synesthesia or the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions. Some compounds, such as 2C-B, have extremely tight "dose curves", meaning the difference between a non-event and an overwhelming disconnection from reality can be very slight. There can be very substantial differences between the drugs, however. For instance, 5-MeO-DMT rarely produces the visual effects typical of other psychedelics and ibogaine (a 'complex tryptamine') is also an NMDA receptor antagonist and κ-opioid receptor agonist in addition to being an agonist for the 5-HT_2A receptors, resulting in dissociative effects as well (see dissociatives below).

Empathogen-entactogens (serotonin releasers)[link]

The empathogen-entactogens are phenethylamines of the MDxx class such as MDMA, MDEA, and MDA. Their effects are characterized by feelings of openness, euphoria, empathy, love, heightened self-awareness, and by mild audio and visual distortions (an overall enhancement of sensory experience is often reported). Their adoption by the rave subculture is probably due to the enhancement of the overall social and musical experience. MDA is atypical to this experience, often causing hallucinations and psychedelic effects in equal profundity to the chemicals in the 5-HT_2A agonist category, but with substantially less mental involvement, and is possibly both a serotonin releaser and 5-HT_2A receptor agonist.

Cannabinoids (CB-1 cannabinoid receptor agonists)[link]

The cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and related compounds are capable of activating the brain's endocannabinoid system. Some effects may include a general change in consciousness, mild euphoria, feelings of general well-being, relaxation or stress reduction, enhanced recollection of episodic memory, hunger, increased sensuality, increased awareness of sensation, creative or philosophical thinking, disruption of linear memory, paranoia, agitation, and anxiety, potentiation of other psychedelics, and increased awareness of sound, patterns and color. They are more similar to the above categories as dose increases.

Dissociatives (NMDA antagonists)[link]

Certain dissociative drugs acting via NMDA antagonism are known to produce what some might consider psychedelic effects. The main differences between dissociative psychedelics and serotonergic hallucinogens are that the dissociatives cause more intense derealization and depersonalization.^[3] For example, ketamine produces sensations of being disconnected from one's body and that the surrounding environment is unreal, as well as perceptual alterations seen with other psychedelics.^[4] Because the effects of dissociatives tend to add a far more sedating and sensory deprived quality to the experience, they are often not considered true psychedelics.

Other[link]

Salvia divinorum is a dissociative that is sometimes classified as an atypical psychedelic. The active molecule in the plant, salvinorin A, is a kappa opioid receptor agonist, working on a part of the brain that deals with pain. Activation of this receptor is also linked to the dysphoria sometimes experienced by users of opiates either therapeutically or recreationally. This explains, to an extent, the majority of S. divinorum experiences which are reported as negative.^{[citation needed]} An unusual feature of S. divinorum is its high potency (dosage is in the microgram range) and extremely disorienting effects, which often include "entity contact", complete loss of reality-perception and user's experiencing their consciousness as being housed in different objects i.e. a pane of glass or a pencil. It is also unusual as it is a terpenoid like THC as opposed to an alkaloid like the comparably intense serotonergic psychedelics and NMDA receptor antagonists mentioned above.

See also[link]

References[link]

• Roberts, Thomas B. (2006). Psychedelic Horizons: Snow White, Immune System, Multistate Mind, New Learning Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic.
• Stafford, Peter. (2003). Psychedlics. Ronin Publishing, Oakland, California. ISBN 0-914171-18-6.
• Winkelman, Michael, and Roberts, Thomas B. (editors) (2007) Psychedelic Medicine: New Evidence for Hallucinogens as Treatments 2 Vols. Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.

External links[link]

• Scholarly bibliography on psychedelic drug use in the history of psychology
• WWW Psychedelic Bibliography - A searchable database with full text of many scientific articles on psychedelics
• Magic Mushrooms and Reindeer - Weird Nature. A short video on the use of Amanita muscaria mushrooms by the Sami people and their reindeer produced by the BBC. [1]

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Albert Hofmann
Albert Hofmann in 1993
Born	(1906-01-11)January 11, 1906 Baden, Switzerland
Died	April 29, 2008(2008-04-29) (aged 102) Burg im Leimental, Switzerland
Residence	Switzerland
Nationality	Swiss
Fields	Chemist
Alma mater	University of Zürich
Known for	Synthesis of LSD-25

Albert Hofmann (January 11, 1906 – April 29, 2008)^[1][2] was a Swiss scientist known best for being the first person to synthesize, ingest and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). He authored more than 100 scientific articles and a number of books, including LSD: My Problem Child.^[2] He was named #1 out of 100 in Telegraph's magazine 2007 "Top 100 Living Geniuses" list.^[3]

Life and career[link]

Hofmann was born in Baden, Switzerland, the first of four children to factory toolmaker Adolf Hofmann and his wife Elisabeth (born Elisabeth Schenk). Owing to his father's low income, Albert's godfather paid for his education. When his father became ill, Hofmann obtained a position as a commercial apprentice in concurrence with his studies. At the age of twenty, Hofmann began his chemistry degree at the University of Zürich, finishing three years later, in 1929. His main interest was the chemistry of plants and animals, and he later conducted important research on the chemical structure of the common animal substance chitin, for which he received his doctorate, with distinction, in 1930.

Discovery of LSD[link]

Hofmann became an employee of the pharmaceutical-chemical department of Sandoz Laboratories (now a subsidiary of Novartis), located in Basel as a co-worker with professor Jordan Jake, founder and director of the pharmaceutical department.^[4] He began studying the medicinal plant squill and the fungus ergot as part of a program to purify and synthesize active constituents for use as pharmaceuticals. His main contribution was to elucidate the chemical structure of the common nucleus of Scilla glycosides (an active principal of Mediterranean Squill).^[4] While researching lysergic acid derivatives, Hofmann first synthesized LSD on November 16, 1938.^[5] The main intention of the synthesis was to obtain a respiratory and circulatory stimulant (an analeptic) with no effects on the uterus in analogy to nikethamide (which is also a diethylamide) by introducing this moiety to lysergic acid. It was set aside for five years, until April 16, 1943, when Hofmann decided to reexamine it. While re-synthesizing LSD, he accidentally absorbed a small quantity through his fingertips^[6] and fortuitously discovered its powerful effects. He described what he felt as being:

... affected by a remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness. At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. In a dreamlike state, with eyes closed (I found the daylight to be unpleasantly glaring), I perceived an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors. After some two hours this condition faded away.^[7]

Further research[link]

Hofmann, later, was to discover 4-Acetoxy-DET (4-acetoxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine), also known as ethacetin, ethylacybin, or 4-AcO-DET, a hallucinogenic tryptamine. He first synthesized 4-AcO-DET in 1958 in the Sandoz lab. Hofmann became director of the natural products department at Sandoz and continued studying hallucinogenic substances found in Mexican mushrooms and other plants used by the aboriginal people. This led to the synthesis of psilocybin, the active agent of many "magic mushrooms."^[9] Hofmann also became interested in the seeds of the Mexican morning glory species Rivea corymbosa, the seeds of which are called Ololiuhqui by the natives. He was surprised to find the active compound of Ololiuhqui, ergine (LSA, lysergic acid amide), to be closely related to LSD.

In 1962, he and his wife Anita Hofmann (born Guanella) traveled to southern Mexico to search for the plant "Ska Maria Pastora" (Leaves of Mary the Shepherdess), later known as Salvia divinorum. He was able to obtain samples of this plant but never succeeded in identifying its active compound which has since been identified as the diterpenoid Salvinorin A.

Albert Hofmann in 2006

In 1963, Hofmann attended the annual convention of the World Academy of Arts and Sciences (WAAS) in Stockholm.

Hofmann, interviewed shortly before his hundredth birthday, called LSD "medicine for the soul" and was frustrated by the worldwide prohibition of it. "It was used very successfully for 10 years in psychoanalysis," he said, adding that the drug was misused by the Counterculture of the 1960s, and then criticized unfairly by the political establishment of the day. He conceded that it could be dangerous if misused, because a relatively high dose of 500 microgrammes will have an extremely powerful psychoactive effect, especially if administered to a first-time user without adequate supervision.^[10]

In December 2007, Swiss medical authorities permitted a psychotherapist to perform psychotherapeutic experiments with patients who suffer from terminal-stage cancer and other deadly diseases. Although not yet started, these experiments will represent the first study of the therapeutic effects of LSD on humans in 35 years, as other studies have focused on the drug's effects on consciousness and body. Hofmann acclaimed the study, and continued to say he believed in the therapeutic benefits of LSD.^[11]

Hofmann was due to speak at the World Psychedelic Forum^[12] from March 21 to March 24, 2008, but was forced to cancel because of bad health.

Death[link]

Wikinews has related news: Pioneer chemist Albert Hofmann dies at age 102

Hofmann died of natural causes on April 29, 2008, in the village of Burg im Leimental, near Basel, Switzerland. He was 102 years old.^[13][14][15]

Books[link]

Albert Hofmann's autobiographical account of his experience with LSD was published in LSD: My Problem Child (1980). Hofmann also co-authored The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret of the Mysteries (Hermes Press, 1998, North Atlantic Books, 2008), a collaborative effort with mycologist R. Gordon Wasson, and classical scholars Carl Ruck and Blaise Staples, which investigates the secret mystic elixir that was a component of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Hofmann further describes the relevance of the Eleusinian Mysteries for today's world, and the application of psychedelic experience to the study of metaphysics, in essays published in Entheogens and the Future of Religion, (Council on Spiritual Practices, San Francisco, 1999); and discusses his relationship with LSD enthusiast Timothy Leary in Outside Looking In (Park Street Press, Rochester, VT, 1999). Also, a posthumous book by Albert Hoffman, Hofmann's Elixir: LSD and the New Eleusis, collecting the last essays the author wrote, was released February 24, 2010.^[16]

Further reading[link]

• Nathaniel S. Finney, Jay S. Siegel: In Memoriam – Albert Hofmann (1906–2008). Chimia 62 (2008), 444–447, doi:10.2533/chimia.2008.444
• Roberts, Andy. Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain (2008), Marshall Cavendish, U.K, 978-1905736270/1905736274

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Albert Hofmann

• Albert Hofmann Foundation
• LSD: My Problem Child Career Autobiography
• Insight Outlook A book by Albert Hofmann
• Albert Hofmann (NNDB)
• Erowid: Albert Hofmann Vault
• Maps.org ("Stanislav Grof interviews Dr. Albert Hofmann")
• Albert Hofmann – Daily Telegraph obituary
• Watch Hofmann's Potion, a documentary on the origins of LSD
• Albert Hofmann's life and articles (In Spanish)
• LSD Returns--For Psychotherapeutics (Scientific American Magazine article)

Jason Silva (born February 6, 1982 in Caracas, Venezuela) is a Venezuelan-American television personality, filmmaker, gonzo journalist and founding producer/host for Current TV, the Emmy winning youth-oriented lifestyle cable network started by former U.S. Vice President Al Gore, now the fastest growing network in TV history. He resides in Los Angeles, California.

Silva earned a degree in film and philosophy from the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida. He, along with Max Lugavere, produced and starred in a video documentary/performance piece entitled "Textures of Selfhood"—an experimental film about hedonism and spirituality. "The Party-Philosophers" and "Intellectual Hedonists", aptly named by Angeleno Magazine, borrowed the name for the film from the Hedonistic Imperative, a website promoting the end to suffering by philosopher David Pearce.

Current TV[link]

"Max and Jason" have become a prolific hosting and producing duo on Current TV, with widely ranging stories- from illegal immigration and counterfeit IDs, to profiling a brave new singer songwriter right before signing a publishing deal, to a taped philosophical sit-down with director Darren Aronofsky. Their story on counterfeit IDs earned them a featured appearance and interview on Anderson Cooper 360. Their franchise, "Max and Jason Style" has become one of the hallmarks of their work on Current TV, denoting coverage of an issue in a voice that is distinctly unique- often juxtaposing telegenic images and a heightened filmmaking aesthetic with bold and intelligent content. The results are a compelling product, which as The Internet Examiner put it, is proof that "Current is getting it just right."

[edit] The Immortalists and Turning into Gods

Silva produced and directed a short documentary film titled The Immortalists ^[1], profiling scientists and philosophers, including Ray Kurzweil, about the philosophical implications of tinkering with our biology, merging with our technologies and overcoming our biological limitations. Inspired by the Stewart Brand quote: "We are as gods and might as well get good at it," the film is a love letter to science and technology. The film generated buzz among transhumanist circles for its impassioned exploration of the subject matter, and Silva has further explored Singularity studies by interviewing American filmmaker Barry Ptolemy on his recent film Transcendent Man ^[2].

Silva is expanding The Immortalists into a feature length documentary titled Turning into Gods.^{[3] [4]}

Pangea Day[link]

Jason Silva (along with best friend and Current TV co-host Max Lugavere, Lisa Ling, and June Arunga) hosted the first annual Pangea Day on May 10, 2008, a live 4-hour program of film, music, and speakers broadcast worldwide to over 150 countries and with a projected audience of 500 million people. The goal of the event, created by filmmaker Jehane Noujaim and TED curator Chris Anderson, was to unite the people of the world through the power of film.

Other[link]

They have been invited to guest host hit shows on E! and WE: Women's Entertainment^{[citation needed]}, were featured in a full-page LA Times article about Current, and have co-hosted a panel on short-form film making at the 2006 South By Southwest Festival in Austin, Texas.

The press has dubbed Max and Jason "Gore's Boys" (944 Magazine, November 2007) and "the stars of Current TV" (Nylon Guys, Fall 2007).

They were invited to lead panel discussions on Citizen Journalism at The Paley Center for Media in both New York and Los Angeles.

The duo were featured in the Fall 2008 Gap campaign worldwide.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

1. ^ "At just 28, Jason Silva is thinking about DEATH - a lot". Fast Company. http://www.fastcompany.com/1651840/at-just-28-jason-silva-is-thinking-about-death-a-lot/. 
2. ^ "The 'Transcendent' Singularity is Near". Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jason-silva/the-transcendent-singular_b_831889.html. 
3. ^ Saenz, Aaron (June 2, 2010). "‘Turning Into Gods’ – Jason Silva’s Documentary on the Singularity". Singularity Hub. http://singularityhub.com/2010/06/02/turning-into-gods-jason-silvas-documentary-on-the-singularity-trailer/. Retrieved 7 April 2011. 
4. ^ "Jason Silva Muses on Humans Turning Into Gods". Forbes. http://blogs.forbes.com/alexknapp/2011/08/05/jason-silva-muses-on-humans-turning-into-gods/.