Latino is a term used chiefly in the United States to refer to people of Latin American extraction or descent, though the term has also been used, perhaps incorrectly, as a synonym for Hispanic. The term latino is used to refer to males only or a combination of males and females in a group, whereas the term latina is used to refer to females only.

The U.S. Government has defined Hispanic or Latino persons as being "persons who trace their origin [to] . . . Central and South America, and other Spanish cultures."^[1] The United States Census uses the ethnonym Hispanic or Latino to refer to "persons who trace their origin or descent to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Spanish speaking Central and South America countries, and other Spanish cultures." It is also stated that, "Origin can be considered as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, or country of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify their origin as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race."^[2] The AP Stylebook's recommended usage of Latino includes not only persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, but also more generally includes persons "from -- or whose ancestors were from -- . . . Latin America," including Brazilians.^[3]

Etymology[link]

The terms latino and latina originate from American Spanish, and ultimately from the Latin terms latinus and latina, which literally mean Latin. The terms may be an abbreviated form of the Spanish word latinoamericano (Latin American).^[4][5] This use of the expression Latin derives from the cultural distinctions between the Romance language countries of modern-day Italy, Spain, France and Portugal and other European nations, including the Germanic countries of Northwestern and Central Europe. These distinctions grew as the Germanic countries tended to embrace Protestanism while the Romance language countries remained Roman Catholic^[6].

In its modern usage, the idea that a part of the Americas has affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a "Latin race" and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe" in a struggle with "Teutonic Europe", "Anglo-Saxon America" and "Slavic Europe". The term Latin America was supported by the French Empire of Napoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico, as a way to include France among countries with influence in America and to exclude Anglophone countries, and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France. The idea was taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France.

Use in the United States[link]

The term "Latino" was officially adopted in 1997 by the United States Government in the ethnonym "Hispanic or Latino", which replaced the single term "Hispanic": "Because regional usage of the terms differs – Hispanic is commonly used in the eastern portion of the United States, whereas Latino is commonly used in the western portion."^[7]

U.S. official use of the term "Hispanic" has its origins in the 1970 census. The Census Bureau attempted to identify all Hispanics by use of the following criteria in sampled sets:^[8]

• Spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where Spanish was spoken
• Persons with Spanish heritage by birth location
• Persons who self-identify with Latin America, excluding Brazil

Neither "Hispanic" nor "Latino" refers to a race, as a person of Latino/Hispanic ethnicity can be of any race.^[9][10] Like non-Latinos, a Latino can be of any race or combination of races: White/Caucasian, Black/African American, Asian, Native American, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander American, or two or more races. While Brazilian Americans are not included with Hispanics and Latinos in the government's census population reports, any Brazilian American can report as being Hispanic or Latino since Hispanic or Latino origin is, like race, a matter of self-identification.^[9][11]

Other federal and local government agencies and non-profit organizations include Brazilians and Portuguese in their definition of Hispanic. The U.S. Department of Transportation defines Hispanic as, "persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central or South American, or others Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin, regardless of race."^[12] This definition has been adopted by the Small Business Administration as well as by many federal, state, and municipal agencies for the purposes of awarding government contracts to minority owned businesses. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Conference include representatives of Spanish and Portuguese descent. The Hispanic Society of America is dedicated to the study of the arts and cultures of Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. The Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, which proclaims itself the champion of Hispanic success in higher education, has member institutions in the U.S., Puerto Rico, Latin America, Spain, and Portugal.

Some authorities of American English maintain a distinction between the terms "Hispanic" and "Latino":

"Though often used interchangeably in American English, Hispanic and Latino are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant. Hispanic, from the Latin word for "Spain," has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common. Latino—which in Spanish means "Latin" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word latinoamericano—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin. Of the two, only Hispanic can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a Hispanic, not a Latino, and one cannot substitute Latino in the phrase the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures without garbling the meaning. In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word."^[13]

The AP Stylebook also distinguishes between the terms Hispanic and Latino. The Stylebook limits the term "Hispanic" to persons "from - or whose ancestors were from - a Spanish-speaking land or culture."^[14][15] It provides a more expansive definition, however, of the term "Latino." The Stylebook definition of Latino includes not only persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, but also more generally includes persons "from -- or whose ancestors were from -- . . . Latin America." ^[3] The Stylebook specifically lists "Brazilian" as an example of a group which can be considered Latino.^[3]

Listed below are the 28 categories tabulated in the 2000 United States Census: Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican Republic; Central American: Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Other Central American; South American: Argentinian, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, Venezuelan, Other South American; Other Hispanic or Latino: Spaniard, Spanish, Spanish American, All other Hispanic or Latino.^[16]

Similar and related terms[link]

The countries of Latin Europe and Latin America

Sometimes "Latino" is used interchangeably with "Latin", as Latino is also defined as a "Latin inhabitant of the United States";^[17] and sometimes it is used interchangeably with "Latin American".^[18] As a demonym, though, "Latin" can have other meanings:^[19][20]

• "a native or inhabitant of Latium; an ancient Roman."
• "a member of any of the Latin peoples, or those speaking chiefly Romance languages, esp. a native of or émigré from Latin America."
• "a member of the Latin Church; a Roman Catholic, as distinguished from a member of the Greek Church."
• "A Latino or Latina."

"Latin American" may also mean the same as "Latino," depending on which definition of the latter is used. The term "Latino", was implemented in the US to refer to what is a group of people composed of immigrants and residents,^[21][22][23] Also, a Spaniard, for example, though a "Latino" by some definitions, is not a Latin American. The term "Latin American", in turn, though normally applied to inhabitants of Latin America, is nevertheless preferred by some individuals and organizations in the United States.^[24][25][26] "Latin American" is defined as:

• "A native or inhabitant of Latin America."^[27]
• "A person of Latin-American descent."^[27]

Criticism[link]

The term Latino, despite its increasing popularity, is still highly debated among those who are called by the name.^[28][29] Since the adoption of the term by the US Census Bureau^[30] and its subsequent widespread use, there have been several controversies and disagreements, specially in the United States and, to a lesser extent, in Mexico and other Spanish-speaking countries. Regarding it as an arbitrary generic term, many Latin American scholars, journalists and indigenous rights organisations have objected against the mass media use of the word "Latino", pointing out that such ethnonyms are optional and should be used only to describe people involved in the practices, ideologies and identity politics of their supporters.^{[31][32][33][34]} Journalist Rodolfo Acuña writes:

"When and why the Latino identity came about is a more involved story. Essentially, politicians, the media, and marketers find it convenient to deal with the different U.S. Spanish-speaking people under one umbrella. However, many people with Spanish surnames contest the term Latino. They claim it is misleading because no Latino or Hispanic nationality exists since no Latino state exists, so generalizing the term Latino slights the various national identities included under the umbrella.^[35]

Popular personalities like Andy García have also expressed concern. He has stated that, in spite of his love of his native Cuba, he dislikes being labeled as a 'Latino actor', preferring instead to be addressed as an actor without a tag attached to him.^[36]

Definitions in other languages[link]

The term latino (feminine latina) in the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish, literally translates as "Latin". The cognate French term is Latin, not Latino. Portuguese dictionaries define the demonym latino to refer to natives of Romance-speaking nations influenced by Roman civilization, and to the natives or inhabitants of ancient Latium (modern Lazio).^[37][38] Italian dictionaries define the demonym latino as: the ancient Latins and Romans, and their language, Latin, as well as the neo-Latin nations.^[39][40] The dictionary of the Real Academia Española defines ten meanings for latino, including the ancient peoples of Latium and the modern Romance-speaking European and American nations.^[41] In these languages, latino, just like any other demonym, is by convention not capitalized.

See also[link]

• Latin American Australian
• Latin American Canadian
• Latino Studies
• Hispanic/Latino naming dispute
• Latin Union
• Race and ethnicity in the United States Census
• Racial and ethnic demographics of the United States

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States, 4 vls, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-515600-5
• Miguel A. De La Torre, "Encyclopedia on Hispanic American Religious Culture," Volume 1 & 2, ABC-CLIO Publishers, 2009.

External links[link]

• Latino Cultural Heritage Digital Archives
• PBS 'A Cultural Identity' Examines the creation of the Hispanic label by Richard Nixon.
• What's in a name?
• Yale University – Understanding Ethnic Labels and Puerto Rican Identity
• Chicano/Latino Studies University of California, Irvine

His Excellency the Right Honourable the Lord Tweedsmuir PC GCMG GCVO CH
15th Governor General of Canada
In office 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940
Monarch	George V Edward VIII George VI
Prime Minister	R. B. Bennett William L. Mackenzie King
Preceded by	The Earl of Bessborough
Succeeded by	The Earl of Athlone
More...
Personal details
Born	(1875-08-26)26 August 1875 Perth, Scotland
Died	11 February 1940(1940-02-11) (aged 64) Montreal, Quebec
Spouse(s)	Susan Buchan, Baroness Tweedsmuir
Profession	Author
Religion	Free Church of Scotland, United Free Church of Scotland, Church of Scotland
Signature

John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir PC GCMG GCVO CH (26 August 1875 – 11 February 1940) was a Scottish novelist, historian and Unionist politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the 15th since Canadian Confederation.

After a brief career in law, Buchan simultaneously began writing and his political and diplomatic career, serving as a private secretary to the colonial administrator of various colonies in Southern Africa, and eventually wrote propaganda for the British war effort in First World War. Once back in civilian life, Buchan was elected Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities, but spent most of his time on his writing career. He wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps and other adventure fiction. He was in 1935 appointed as governor general by George V, king of Canada, on the recommendation of Prime Minister of Canada R. B. Bennett, to replace the Earl of Bessborough as viceroy, and occupied that post until his death in 1940. Buchan proved to be enthusiastic about literacy, as well as the evolution of Canadian culture, and he received a state funeral in Canada before his ashes were returned to the United Kingdom.

Early life and education[link]

Buchan was the first child of John Buchan — a Free Church of Scotland minister — and Helen Jane Buchan. Born in Perth,^[1] Buchan was brought up in Kirkcaldy, Fife, and spent many summer holidays with his grandparents in Broughton, in the Scottish Borders. There he developed a love of walking, as well as for the local scenery and wildlife, which often featured in his novels; the name of a protagonist in several of Buchan's books — Sir Edward Leithen — is borrowed from the Leithen Water, a tributary of the River Tweed.

After attending Hutchesons' Grammar School, Buchan was awarded a scholarship to the University of Glasgow at age 17, where he studied classics, wrote poetry, and became a published author. With a junior Hulme scholarship, he moved on in 1895 to study Literae Humaniores (the Oxonian term for the Classics) at Brasenose College, Oxford,^[2] where he befriended a number of individuals, including Hilaire Belloc, Raymond Asquith, and Aubrey Herbert. Buchan won both the Stanhope essay prize, in 1897, and the Newdigate Prize for poetry the following year,^[2] as well as being elected as the president of the Oxford Union and having six of his works published.^[3] It was at around the time of his graduation from Oxford that Buchan had his first portrait painted, done in 1900 by a young Sholto Johnstone Douglas.^[4]

Life as an author and politician[link]

Buchan entered into a career in diplomacy and government after graduating from Oxford, becoming the private secretary to Alfred Milner, who was then the High Commissioner for Southern Africa, Governor of Cape Colony, and colonial administrator of Transvaal and the Orange Free State, putting Buchan in what came to be known as Milner's Kindergarten. He also gained an acquaintance with a country that would feature prominently in his writing, which he resumed upon his return to London, at the same time entering into a partnership in the Thomas Nelson & Son publishing company and becoming editor of The Spectator.^[5] Buchan also read for and was called to the bar in 1901,^[6] though he did not practice as a lawyer,^[7] and on 15 July 1907 married Susan Charlotte Grosvenor — daughter of Norman Grosvenor and a cousin of the Duke of Westminster. Together, Buchan and his wife had four children, Alice, John, William, and Alastair, two of whom would spend most of their lives in Canada.^[6]

John Buchan, circa 1936

Buchan wrote Prester John in 1910, the first of his adventure novels set in South Africa, and the following year he suffered from duodenal ulcers, which also inspired one of his characters in later books. At the same time, Buchan ventured into the political arena, and ran as a Unionist candidate in a Scottish Borders constituency; he supported free trade, women's suffrage, national insurance, and curtailing the powers of the House of Lords,^[8] though he did also oppose the welfare reforms of the Liberal Party, and what he considered to be the "class hatred" fostered by demagogic Liberals such as David Lloyd George.^[9]

With the outbreak of the First World War, Buchan went to write for the British War Propaganda Bureau and worked as a correspondent in France for The Times. He continued to write fiction, and in 1915 published his most famous work, The Thirty-Nine Steps, a spy-thriller set just prior to World War I. The novel featured Buchan's oft used hero, Richard Hannay, whose character was based on Edmund Ironside, a friend of Buchan from his days in South Africa. A sequel, Greenmantle, came the following year. Buchan then enlisted in the British Army and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Intelligence Corps, where he wrote speeches and communiqués for Sir Douglas Haig. Recognised for his abilities, Buchan was appointed as the Director of Information in 1917, under the Lord Beaverbrook^[6] — a job that Buchan said was "the toughest job I ever took on"^[10] — and also assisted Charles Masterman in publishing a monthly magazine that detailed the history of the war, the first edition appearing in February 1915 (and later published in 24 volumes as Nelson's History of the War). It was difficult, given his close connections to many of Britain's military leaders, for Buchan to be critical of the British Army's conduct during the conflict.^[11]

Following the close of the war, Buchan turned his attention to writing on historical subjects, along with his usual thrillers and novels. By the mid-1920s, he was living in Elsfield and had become president of the Scottish Historical Society and a trustee of the National Library of Scotland,^[6] and he also maintained ties with various universities. Robert Graves, who lived in nearby Islip, mentioned his being recommended by Buchan for a lecturing position at the newly founded Cairo University and, in a 1927 by-election, Buchan was elected as the Unionist Party Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities. Politically, he was of the Unionist-Nationalist tradition, believing in Scotland's promotion as a nation within the British Empire. Buchan remarked in a speech to parliament: "I believe every Scotsman should be a Scottish nationalist. If it could be proved that a Scottish parliament were desirable... Scotsmen should support it."^[12] The effects of the Great Depression in Scotland, and the subsequent high emigration from that country, also led Buchan to reflect in the same speech: "We do not want to be like the Greeks, powerful and prosperous wherever we settle, but with a dead Greece behind us,"^[13] and he found himself profoundly affected by John Morley's Life of Gladstone, which Buchan read in the early months of the Second World War. He believed that Gladstone had taught people to combat materialism, complacency, and authoritarianism; Buchan later wrote to Herbert Fisher, Stair Gillon, and Gilbert Murray that he was "becoming a Gladstonian Liberal."^[14]

After the United Free Church of Scotland joined in 1929 with the Church of Scotland, Buchan remained an active elder of St. Columba's Church in London, as well as of the Oxford Presbyterian parish. In 1933 and 1934, Buchan was further appointed as the King George V's Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Beginning in 1930, Buchan aligned himself with Zionism and the related Palestine All Party Parliamentary Group.^[15] In recognition of his contributions to literature and education, on 1 January 1932, Buchan was granted the personal gift of the sovereign of induction into the Order of the Companions of Honour.^[16]

In 1935, Buchan's literary work was adapted to the cinematic theatre with the completion of Alfred Hitchcock's The 39 Steps, starring Robert Donat as Richard Hannay, though with Buchan's story much altered. This came in the same year that Buchan was honoured with appointment to the Order of St. Michael and St. George on 23 May,^[17] as well as being elevated to the peerage, when he was entitled by King George V as Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in the County of Oxford on 1 June.^[18] This had been done in preparation for Buchan's appointment as Canada's governor general; when consulted by Canadian prime minister Richard Bedford Bennett about the appointment, the Leader of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition, William Lyon Mackenzie King, had recommended that the King allow Buchan to serve as viceroy as a commoner,^[19] but George V insisted that he be represented by a peer.

Buchan's name had been earlier put forward by Mackenzie King to George V as a candidate for the governor generalcy: Buchan and his wife had been guests of Mackenzie King's at his estate, Kingsmere, in 1924, and Mackenzie King, who at that time was prime minister, was impressed with Buchan, stating, "I know no man I would rather have as a friend, a beautiful, noble soul, kindly & generous in thought & word & act, informed as few men in this world have ever been, modest, humble, true, man after God's own heart." One evening in the following year, the Prime Minister mentioned to Governor General the Lord Byng of Vimy that Buchan would be a suitable successor to Byng, with which the Governor General agreed, the two being friends. Word of this reached the British Cabinet, and Buchan was approached, but he was reluctant to take the posting; Byng had been writing to Buchan about the constitutional dispute that took place in June 1926 and spoke disparagingly of Mackenzie King.^[20]

Governor General of Canada[link]

Mackenzie King delivers an address at the installation of the Lord Tweedsmuir as Governor General of Canada, 2 November 1935

The Lord Tweedsmuir in Native headdress, 1937 (photo by Yousuf Karsh)

It was announced from the Canadian prime minister's office on 10 August 1935 that the King had approved Bennett's recommendation of Buchan as the viceregal representative by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet. Buchan then departed for Canada and was sworn in as the country's governor general in a ceremony on 2 November 1935 in the salon rouge of the parliament buildings of Quebec. Buchan was the first viceroy of Canada appointed since the enactment of the Statute of Westminster on 11 December 1931, and was thus the first to have been decided on solely by the monarch of Canada in his Canadian council.

Buchan continued writing during his time as governor general, but he also thereafter took his position as viceroy seriously and from the outset made it his goal to travel the length and breadth of Canada, including, for the first time for a governor general,^[3] the arctic regions; he said of his job: "a Governor General is in a unique position for it is his duty to know the whole of Canada and all the various types of her people." Buchan also encouraged a distinct Canadian identity and national unity, despite the ongoing Great Depression and the difficulty which it caused for the population.^[6] Not all Canadians shared Buchan's views; he raised the ire of imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937: "a Canadian's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada's King,"^[21] a statement that the Montreal Gazette dubbed as "disloyal."^[22] Buchan maintained and recited his idea that ethnic groups "should retain their individuality and each make its contribution to the national character," and "the strongest nations are those that are made up of different racial elements."^[23]

The following year proved to be a tumultuous one for the monarchy that Buchan represented. In late January, George V died, and his eldest son, the popular Prince Edward, succeeded to the throne as Edward VIII, while Rideau Hall — the royal and viceroyal residence in Ottawa — was decked in black crepe and all formal entertaining was cancelled during the official period of mourning. As the year unfolded, it became evident that the new king planned to marry American divorcée Wallis Simpson, which caused much discontentment throughout the Dominions. Buchan conveyed to Buckingham Palace and British prime minister Stanley Baldwin Canadians' deep affection for the King, but also the outrage to Canadian religious feelings, both Catholic and Protestant, that would occur if Edward married Simpson.^[24] By 11 December, King Edward had abdicated in favour of his younger brother, Prince Albert, Duke of York, who was thereafter known as George VI. In order for the line of succession for Canada to remain parallel to those of the other Dominions, Buchan, as Governor-in-Council, gave the government's consent to the British legislation formalising the abdication, and ratified this with finality when he granted Royal Assent to the Canadian Succession to the Throne Act in 1937 .^[25]

In May and June 1939, the new king and his royal consort toured the country from coast to coast and paid a state visit to the United States on behalf of Canada. The royal tour had been conceived by Buchan before the coronation in 1937; according to the official event historian, Gustave Lanctot, the idea "probably grew out of the knowledge that as his coming Coronation, George VI was to assume the additional title of King of Canada," and Buchan desired to demonstrate with living example — through Canadians seeing "their King performing royal functions, supported by his Canadian ministers" — the fact of Canada's status as an independent kingdom.^[26] Buchan put great effort into securing a positive response to the invitation sent to King George in May 1937; after more than a year without a reply, in June 1938 Buchan headed to the United Kingdom for personal holidays, but also to procure a decision on the possible royal tour. From his home near Oxford, Buchan wrote to Mackenzie King: "The important question for me is, of course, the King's visit to Canada." After a period of convalescence at Ruthin Castle, Buchan, in October, sailed back to Canada with a secured commitment that the royal couple would tour the country. Though he had been a significant contributor to the organisation of the trip, Buchan retired to Rideau Hall for the duration of the royal tour; Buchan expressed the view that while the King of Canada was present, "I cease to exist as Viceroy, and retain only a shadowy legal existence as Governor-General in Council."^[26] In Canada itself, the royal couple took part in public events such as the opening of the Lions Gate Bridge in May 1939.

Another factor behind the tour was public relations: the presence of the royal couple in Canada and the United States, was calculated to shore up sympathy for Britain in anticipation of hostilities with Germany. Buchan's experiences during the First World War made him averse to conflict, he tried to help prevent another war in coordination with United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mackenzie King. Still, Buchan authorised Canada's declaration of war against Germany in September, shortly after the British declaration of war and with the consent of King George; and, thereafter, issued orders of deployment for Canadian soldiers, airmen, and seamen as the titular commander-in-chief of the Canadian armed forces.

These duties would not burden Buchan for long, as, on 6 February 1940, he suffered a severe head injury when he fell during a stroke at Rideau Hall. Two surgeries by Doctor Wilder Penfield of the Montreal Neurological Institute were insufficient to save him, and his death on 11 February was eulogised on the radio by Mackenzie King: "In the passing of His Excellency, the people of Canada have lost one of the greatest and most revered of their Governors General, and a friend who, from the day of his arrival in this country, dedicated his life to their service." The Governor General had formed a strong bond with his prime minister, even if it may have been built more on political admiration than personal friendship; while Mackenzie King appreciated his "sterling rectitude and disinterested purpose,"^[3] despite being wary of Buchan's vices (such as his penchant for titles),

After lying in state in the Senate chamber on Parliament Hill, the state funeral for Buchan was held at St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church in Ottawa. Buchan's ashes were returned to the UK aboard the cruiser HMS Orion for final burial at Elsfield, his family estate in Oxfordshire.

Legacy[link]

In his last years, Buchan, amongst other works, wrote an autobiography, Memory Hold-the-Door, as well as works on the history and his views of Canada. He and Baroness Tweedsmuir together established the first proper library at Rideau Hall, and, with his wife's encouragement, Buchan founded the Governor General's Literary Awards, which remain Canada's premier award for literature.^[6]

Buchan's 100 works include nearly thirty novels, seven collections of short stories, and biographies of Sir Walter Scott, Caesar Augustus, and Oliver Cromwell. Buchan was awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his biography of the Marquess of Montrose, but the most famous of his books were the spy thrillers, and it is for these that he is now best remembered. The "last Buchan" (as Graham Greene entitled his appreciative review) was the 1941 novel Sick Heart River (American title: Mountain Meadow), in which a dying protagonist confronts the questions of the meaning of life in the Canadian wilderness. The insightful quotation, "It's a great life, if you don't weaken," is famously attributed to Buchan,^[27] as is, "No great cause is ever lost or won, The battle must always be renewed, And the creed must always be restated."^[28]

Tweedsmuir Provincial Park in British Columbia, now divided into Tweedsmuir South Provincial Park and Tweedsmuir North Provincial Park and Protected Area, was created in 1938 to commemorate Buchan's 1937 visit to the Rainbow Range and other nearby areas by horseback and floatplane. In the foreword to a booklet published to commemorate his visit, he wrote, "I have now travelled over most of Canada and have seen many wonderful things, but I have seen nothing more beautiful and more wonderful than the great park which British Columbia has done me the honour to call by my name".^[29]

Titles, styles and honours[link]

Titles[link]

Viceregal styles of The Lord Tweedsmuir (1935–1940)
Reference style	His Excellency the Right Honourable Son Excellence le très honourable
Spoken style	Your Excellency Votre Excellence
Alternative style	Sir Monsieur

United Kingdom

• 25 August 1875 – 3 June 1935: Mister John Buchan or John Buchan, Esquire^{[dubious – discuss]}
• 3 June 1935 – 11 February 1940: The Right Honourable the Lord Tweedsmuir

Canada

• 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940: His Excellency the Right Honourable the Lord Tweedsmuir, Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of the Militia and Naval and Air Forces of Canada

Honours[link]

Ribbon bars of the Lord Tweedsmuir

Appointments

• 1 January 1932 – 11 February 1940: Companion of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH)
• 23 May 1935 – 11 February 1940: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (GCMG)
• 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940: Chief Scout for Canada
• 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club
• 28 May 1937 – 11 February 1940: Member of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC)^[30]
• 15 June 1939 – 11 February 1940: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)^[30]
• : Honorary Fellow of Oxford University

Medals

• 1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal
• 1937: King George VI Coronation Medal

Awards

• 1897: Stanhope essay prize
• 1898: Newdigate Prize
• 1928: James Tait Black Memorial Prize
• 4 December 1940: Silver Wolf Award (posthumous)^[30]

Foreign honours

• 15 December 1918 – 11 February 1940: Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy^[30]

Non-national honours

• 1937 – 11 February 1940: Master of the Order of Good Cheer

Honorary military appointments[link]

• 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940: Colonel of the Regiment of the Governor General's Horse Guards
• 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940: Colonel of the Regiment of the Governor General's Foot Guards
• 2 November 1935 – 11 February 1940: Colonel of the Regiment of the Canadian Grenadier Guards

Honorary degrees[link]

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

• 20 June 1934: University of Oxford, Doctor of Civil Law (DCL)^[30]
• 1936: University of Toronto, Doctor of Laws (LLD)^[31]
• 1936: University of Toronto, Doctor of Divinity (DD)^[31]
• 1937: Harvard University, Doctor of Laws (LLD)^[26]
• 1937: Yale University, Doctor of Laws (LLD)^[26]
• : McGill University, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
• : Université de Montréal, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
• : University of Glasgow, Doctor of Laws (LLD)
• : University of St. Andrews, Doctor of Laws (LLD)

Honorific eponyms[link]

Geographic locations

•  British Columbia: Tweedsmuir South Provincial Park
•  British Columbia: Tweedsmuir North Provincial Park and Protected Area
•  British Columbia: Tweedsmuir Peak^[32]
•  Ontario: Tweedsmuir Avenue, Ottawa
•  Manitoba: Tweedsmuir Place, Pinawa
•  Saskatchewan: Tweedsmuir
•  Scotland: John Buchan Way, Broughton^[33]

Schools

•  Alberta: Strathcona-Tweedsmuir School, Okotoks
•  British Columbia: Lord Tweedsmuir Secondary School, Surrey
•  British Columbia: Tweedsmuir Hall (student residence), University of British Columbia
•  Ontario: John Buchan Senior Public School, Toronto
•  Ontario: Tweedsmuir Public School, North Bay

Organisations

•  Scotland: John Buchan Centre, Broughton^[34]

List of principal works[link]

Fiction[link]

• Sir Quixote of the Moors (1896)
• John Burnet of Barns (1898)
• No-Man's Land (1899)
• Grey Weather (1899)
• A Lost Lady of Old Years (1899)
• The Half-Hearted (1900)
• The Watcher by the Threshold (1902)
• A Lodge in the Wilderness (1906)
• Prester John (1910)
• The Moon Endureth (1912)
• Salute to Adventurers (1915)
• The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915)
• The Power House (1916)
• Greenmantle (1916)
• Mr Standfast (1919)
• The Path of the King (1921)
• Huntingtower (1922)
• Midwinter (1923)
• The Three Hostages (1924)
• John Macnab (1925)
• The Dancing Floor (1926)
• Witch Wood (1927)
• The Runagates Club (1928)
• The Courts of the Morning (1929)
• Castle Gay (1930)
• The Blanket of the Dark (1931)
• The Gap in the Curtain (1932)
• The Magic Walking Stick (1932)
• A Prince of the Captivity (1933)
• The Free Fishers (1934)
• The House of the Four Winds (1935)
• The Island of Sheep (1936)
• Sick Heart River (US title: Mountain Meadow) (1941)
• The Long Traverse (US title: Lake of Gold) (1941)
• The Far Islands and Other Tales of Fantasy (1984)

Non-fiction[link]

• Scholar-Gipsies (1896)
• The African Colony (1903)
• The Law Relating to the Taxation of Foreign Income (1905)
• Some Eighteenth Century Byways (1908)
• Sir Walter Raleigh (1911)
• What the Home Rule Bill Means (1912)
• The Marquis of Montrose (1913)
• Andrew Jameson, Lord Ardwall (1913)
• Nelson's History Of The War. 24 volumes (1914–1919)
• Britain's War by Land (1915)
• The Achievement of France (1915)
• Ordeal by Marriage (1915)
• The Future of the War (1916)
• The Battle of the Somme, First Phase (1916)
• The Purpose of War (1916)
• The Battle of Jutland (1916)
• Poems, Scots and English (1917)
• The Battle of the Somme, Second Phase (1917)
• These for Remembrance (1919)
• The Battle Honours of Scotland 1914–1918 (1919)
• The History of the South African Forces in France (1920)
• Francis and Riversdale Grenfell (1920)
• The Long Road to Victory (1920)
• A History of the Great War (1922)
• A Book of Escapes and Hurried Journeys (1922)
• The Last Secrets (1923)
• A History of English Literature (1923)
• Days to Remember (1923)
• Some Notes on Sir Walter Scott (1924)
• Lord Minto, a Memoir (1924)
• The History of the Royal Scots Fusiliers 1678–1918 (1925)
• The Man and the Book: Sir Walter Scott (1925)
• Two Ordeals of Democracy (1925)
• Homilies and Recreations (1926)
• The Kirk in Scotland (with George Adam Smith) (1930)
• Montrose and Leadership (1930)
• Lord Rosebery, 1847–1929 (1930)
• The Novel and the Fairy Tale (1931)
• Julius Caesar (1932)
• Andrew Lang and the Borders (1932)
• The Massacre of Glencoe (1933)
• The Margins of Life (1933)
• Gordon at Khartoum (1934)
• Oliver Cromwell (1934)
• The King's Grace (1935)
• Augustus (1937)
• The Interpreter's House (1938)
• Presbyterianism Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow (1938)
• Memory Hold-the-Door (US title: Pilgrim's Way) (1940)
• Comments and Characters (1940)
• Canadian Occasions (1940)

See also[link]

• List of Scottish novelists
• List of European mystery writers

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Daniell, David, The Interpreter's House: A Critical Assessment of John Buchan (Nelson, 1975) ISBN 0-17-146051-0
• Lownie, Andrew, John Buchan: The Presbyterian Cavalier (David R. Godine Publisher, 2003) ISBN 1-56792-236-8
• Macdonald, Kate, John Buchan: A Companion to the Mystery Fiction (McFarland & Company, 2009) ISBN 978-0-7864-3489-3
• Macdonald, Kate (ed.), Reassessing John Buchan: Beyond 'The Thirty-Nine Steps' (Pickering & Chatto, 2009) ISBN 978-1-85196-998-2
• Smith, Janet Adam, John Buchan: A Biography (1965) (Oxford University Press, reissue 1985) ISBN 0-19-281866-X
• Waddell, Nathan, Modern John Buchan: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009) ISBN 978-1-4438-1370-9

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir

Wikisource has original works written by or about: John Buchan

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: John Buchan

• Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Lord Tweedsmuir
• Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Lord Tweedsmuir
• The Canadian Encyclopedia entry for Lord Tweedsmuir
• The John Buchan Society
• John Buchan Radio Plays
• John Buchan Museum
• Buchanalia
• Project Gutenberg Australia entry for the works of John Buchan
• Works by John Buchan at Project Gutenberg
• John Buchan at the Internet Movie Database
• "Man on the Run" Thrillers: A Checklist by David L. Vineyard.

v t e    Governors General of Canada Monck Lisgar Dufferin Lorne Lansdowne Stanley Aberdeen Minto Grey Connaught Devonshire Byng Willingdon Bessborough Tweedsmuir Athlone Alexander Massey Vanier Michener Léger Schreyer Sauvé Hnatyshyn LeBlanc Clarkson Jean Johnston

Upton Sinclair
Born	(1878-09-20)September 20, 1878 Baltimore, Maryland
Died	November 25, 1968(1968-11-25) (aged 90) Bound Brook, New Jersey
Occupation	Novelist, writer, journalist, political activist
Nationality	American
Spouse(s)	Meta Fuller (1902-1911) Mary Craig Kimbrough, (1913-1961) Mary Elizabeth Willis (1961-1967)
Signature

Upton Beall Sinclair Jr. (September 20, 1878 – November 25, 1968), was an American author and one-time candidate for governor of California who wrote close to one hundred books in many genres. He achieved popularity in the first half of the twentieth century, acquiring particular fame for his classic muckraking novel, The Jungle (1906). It exposed conditions in the U.S. meat packing industry, causing a public uproar that contributed in part to the passage a few months later of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act.^[1] Time magazine called him "a man with every gift except humor and silence."^[2]

Early life and education[link]

Sinclair was born in Baltimore, Maryland to Upton Beall Sinclair and Priscilla Harden. His father was a liquor salesman whose alcoholism shadowed his son's childhood. Priscilla Harden Sinclair was a strict Episcopalian who disliked alcohol, tea, and coffee. Her lineage was of great affluence. Her parents were very prosperous in Baltimore and her sister married a millionaire. Sinclair had wealthy grandparents with whom he often stayed. This gave him insight into how both the rich and the poor lived during the late nineteenth century. Living in two social settings affected him and greatly influenced his books. Upton Beall Sinclair Sr. was also from a highly respected family in the south, but due to the Civil War and Reconstruction, the family's wealth evaporated and the family became ruined.

Growing up, Upton Sinclair's family would move around continuously due to the fact that Sinclair Sr. wasn't successful. Sinclair Jr. developed a love for reading at an early age of five years old. He read every book that his mother owned for a deeper understanding of the world. In 1888, the Sinclair family moved to Queens, New York, where his father sold shoes and where Sinclair entered the City College of New York, at the age of fourteen. He wrote jokes, dime novels and magazine articles in boy's weekly and pulp magazines to pay for his tuition.^[3]

He graduated in 1897 and then studied for a time at Columbia University.^[4] He was there majoring in law, but he was more interested in writing, and he learned several languages such as German, Spanish and French. On a good day, he would write at least one thousand words a day. He wrote a book, entitled Manassas. It was about the Civil War. He did this while still attending Columbia University.

Career[link]

Upton Sinclair early in his career.

Upton Sinclair wearing a white suit and black armband, picketing the Rockefeller Building in New York City.

In 1904, Sinclair spent seven weeks in disguise, working undercover in Chicago's meatpacking plants to research his political fiction exposé, The Jungle. When it was published two years later, it became a bestseller. With the income from The Jungle, Sinclair founded the utopian Helicon Home Colony in Englewood, New Jersey. He ran as a Socialist candidate for Congress.^[5][6] The colony burned down under suspicious circumstances within a year.^[7]

During his years with his second wife, Mary Craig, Sinclair wrote or produced several films. Recruited by Charlie Chaplin, Sinclair and Mary Craig produced Eisenstein's ¡Qué viva México! in 1930-32.^{[8][9][10][11]}

The Sinclairs moved to California in the 1920s and lived there for nearly four decades. Late in life Sinclair, with his third wife, moved to Buckeye, Arizona, and then to Bound Brook, New Jersey. Sinclair died there in a nursing home on November 25, 1968.^[12] He is buried in Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C., next to his third wife, Mary Willis, who had died a year before him.

Upton Sinclair selling the "Fig Leaf Edition" of his book Oil! in Boston

Sinclair's grave in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C.