The surviving facade of the Manchester Free Trade Hall, July 2005. The rear of the building (itself a post-war reconstruction) has been demolished and replaced by a hotel.

The Free Trade Hall, Peter Street, Manchester, was a public hall constructed in 1853–6 on St Peter's Fields, the site of the Peterloo Massacre and is now a hotel. The hall was built to commemorate the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. The architect was Edward Walters.^[1] The hall subsequently was owned by Manchester Corporation, was bombed in the Manchester Blitz and rebuilt. It was Manchester's premier concert venue until the construction of the Bridgewater Hall in 1996. It was designated a Grade II* listed building on 18 December 1963.^[2]

History[link]

The Free Trade Hall was built as a public hall between 1853 and 1856 by Edward Walters on land given by Richard Cobden in St Peter's Fields, the site of the Peterloo Massacre. Two earlier halls had been constructed on the site, one, a large timber pavilion built in 1840, and its brick replacement of 1842.^[2][3] The halls were "vital to Manchester's considerable role in the long campaign for the repeal of the Corn Laws."^[1] The hall was funded by public subscription and became a concert hall and home of the Hallé Orchestra in 1858. A blue plaque records it was built on the site of the Peterloo Massacre in 1819.^[2]

It was bought by Manchester Corporation in 1920; but was bombed and left an empty shell in the Manchester Blitz of December 1940. A new hall was constructed behind the original facade in 1950–51 by Manchester City Council's architect, L.C. Howitt,^[4] opening as a concert hall in 1951. As well as housing the Hallé Orchestra, it was used for pop and rock concerts. A Wurlitzer organ from the Paramount Cinema in Manchester was installed over four years and first used in public in a BBC programme in September 1977. When the hall closed the organ, which was on loan to the to the City of Manchester, was moved to the Great Hall in Stockport Town Hall.^[5] The Hallé Orchestra moved to the Bridgewater Hall in 1996 and the Free Trade Hall was closed by the city council.

In 1997, the building was sold by Manchester City Council to private developers, despite resistance from local groups such as the Manchester Civic Society who viewed the sale as inappropriate given the historical significance of the building and its site. After the initial planning application was refused by the Secretary of State, a second and drastically modified planning application was submitted and approved. Walters' original facade was retained, behind which architects Stephenson Bell designed the 263-bedroom Radisson Edwardian Hotel; demolishing entirely Howitt's post war hall, although preserving in the main staircase the 1950s statues that were formerly attached to its rear wall. The hotel opened in 2004 at a cost of £45 million.^[3]

Architecture[link]

The Italian palazzo-style hall was built on a trapeziform site in ashlar sandstone. It has a two-storey, nine-bay facade and concealed roof on Peter Street with an arcaded ground floor with rectangular piers with round-headed arches and spandrels with the coats of arms of the Lancashire towns which took part in the Anti-Corn Law movement. The upper floor has a colonnaded arcade, its tympana frieze is richly decorated with carved figures representing free trade, the arts, commerce, manufacture and the continents. Above the tympanum is a prominent cornice with balustraded parapet. The upper floor has paired Ionic columns to each bay and a tall window with a pedimented architrave behind a balustraded balcony.^[2] The return sides have three bays in a matching but simpler style of blank arches. The rear wall was rebuilt in 1950–51 with pilasters surmounted by relief figures representing the entertainment which took place in the old hall. The Large Hall was in a classical style with a coffered ceiling, the walls had wood panelling in oak, walnut and sycamore. Pevsner described it as "the noblest monument in the Cinquecento style in England",^[4] whilst Hartwell considered it "a classic which belongs in the canon of historic English architecture."

After its closure, the hall was sold and after a protracted planning process and consultations with English Heritage, its conversion to a hotel was agreed. During the hotel's construction, the Windmill Street and Southmill Street facades were demolished and the north block retained and connected by a triangular glazed atrium to a new 15-storey block clad in stone and glass. Artifacts salvaged from the old hall, including 1950s statues by Arthur Sherwood Edwards and framed wall plaster autographed by past performers, decorate the atrium light well.^[3]

Events[link]

A commemorative blue plaque on the side of the Manchester Free Trade Hall, September 2006

The Free Trade Hall was a venue for public meetings and political speeches and a concert hall. In 1904, Winston Churchill delivered a speech at the hall defending Britain's policy of free trade. The Times called it, "one of the most powerful and brilliant he has made."^[6] In 1905 the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) activists, Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney were ejected from a meeting in the hall addressed by the Liberal politician Sir Edward Grey, who repeatedly refused to answer their question on Votes for Women. Christabel Pankhurst immediately began an impromptu meeting outside, and when the police moved them on, contrived to be arrested and brought to court. So began the militant WSPU campaign for the vote.

Kathleen Ferrier sang at the re-opening of the Free Trade Hall in 1951, ending with a performance of Elgar's Land of Hope and Glory, the only performance of that piece in her career.

Bob Dylan played on 17 May 1966, at the height of the controversy over his perceived betrayal of his folk roots.^{[citation needed]} Pink Floyd played there on five occasions: on 16 June 1969 during the Man/Journey tour; on 21 December 1970 during the Atom Heart Mother tour; on 11 February 1972 during the preview tour for The Dark Side of the Moon, during which the power failed and the show had to be abandoned – however, the group returned on 29 and 30 March.^{[citation needed]} Genesis recorded a portion of its first live album, Genesis Live, there in February 1973.

On 4 June 1976, the Lesser Free Trade Hall was the venue for a concert by the Sex Pistols attended by 40 people which became legendary as a catalyst to the punk rock movement and New Wave. A second concert there was attended by many more people on 20 July 1976.^[7]

See also[link]

• Radisson Hotels
• Grade II* listed buildings in Greater Manchester

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Hartwell, Clare (2001), Manchester, Pevsner Architectural Guides, London: Penguin, ISBN 0-14-071131-7 

External links[link]

• Free Trade, Chartism and the Anti-Corn Law League in Manchester
• Manchester People Free the Free Trade Hall

Coordinates: 53°28′40″N 2°14′50″W / 53.47778°N 2.24722°W / 53.47778; -2.24722

A series on Trade
World trade
Policy Import Export Balance of trade Comparative advantage Trade law Trade pact Trade bloc Trade creation Trade diversion Export orientation Import substitution Trade finance Trade facilitation Trade route Domestic trade Tax, tariff and trade
Restriction Trade barriers Tariffs Non-tariff barriers Import quotas Tariff-rate quotas Quota share Import licenses Customs duties Export subsidies Technical barriers Bribery Exchange rate controls Embargo Safeguards Countervailing duties Anti-dumping duties Voluntary export restraints
History Mercantilism Protectionism Laissez-faire Free trade Economic nationalism Economic integration
Organizations World Trade Organization World Customs Organization International Monetary Fund Preferential trading area Free trade area Customs union Single market Economic union Monetary union Fiscal union Customs and monetary union Economic and monetary union
Issues Intellectual property rights Smuggling Competition policy Government procurement Outsourcing Globalization Fair trade Trade justice Emissions trading Trade sanctions War Currency Customs Trade Trade and development
Lists Imports Exports Tariffs Largest consumer markets Leading trade partners
By Country Trade mission Trading nation United States Argentina Pakistan Romania Vietnam India
v t e

Free trade is a policy by which a government does not discriminate against imports or interfere with exports by applying tariffs (to imports) or subsidies (to exports) or quotas. According to the law of comparative advantage the policy permits trading partners mutual gains from trade of goods and services.^{[citation needed]}

Under a free trade policy, prices emerge from supply and demand, and are the sole determinant of resource allocation. 'Free' trade differs from other forms of trade policy where the allocation of goods and services among trading countries are determined by price strategies that may differ from those that would emerge under deregulation. These governed prices are the result of government intervention in the market through price adjustments or supply restrictions, including protectionist policies. Such government interventions can increase as well as decrease the cost of goods and services to both consumers and producers.^{[citation needed]} Since the mid-20th century, nations have increasingly reduced tariff barriers and currency restrictions on international trade. Other barriers, however, that may be equally effective in hindering trade include import quotas, taxes, and diverse means of subsidizing domestic industries. Interventions include subsidies, taxes and tariffs, non-tariff barriers, such as regulatory legislation and import quotas, and even inter-government managed trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) (contrary to their formal titles) and any governmental market intervention resulting in artificial prices.^{[citation needed]}

Features of free trade[link]

Free trade implies the following features:^{[citation needed]}

• Trade of goods without taxes (including tariffs) or other trade barriers (e.g., quotas on imports or subsidies for producers)
• Trade in services without taxes or other trade barriers
• The absence of "trade-distorting" policies (such as taxes, subsidies, regulations, or laws) that give some firms, households, or factors of production an advantage over others
• Free access to markets
• Free access to market information
• Inability of firms to distort markets through government-imposed monopoly or oligopoly power

Economics of free trade[link]

Economic models[link]

Two simple ways to understand the proposed benefits of free trade are through David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage and by analyzing the impact of a tariff or import quota. An economic analysis using the law of supply and demand and the economic effects of a tax can be used to show the theoretical benefits and disadvantages of free trade.^[1][2]

Widgets cannot be produced to the right of the Supply curve.

The pink regions are the net loss to society caused by the existence of the tariff.

Advantages of tariffs[link]

This graph demonstrates the benefits of tariffs to a domestic industry. Assume that Japan wants to protect a domestic industry that is only able to produce and sell widgets at the price P_tariff. Since there are other countries that are exporting the same widgets at a price of P_world, Japan's industry is threatened to go out of business should widgets be imported into their country without a tariff. This graph also shows that as long as P_tariff does not fall above the intersection of the Supply and Demand lines, then an equilibrium can be reached in which there are no shortages of demand or excesses of supply, and so Japan's industry can produce and sell widgets to the same degree as manufacturers in any other country.^[2][3]

In this case, the higher price would not cause domestic production to increase from Q_S1 to Q_S2, since it has already been assumed in our example that Japan cannot afford to enter the widget market below the price P_tariff as the world economy has for price P_world. The effect of the tariff would limit imports and create a higher demand for domestically produced widgets (Q_S2 - Q_S1) but have no effect on consumer prices, since the graph shows that for all quantities to the left of the intersection of the Supply and Demand curves, consumers will buy whatever widgets enter the market. As increasing widget sales allow more widget producers to enter the market and the quantity of imported + domestic widgets in Japan approaches Q_E then the tariff can be phased out since the market will be at equilibrium (E) and the P_E market price will be enough for Japan's widget manufacturers to stay in business.^[4]

Currently, the World Bank believes that, at most, rates of 20% can be allowed by developing nations^{[citation needed]}; but Ha-Joon Chang believes higher levels may be justified because the productivity gap between developing and developed nations is much higher than the productivity gap which industrial countries faced. (A general feature is that the underdeveloped nations of today are not in the same position that the developed nations were in when they had a similar level of technology, because they are weak players in a competitive system; the developed nations have always been strong players, although formerly at an overall lower level.^[5]

Counter arguments to this point of view are that the developing countries are able to adopt technologies from abroad, whereas developed nations had to create new technologies themselves, and that developing countries have far richer markets to which to export than was the case in the 19th century.) If the main defense of tariffs is to stimulate infant industries, a tariff must be high enough to allow domestic manufactured goods to compete for the tariff to be successful. This theory, known as import substitution industrialization, is largely considered ineffective for currently developing nations.^[6]

Disadvantages of tariffs[link]

This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Please help to ensure that disputed facts are reliably sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page.

The chart at the right analyzes the effect of the imposition of an import tariff on some imaginary good. Prior to the tariff, the price of the good in the world market (and hence in the domestic market) is P^world. The tariff increases the domestic price to P^tariff. The higher price causes domestic production to increase from Q^S1 to Q^S2 and causes domestic consumption to decline from Q^C1 to Q^C2.^[4][7]

This has three main effects on societal welfare. Consumers are made worse off because the consumer surplus (green region) becomes smaller. Producers are better off because the producer surplus (yellow region) is made larger. The government also has additional tax revenue (blue region). However, the loss to consumers is greater than the gains by producers and the government. The magnitude of this societal loss is shown by the two pink triangles. Removing the tariff and having free trade would be a net gain for society.^[4][7]

An almost identical analysis of this tariff from the perspective of a net producing country yields parallel results. From that country's perspective, the tariff leaves producers worse off and consumers better off, but the net loss to producers is larger than the benefit to consumers (there is no tax revenue in this case because the country being analyzed is not collecting the tariff). Under similar analysis, export tariffs, import quotas, and export quotas all yield nearly identical results.^[1]

Sometimes consumers are better off and producers worse off, and sometimes consumers are worse off and producers are better off, but the imposition of trade restrictions causes a net loss to society because the losses from trade restrictions are larger than the gains from trade restrictions. Free trade creates winners and losers, but theory and empirical evidence show that the size of the winnings from free trade are larger than the losses.^[1]

Trade diversion[link]

This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Please help to ensure that disputed facts are reliably sourced. See the relevant discussion on the talk page.

According to mainstream economic theory, the selective application of free trade agreements to some countries and tariffs on others can sometimes lead to economic inefficiency through the process of trade diversion. It is economically efficient to produce a good in the country that can make it for the lowest cost, but this does not always take place if a high cost producer has a free trade agreement while the low cost producer faces a high tariff. Applying free trade to the high cost producer (and not the low cost producer as well) can lead to trade diversion and a net economic loss. This is why many economists place such high importance on negotiations for global tariff reductions, such as the Doha Round.^[1]

Opinion of economists[link]

The literature analysing the economics of free trade is extremely rich with extensive work having been done on the theoretical and empirical effects. Though it creates winners and losers, the broad consensus among members of the economics profession in the U.S. is that free trade is a large and unambiguous net gain for society.^{[8] [9]} In a 2006 survey of American economists (83 responders), "87.5% agree that the U.S. should eliminate remaining tariffs and other barriers to trade" and "90.1% disagree with the suggestion that the U.S. should restrict employers from outsourcing work to foreign countries."^[10]

Quoting Harvard economics professor N. Gregory Mankiw, "Few propositions command as much consensus among professional economists as that open world trade increases economic growth and raises living standards."^[11] Nonetheless, quoting Prof. Peter Soderbaum of Malardalen University, Sweden, "This neoclassical trade theory focuses on one dimension, i.e., the price at which a commodity can be delivered and is extremely narrow in cutting off a large number of other considerations about impacts on employment in different parts of the world, about environmental impacts and on culture."^[12]

Most free traders would agree that although increasing returns to scale might mean that certain industry could settle in a geographical area without any strong economic reason derived from comparative advantage, this is not a reason to argue against free trade because the absolute level of output enjoyed by both "winner" and "loser" will increase with the "winner" gaining more than the "loser" but both gaining more than before in an absolute level.

One critique of free trade is the infant industry argument. The argument advances that protectionism is frequently required to allow growth of nascent industries, as their competitors already employ significant economics of scale by virtue of their size or other factors after a long period of growth.^[13]

History[link]

Early era[link]

David Ricardo.

Before the appearance of free trade doctrine, and continuing in opposition to it to this day, the policy of mercantilism had developed in Europe in the 16th century. Two early British economists who were opposed to mercantilism were Adam Smith and David Ricardo.

Economists that advocated free trade believed trade was the reason why certain civilizations prospered economically. Adam Smith, for example, pointed to increased trading as being the reason for the flourishing of not just Mediterranean cultures such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome, but also of Bengal (East India) and China. The great prosperity of the Netherlands after throwing off Spanish Imperial rule and pursuing a policy of free trade^[14] made the free trade/mercantilist dispute the most important question in economics for centuries. Free trade policies have battled with mercantilist, protectionist, isolationist, communist, populist, and other policies over the centuries.

Trade in colonial America was regulated by the British mercantile system through the Acts of Trade and Navigation. Until the 1760s, few colonists openly advocated for free trade, in part because regulations were not strictly enforced—New England was famous for smuggling—but also because colonial merchants did not want to compete with foreign goods and shipping. According to historian Oliver Dickerson, a desire for free trade was not one of the causes of the American Revolution. "The idea that the basic mercantile practices of the eighteenth century were wrong," wrote Dickerson, "was not a part of the thinking of the Revolutionary leaders".^[15]

Free trade came to what would become the United States as a result of American Revolutionary War, when the British Parliament issued the Prohibitory Act, blockading colonial ports. The Continental Congress responded by effectively declaring economic independence, opening American ports to foreign trade on April 6, 1776. According to historian John W. Tyler, "Free trade had been forced on the Americans, like it or not."^[16]

The 1st U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, advocated tariffs to help protect infant industries in his "Report on Manufactures." This was a minority position, though the "Jeffersonians" strongly opposed for the most part. Later, in the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton's themes within the Whig Party under the name "American System." The opposition Democratic Party contested several elections throughout the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s in part over the issue of the tariff and protection of industry.

The Democratic Party favored moderate tariffs used for government revenue only, while the Whigs favored higher protective tariffs to protect favored industries. The economist Henry Charles Carey became a leading proponent of the "American System" of economics. This mercantilist "American System" was opposed by the Democratic Party of Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce, and James Buchanan.

The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade and implemented a 44-percent tariff during the Civil War—in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries.^[17] William McKinley (later to become President of the United States) stated the stance of the Republican Party (which won every election for President from 1868 until 1912, except the two non-consecutive terms of Grover Cleveland) as thus:

Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self-preservation, of self-development, of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man. [It is said] that protection is immoral…. Why, if protection builds up and elevates 63,000,000 [the U.S. population] of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefitting mankind everywhere. Well, they say, ‘Buy where you can buy the cheapest'…. Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: ‘Buy where you can pay the easiest.' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards.^[18]

Many classical liberals, especially in 19th and early 20th century Britain (e.g., John Stuart Mill) and in the United States for much of the 20th century (e.g., Cordell Hull), believed that free trade promoted peace.^{[citation needed]} Woodrow Wilson included free-trade rhetoric in his "Fourteen Points" speech of 1918:

The program of the world's peace, therefore, is our program; and that program, the only possible program, all we see it, is this: [...] 3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.^[19]

The British economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) grew up with a belief in free trade; this underpinned his criticism of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 for the damage it did to the interdependent European economy. After a brief flirtation with protectionism in the early 1930s, he came again to favour free trade so long as it was combined with internationally coordinated domestic economic policies to promote high levels of employment, and international economic institutions that meant that the interests of countries were not pitted against each other. In these circumstances, "the wisdom of Adam Smith" again applied, he said.^{[citation needed]}

In Kicking Away the Ladder, development economist Ha-Joon Chang reviews the history of free trade policies and economic growth, and notes that many of the now-industrialized countries had significant barriers to trade throughout their history. The United States and Britain, sometimes considered the homes of free trade policy, employed protectionism to varying degrees at all times. Britain abolished the Corn Laws, which restricted import of grain, in 1846 in response to domestic pressures, and it reduced protectionism for manufactures in the mid 19th century, when its technological advantage was at its height, but tariffs on manufactured products had returned to 23% by 1950. The United States maintained weighted average tariffs on manufactured products of approximately 40–50% up until the 1950s, augmented by the natural protectionism of high transportation costs in the 19th century.^[20] The most consistent practitioners of free trade have been Switzerland, the Netherlands, and to a lesser degree Belgium.^[21] Chang describes the export-oriented industrialization policies of the Asian Tigers as "far more sophisticated and fine-tuned than their historical equivalents".^[22]

Some degree of protectionism is nevertheless the norm throughout the world. Most developed nations maintain controversial^{[citation needed]} agricultural tariffs. From 1820 to 1980, the average tariffs on manufactures in twelve industrial countries ranged from 11 to 32%. In the developing world, average tariffs on manufactured goods are approximately 34%.^[23]

Since the end of World War II, in part due to industrial supremacy and the onset of the Cold War, the U.S. government has become one of the most consistent proponents of reduced tariff-barriers and free trade, having helped establish the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and later the World Trade Organization (WTO); although it had rejected an earlier version in the 1950s (International Trade Organization or ITO).^{[24][citation needed]} Since the 1970s U.S. governments have negotiated numerous managed-trade agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in the 1990s, the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) in 2006, and a number of bilateral agreements (such as with Jordan).^{[citation needed]}

Current status[link]

Singapore is the top country in the Enabling Trade Index.

Most countries in the world are members of the World Trade Organization^[25], which limits in certain ways but does not eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers. Most countries are also members of regional free trade areas (see map) that lower trade barriers among participating countries.

The European Union / European Economic Area and the North American Free Trade Agreement are the world's largest free trade areas.^{[citation needed]}

Degree of free trade policies[link]

The Enabling Trade Index measures the factors, policies and services that facilitate the trade in goods across borders and to destination. It is made up of four sub-indexes: market access; border administration; transport and communications infrastructure; and business environment. The top 20 countries are:^[26]

Opposition[link]

The relative costs, benefits and beneficiaries of free trade are debated by academics, governments and interest groups.

Arguments for protectionism fall into the economic category (trade hurts the economy) or the moral category (the effects of trade might help the economy, but have ill effects in other areas); a general argument against free trade is that it is colonialism or imperialism in disguise. The moral category is wide, including concerns of income inequality, environmental degradation, supporting child labor and sweatshops, race to the bottom, wage slavery, accentuating poverty in poor countries, harming national defense, and forcing cultural change.^[27]

Free trade is often opposed by domestic industries that would have their profits and market share reduced by lower prices for imported goods.^[28][29] For example, if United States tariffs on imported sugar were reduced, U.S. sugar producers would receive lower prices and profits, while U.S. sugar consumers would spend less for the same amount of sugar because of those same lower prices. The economic theory of David Ricardo holds that consumers would necessarily gain more than producers would lose.^[30][31] Since each of those few domestic sugar producers would lose a lot while each of a great number of consumers would gain only a little, domestic producers are more likely to mobilize against the lifting of tariffs.^[29] More generally, producers often favor domestic subsidies and tariffs on imports in their home countries, while objecting to subsidies and tariffs in their export markets.

Real Wages vs Trade as a Percent of GDP^[32][33]

Socialists frequently oppose free trade on the ground that it allows maximum exploitation of workers by capital. For example, Karl Marx wrote in The Communist Manifesto, "The bourgeoisie... has set up that single, unconscionable freedom – tree Trade. In one word, for exploitation, veiled by religious and political illusions, it has substituted naked, shameless, direct, brutal exploitation." Nonetheless, Marx favored free trade solely^[34] because he felt that it would hasten the social revolution. To those who oppose socialism, this becomes an argument against free trade.

"Free trade" is opposed by many anti-globalization groups, based on their assertion that free trade agreements generally do not increase the economic freedom of the poor or the working class, and frequently make them poorer. Where the foreign supplier allows de facto exploitation of labor, domestic free-labor is unfairly forced to compete with the foreign exploited labor, and thus the domestic "working class would gradually be forced down to the level of helotry."^[35] To this extent, free trade is seen as nothing more than an end-run around laws that protect individual liberty, such as the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (outlawing slavery and indentured servitude).

It is important to distinguish between arguments against free trade theory, and free trade agreements as applied. Some opponents of NAFTA see the agreement as being materially harmful to the common people, but some of the arguments are actually against the particulars of government-managed trade, rather than against free trade per se. For example, it is argued^[36] that it would be wrong to let subsidized corn from the U.S. into Mexico freely under NAFTA at prices well below production cost (dumping) because of its ruinous effects to Mexican farmers. Of course, such subsidies violate free trade theory, so this argument is not actually against the principle of free trade, but rather its selective implementation.

Colonialism[link]

It has long been argued that free trade is a form of colonialism or imperialism, a position taken by various proponents of economic nationalism and the school of mercantilism. In the 19th century these criticized British calls for free trade as cover for British Empire, notably in the works of American Henry Clay, architect of the American System^[37] and by German American economist Friedrich List.^[38]

More recently, Ecuadorian President Rafael Correa has denounced the "sophistry of free trade" in an introduction he wrote for a book titled The Hidden Face of Free Trade Accords, written in part by Correa's current Energy Minister Alberto Acosta. Citing as his source the book Kicking Away the Ladder, written by Ha-Joon Chang, Correa identified the difference between an "American system" opposed to a "British System" of free trade. The latter, he says, was explicitly viewed by the Americans as "part of the British imperialist system." According to Correa, Chang showed that it was Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, and not Friedrich List, who was the first to present a systematic argument defending industrial protectionism.

Alternatives[link]

The following alternatives for free trade have been proposed: balanced trade, fair trade, protectionism, and Tobin tax.^{[citation needed]}

In literature[link]

The value of free trade was first observed and documented by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations, in 1776.^[39] He wrote,

It is the maxim of every prudent master of a family, never to attempt to make at home what it will cost him more to make than to buy.... If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our own industry, employed in a way in which we have some advantage.^[40]

This statement uses the concept of absolute advantage to present an argument in opposition to mercantilism, the dominant view surrounding trade at the time, which held that a country should aim to export more than it imports, and thus amass wealth.^[41] Instead, Smith argues, countries could gain from each producing exclusively the good(s) in which they are most suited to, trading between each other as required for the purposes of consumption. In this vein, it is not the value of exports relative to that of imports that is important, but the value of the goods produced by a nation. The concept of absolute advantage however does not address a situation where a country has no advantage in the production of a particular good or type of good.^[42]

This theoretical shortcoming was addressed by the theory of comparative advantage. Generally attributed to David Ricardo who expanded on it in his 1817 book On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,^[43] it makes a case for free trade based not on absolute advantage in production of a good, but on the relative opportunity costs of production. A country should specialize in whatever good it can produce at the lowest cost, trading this good to buy other goods it requires for consumption. This allows for countries to benefit from trade even when they do not have an absolute advantage in any area of production. While their gains from trade might not be equal to those of a country more productive in all goods, they will still be better off economically from trade than they would be under a state of autarky. ^[44][45]

See also[link]

Concepts/topics:

• Free trade zone
• Trade war
• Trade war over genetically modified food
• Offshore outsourcing
• Offshoring
• Borderless Selling
• Trade bloc
• Economic globalization

Trade organizations:

• Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)
• European Union

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Chang, Ha-Joon. Kicking Away The Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective. London: Anthem Press 2003. ISBN 978-1-84331-027-3.
• Pugel, Thomas A. International Economics, 13th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin (2007). ISBN 978-0-07-352302-6
• Dickerson, Oliver M. The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution. New York : Barnes (1963). ISBN
• Tyler, John W. Smugglers & Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution. Boston: Northeastern University Press (1986). ISBN 0-930350-76-6
• Smith, Adam. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Digireads Publishing (2009), ISBN 1-4209-3206-3
• Bhagwati, Jagdish. Free Trade Today. Princeton: Princeton University Press (2002). ISBN 0-691-09156-0
• Ricardo, David. On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Library of Economics and Liberty (1999)

Paul Desmond
Dave Brubeck and Paul Desmond, October 8, 1954.
Background information
Birth name	Paul Emil Breitenfeld
Also known as	"The Stork"
Born	(1924-11-25)November 25, 1924 San Francisco, California, United States
Died	May 30, 1977(1977-05-30) (aged 52) Manhattan, New York, U.S.[1]
Genres	Cool jazz West Coast jazz Mainstream jazz
Occupations	Saxophonist Composer Arranger
Instruments	Alto saxophone Clarinet
Labels	Columbia Records RCA Victor Horizon Records CTI Records
Associated acts	Dave Brubeck Ed Bickert Gerry Mulligan Jim Hall Chet Baker

Paul Desmond (born Paul Emil Breitenfeld; November 25, 1924 – May 30, 1977) was a jazz alto saxophonist and composer born in San Francisco, best known for the work he did in the Dave Brubeck Quartet and for penning that group's greatest hit, "Take Five". He was not only one of the most popular musicians to come out of the West Coast's "cool jazz" scene, but also the possessor of a legendary and idiosyncratic wit.

In addition to his work with Brubeck he led several of his own groups and did significant collaborations with artists such as Gerry Mulligan, Jim Hall and Chet Baker. After years of chain smoking and general poor health, Desmond succumbed to lung cancer in 1977 following one last tour with Brubeck.

Early life[link]

Paul Desmond was born Paul Emil Breitenfeld in San Francisco, California in 1924. His father was an organist who played in movie theaters during silent films, and his mother was emotionally unstable during his upbringing. During childhood he spent years living with relatives in New York City due to problems at home. Desmond began playing violin at a young age, though his father forbade him to play it.^[2]

He played clarinet at the age of twelve at San Francisco Polytechnic High School. It was not until he became a freshman at San Francisco State College that he picked up the alto saxophone. In his freshman year he was drafted into the United States Army and joined the Army band while stationed in San Francisco. He spent three years in the military, but his unit was never called to combat.^[2]

Career[link]

Following the conclusion of World War II, Desmond started working in Palo Alto, California at the Bandbox. He also worked some with Brubeck at the Geary Cellar in San Francisco. Desmond soon hired Brubeck, but cut his pay in half and then replaced him altogether after taking him along to Graeagle at The Feather River Inn for gigs; this was done so Desmond could gamble in nearby Reno. In 1950 Desmond left for New York City playing alto and clarinet for Jack Fina, but returned to California after hearing Brubeck's trio on the radio.^[2]

The story of their encounter is somewhat humorous. Brubeck — married with three children and holding a grudge from his earlier experience with Desmond — instructed his wife Iola not to let him set foot in his house. But Desmond came to his home in San Francisco one day while Dave was out back hanging diapers on a laundry line, and Iola let him in and took him to Brubeck. Apparently all the begging in the world would not convince Brubeck to hire him, at least not until Desmond offered to babysit Brubeck's children.^[2]

Dave Brubeck Quartet[link]

Desmond had first met Dave Brubeck in 1944 while still in the military. Brubeck was trying out for the 253rd Army band which Desmond belonged to. After making the cut he—unlike Desmond—was sent to war in 1944. Desmond once told Marian McPartland of National Public Radio's Piano Jazz that he was taken aback by the chord changes Brubeck introduced during that 1944 audition. After convincing Brubeck to hire him following his stint with Jack Fina, the two had a contract drafted (of which Brubeck was the sole signatory); the language forbade Brubeck from ever firing him, ensured Brubeck's status as group leader, and gave Desmond twenty percent of all profits generated from the quartet.^[2][4] That is how the Dave Brubeck Quartet had its start, a group that began in 1951 and ended in December 1967. The quartet became especially popular with college-age audiences, often performing in college settings like on their 1953 album Jazz At Oberlin at Oberlin College or on their recordings on the campuses of Ohio University and the University of Michigan, among others. The success of the quartet led to a Time magazine piece on them in 1954, with the famous cover featuring Brubeck's face.^[5] The group played until 1967, when Brubeck switched focus from music to composition and broke the unit up. During the 1970s Desmond rejoined with Dave Brubeck for several reunion tours including "Two Generations of Brubeck". Accompanying them were Brubeck's sons Chris Brubeck, Dan Brubeck and Darius Brubeck. In 1976 he played 25 shows in 25 nights with Brubeck, touring the United States in several cities by bus.

Other collaborations[link]

In June 1969 Desmond appeared at the New Orleans Jazz Festival with Gerry Mulligan, procuring favorable reactions from critics and audience members.^[2] During Brubeck's Two Generations tours, Desmond and Mulligan shared the stage together in 1974. Unlike Brubeck, Mulligan personally shared much in common with Desmond. The two shared similar interests and humor, and both men had no shortage of addictions in their lives.^[6]

After some time spent inactive, he was asked to play the famous Half Note in New York City in 1971 by guitarist Jim Hall. With his special brand of humor, he says he only took the job because he was nearby and could tumble out of bed to work. The two continued to play at the club to jam-packed audiences. Desmond also joined The Modern Jazz Quartet for a Christmas concert in 1971 at the New York Town Hall.^[2]

Desmond recorded the tune "Summertime" along with many others during his time with Chet Baker.

Desmond met Ed Bickert through Jim Hall in Toronto, Canada and began performing with him at several clubs in the Toronto area. He appeared with the Paul Desmond Quartet at the Edmonton Jazz Festival.

Personal life[link]

In their private lives Dave Brubeck and his family were very close to Paul Desmond, though the two men possessed very different personalities. Darius Brubeck recalls thinking that Desmond was his uncle almost into adolescence. Desmond grew especially close to Dave's son Michael, to whom he left his saxophone upon death. Desmond also was never able to hold down steady relationships with women, though he had no shortage of them. Desmond is reported to have quipped, upon seeing a former girlfriend on the street, "There she goes, not with a wimp, with a banker." In contrast, Brubeck was a stalwart family man.^[4]

Desmond was quite well-read and retained a unique wit. He enjoyed reading works by the thinkers of his generation like Timothy Leary and Jack Kerouac, also dabbling in some LSD usage. He was known to have several addictions, including Dewar's Scotch whisky and Pall Mall cigarettes. His chemical-dependency problems would sometimes drain him of his energy on the road. Clarinetist Perry Robinson recalls in his autobiography that Desmond would sometimes need a vitamin B12 shot just to go on playing during his later career.^[6]

He died in 1977, not of his heavy alcohol habit but of lung cancer, the result of his longtime heavy smoking. Never without his humor, after he was diagnosed with cancer he expressed pleasure at the health of his liver. His last concert was with Brubeck in February 1977, in New York City. His fans did not know that he was already dying. Desmond specified in his will that all proceeds from "Take Five" would go to the Red Cross following his death. Desmond reportedly owned a Baldwin grand piano, which he loaned to Bradley Cunningham, owner of the famous Bradley's piano bar in Greenwich Village, with the condition that Mr. Cunningham had to move the large piano back to Desmond's Upper West Side apartment to become part of Desmond's estate. After this long and expensive process, Desmond willed the piano to Mr. Cunningham, a characteristic and final prank. The Paul Desmond Papers are held at the Holt-Atherton Special Collections in the University of the Pacific Library.

Style[link]

Desmond had a light melodic tone when playing the alto saxophone that is similar to the style of Lee Konitz, one of his influences. He was able to achieve particularly high notes, called altissimo, becoming one of the best-known players from the West Coast's "cool school of jazz". Much of the success of the classic Brubeck quartet was due to the juxtaposition of his airy style over Brubeck's sometimes relatively heavy, polytonal piano work.^[8] His gift for improvised counterpoint is perhaps most notable on the two albums he recorded with Mulligan ("Mulligan-Desmond Quartet" and "Two of a Mind").

Desmond played a Selmer Super Balanced Action alto saxophone with an M. C. Gregory model 4A-18M mouthpiece — both circa 1951 — with Rico 3 ½ reeds.^[9]

Discography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Paul Desmond at Find a Grave

Dame Kiri Jeanette Te Kanawa, ONZ, DBE, AC (pronounced /ˌkɪri tɨ ˈkɑːnəwə/; born 6 March 1944, Gisborne, New Zealand) is a New Zealand / Māori soprano who has had a highly successful international opera career since 1968. Acclaimed as one of the most beloved sopranos in both the United States and Britain^[1][2] she possesses a warm full lyric soprano voice, singing a wide array of works in multiple languages from the 17th to the 20th centuries. She is particularly associated with the works of Mozart, Strauss, Verdi, Handel and Puccini.^[3]

Te Kanawa's voice has been described as having "a vibrant but mellow quality that is ample in size without being overly heavy or forced"^{[citation needed]}. Music critics have consistently praised the freshness and warmth of her voice^{[citation needed]}. The sheer beauty of Te Kanawa's voice made her one of the leading operatic sopranos internationally of the 1970s and 1980s. She found particular success in portraying princesses, noble countesses and other similar characters on stage, as her naturally dignified stage presence and physical beauty complemented these roles well.^[3]

Although she now only rarely sings in operas, Te Kanawa still frequently performs in concert and recital, while giving masterclasses and supporting young opera singers in launching their careers.^[4]

Personal life[link]

Kiri Te Kanawa was born as Claire Mary Teresa Rawstron in Gisborne on New Zealand's North Island. She has Māori and European ancestry, but little is known about her birth parents, as she was adopted as an infant by Thomas Te Kanawa, a Māori, and his wife, Nell. She was educated at Saint Mary's College Auckland and formally trained in operatic singing by Sister Mary Leo, RSM. Te Kanawa began her singing career as a mezzo-soprano, but later developed into a soprano.^[5] Her recording of the "Nuns' Chorus" from the Strauss operetta Casanova was New Zealand's first gold record.

Kiri met Desmond Park on a blind date in London in August 1967, and they married six weeks later in St Patrick's Cathedral, Auckland.^[6] They adopted two children, Antonia (1976) and Thomas (1979) who was named after Kiri's adoptive father. The couple divorced in 1997.^[7]

Career[link]

In her teens and early 20s, Te Kanawa was a pop star and popular entertainer at clubs in New Zealand,^[8] and regularly appeared in newspapers and magazines (see right).In 1965 she won the Mobil Song Quest with her performance of "Vissi d'arte" from Puccini's Tosca. In 1963, she was runner-up to Malvina Major in the same competition. As the winner, she received a grant to study in London. In 1966, she then won the prestigious Australian Melbourne Sun-Aria contest, which Major had also won the previous year. Both students had been taught by Sister Mary Leo.

Early years in London[link]

In 1966, without an audition, she enrolled at the London Opera Centre to study under Vera Rózsa and James Robertson, who reputedly said Te Kanawa lacked a singing technique when she arrived at the school but did have a gift for captivating audiences.^[9] She first appeared on stage as the Second Lady in Mozart's The Magic Flute, as well as in performances of Purcell's Dido and Aeneas in December 1968 at the Sadler's Wells Theatre. She also sang the title role in Donizetti's Anna Bolena. In 1969, she sang Elena in Rossini's La donna del lago at the Camden Festival; and also was offered the role of the Countess in The Marriage of Figaro after an audition of which the conductor, Colin Davis, said, "I couldn't believe my ears. I've taken thousands of auditions, but it was such a fantastically beautiful voice." Praise for her Idamante in Mozart's Idomeneo led to an offer of a three-year contract as junior principal at the Royal Opera House Covent Garden where she made her debut as Xenia in Boris Godunov and a Flower Maiden in Parsifal in 1970.^[10] Under director John Copley, Te Kanawa was carefully groomed for the role of the Countess for a December 1971 opening.

International career[link]

Meanwhile, word of her success had reached John Crosby at the Santa Fe Opera, a summer opera festival in New Mexico, then about to begin its fifteenth season. He cast her in the role of the Countess in The Marriage of Figaro, which opened on 30 July 1971. The performance also featured Frederica von Stade in her debut as Cherubino. "It was two of the newcomers who left the audience dazzled: Frederica von Stade as Cherubino and Kiri te Kanawa as the Countess. Everyone knew at once that these were brilliant finds. History has confirmed that first impression." ^[11] They have maintained their friendship since.

On 1 December 1971 at Covent Garden, Kiri Te Kanawa repeated her Santa Fe performance and created an international sensation as the Countess: "with "Porgi amor" Kiri knocked the place flat."^[12] It was followed by performances as the Countess at the Opéra National de Lyon and San Francisco Opera in autumn 1972. She sang her first Desdemona in Glasgow in 1972 while her Metropolitan Opera debut in 1974 as Desdemona in Otello took place at short notice, replacing an ill Teresa Stratas at the last minute. She sang at the Glyndebourne Festival in 1973, with further débuts in Paris and (1975), Sydney (1976), Milan (1978), Salzburg (1979) and Vienna (1980). In 1982 she gave her only stage performances as Tosca in Paris. In 1989 she added Elisabeth de Valois in Don Carlos to her repertory at Chicago, and in 1990 the Countess in Capriccio, sung first at San Francisco and with equal success at Covent Garden, Glyndebourne and the Metropolitan in 1998.

In subsequent years, she performed at the Lyric Opera of Chicago, Paris Opera, Sydney Opera House, the Vienna State Opera, La Scala, San Francisco Opera, Munich and Cologne, adding the Mozart roles of Donna Elvira, Pamina, and Fiordiligi, in addition to Italian roles such as Mimi in Puccini's La bohème. She played Donna Elvira in Joseph Losey's 1979 film adaptation of Don Giovanni.

She was seen and heard around the world in 1981 by an estimated 600 million people^{[citation needed]}. when she sang Handel's "Let the Bright Seraphim" at the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer.^[13]

In 1984, Leonard Bernstein decided to re-record the musical West Side Story, conducting his own music for the first time. Generally known as the "operatic version", it starred Te Kanawa as Maria, José Carreras as Tony, Tatiana Troyanos as Anita, Kurt Ollman as Riff, and Marilyn Horne as the offstage voice who sings "Somewhere". It won a Grammy Award for Best Cast Show Album in 1985 and the recording process was filmed as a documentary.

Te Kanawa has a particular affinity for the heroines of Richard Strauss. Her first appearance in the title role in Arabella was at the Houston Grand Opera in 1977, followed by the roles of the Marschallin in Der Rosenkavalier and the Countess in Capriccio. Many performances were given under the baton of Georg Solti and it was with him that she made her first recording of The Marriage of Figaro.

In recent years Te Kanawa's appearances on the opera stage have become more infrequent, although she remains busy as a concert singer. She appeared in performances in Samuel Barber's Vanessa with the Washington National Opera and the Los Angeles Opera in November/December 2004. In February 2010 she played the part of The Duchess of Krakenthorp in Donizetti's La fille du régiment at the Metropolitan Opera, and sang a tango. In April 2010 she sang the Marschallin in Der Rosenkavalier by Richard Strauss in two performances at the Cologne Opera in Germany. Te Kanawa has also appeared as a Pennington Great Performers series artist with the Baton Rouge Symphony Orchestra in 2004. It is said, this would be the end of her operatic career, but obviously this is not certain.

Honours[link]

Kiri Te Kanawa was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1982, invested as an Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia in 1990 and awarded the Order of New Zealand in the 1995 Queen's Birthday Honours List. She has also received honorary degrees from the following universities in the UK: Bath, Cambridge, Dundee, Durham, Nottingham, Oxford, Sunderland, Warwick as well as these universities worldwide: Chicago, Auckland and Waikato as well as being honorary fellow of Somerville College, Oxford and Wolfson College, Cambridge. She is also patron of Ringmer Community College, a school in the South-East of England situated not far from Glyndebourne.

On 12 June 2008 she received the Edison Classical Music Award during the Edison Classical Music Gala (formerly: 'Grand Gala du Disque') in the Ridderzaal in The Hague.

Kiri Te Kanawa Foundation[link]

Kiri founded the Kiri Te Kanawa Foundation with the vision "that talented young New Zealand singers and musicians with complete dedication to their art may receive judicious and thoughtful mentoring and support to assist them in realising their dreams."^[14]

The foundation manages a trust fund to provide financial and career scholarships to young New Zealand singers and musicians.

The Kiri Prize[link]

In January 2010, Dame Kiri and BBC Radio 2 launched an initiative to find a gifted opera singer of the future. The initiative was the BBC Radio 2 Kiri Prize competition.^[15]

Following regional auditions of over 600 aspiring opera singers, 40 were invited to attend masterclasses in London with Dame Kiri, mezzo-soprano Anne Howells and conductor Robin Stapleton. From these masterclasses fifteen singers were selected for the semi-finals which were broadcast on 5 consecutive weeks on BBC Radio 2’s Friday Night Is Music Night. The semi-finalists were accompanied by the BBC Concert Orchestra, conducted by Martin Yates, Richard Balcombe and Roderick Dunk and their performances were judged by Dame Kiri, Anne Howells, Robin Stapleton and director John Cox.

Five singers went through to the final which was broadcast on Radio 2 on Friday 3 September 2010. The winner - soprano Shuna Scott Sendall - performed with Dame Kiri and José Carreras at BBC Proms In The Park in Hyde Park, London on Saturday 11 September 2010 and was given the opportunity to attend a three-week residential course at the Solti Te Kanawa Accademia in Italy.

Controversy[link]

In a 2003 interview with the Melbourne-based Herald Sun she criticised the high rate of welfare dependence among the Māori people, angering some of her compatriots.^[16] In 2007, Te Kanawa was sued for breach of contract by event management company Leading Edge, after cancelling a concert with Australian singer John Farnham. She cancelled after learning that his fans sometimes threw their underwear on stage, which he would then proudly display.^[17] She won the suit, but her Mittane company which employs and manages her was ordered to pay A$102,000 in court costs.^[18][19]

Career highlights[link]

• Moved to Auckland and studied under Sister Mary Leo 1959-1965 at St Mary's College.
• Had New Zealand's first gold disc, with a popular operatic aria.
• Was 2nd to Dame Malvina Major in the Mobil Song Quest in 1963, and won it in 1965.
• Won the Melbourne Sun-Aria in 1965, and was awarded an Arts Council of Great Britain bursary to study at the London Opera Centre.
• Made her US debut at Santa Fe Opera with her performance as the Countess in Le nozze di Figaro in summer 1971, and became internationally famous at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in London after singing the role on 1 December 1971.
• In 1977 she appeared at the Royal Opera House in a German/English production of Die Fledermaus. The New Year's Eve performance, conducted by Zubin Mehta, was recorded for television with the cast was virtually duplicated on the later DVD release. The performance was broadcast on TV in the US on New Year's Eve 1979.
• Sang at the San Francisco Opera, the Metropolitan Opera in New York and La Scala in Milan, Italy.
• In 1981 sang at the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer in St Paul's Cathedral, London.
• She won a Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording in 1984, for Mozart's "Le nozze di Figaro". It was produced by Christopher Raeburn and the London Philharmonic Orchestra was conducted by Georg Solti. Also featuring were Thomas Allen, Kurt Moll, Lucia Popp, Samuel Ramey and Frederica von Stade.
• Created Dame Kiri Te Kanawa in 1982, and returned to New Zealand to sing several times, including the New Year millennium concert at Gisborne in January 2000.
• In 1984, made a special recording of West Side Story in the leading role of Maria with José Carreras as Tony, and conducted by Leonard Bernstein.
• In 1986, again partnered José Carreras in the recording of the musical South Pacific.
• In 1994 celebrated her 50th birthday, culminating in a spectacular Birthday Concert at the Royal Albert Hall, London. Long awaited return to the Metropolitan Opera as Arabella.
• November 1999, released a new album, Maori Songs.
• Sang in her last opera, Vanessa, in 2004, but continues with recitals and concerts and organising the Kiri Te Kanawa Foundation, to help young music students.
• On 15 March 2006, Te Kanawa played a role in the 2006 Commonwealth Games. She sang a medley of "Happy Birthday" to Queen Elizabeth II, in recognition of her upcoming birthday, and "God Save the Queen".
• 2 December 2007, sang to the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh at the Royal Variety Performance. Her performance included leading the National Anthem, God Save the Queen
• 28 June 2008, she sang Summertime in duet with Portuguese fado singer star Mariza, at Casino Estoril.
• 19 July 2008, sang her last American concert with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra at Ravinia Park.
• 19 June 2009, inducted into the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame, performing solo works, and duets with Frederica von Stade and Josh Groban to a crowd of 18,000
• 6 February 2010, returned to the Metropolitan Opera as the Duchess of Krakenthorp in La Fille du Régiment - typically a non-singing character part, but an art song by Argentine composer Alberto Ginastera was interpolated into the production for her to sing.
• April 2010, returned to the Cologne Opera House in Germany for two final performances of the Marschallin in Rosenkavalier.

Discography[link]

• 1972 - Mozart - Exsultate Jubilate - (Exsultate Jubilate, Vesperae Solennes De Confessore, Kyrie In D Minor, Ave Verum Corpus ), Te Kanawa, London Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, Sir Colin Davis [Philips] (also re-issued 1986)
• 1972 - Mozart - Don Giovanni - as Donna Elvira in a studio recording with Covent Garden Royal Opera House Chorus and Orchestra, Colin Davis
• 1973 - My Favourite Things [Hallmark, SHM 3218]
• 1975 - Bizet - Carmen - as Micaëlla in a studio recording with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, Georg Solti
• 1976 - Mozart - Le nozze di Figaro - Te Kanawa (Contessa Almaviva), Freni (Susanna), Prey (Figaro), Fischer-Dieskau (Conte Almaviva), Ewing (Cherubino), Begg (Marcellina), Montarsolo (Don Bartolo), Wiener Philharmoniker, conductor Karl Böhm [DVD]
• 1977 - Duruflé - Requiem/Danse Lente - Te Kanawa, Nimsgern, Ambrosian Singers, Desborough School Choir, Andrew Davis, New Philharmonia Orchestra [CBS Schallplatten GmbH]
• 1977 - Mozart - Così fan tutte - as Fiordiligi in a studio recording under Alain Lombard
• 1978 - Mozart - Die Zauberflöte - as Pamina in a studio recording under Alain Lombard
• 1979 - Strauss - Four Last Songs - London Symphony Orchestra, Andrew Davis [CBS Masterworks]
• 1979 - Brahms - A German Requiem - Variations On A Theme By Haydn - Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus, Kiri Te Kanawa, Sir Georg Solti, Bernd Weikl, Margaret Hillis [London Records]
• 1981 - Gay - The Beggar's Opera - as Polly Peachum in a studio recording with National Philharmonic Orchestra, Richard Bonynge
• 1981 - Mozart - Le nozze di Figaro - as Contessa Almaviva in a studio recording with London Philharmonic Orchestra, Georg Solti
• 1981 - Puccini - La rondine - as Magda de Civry in a studio recording with the London Symphony Orchestra, Lorin Maazel
• 1981 - Mozart Concert Arias - Kiri Te Kanawa, Wiener Kammerorchester, Gyorgy Fischer [London/Decca Jubilee 417756]
• 1983 - Canteloube - Chants D'Auvergne (Songs of The Auvergne) / Villa-Lobos - Bachianas Brasileiras [Polygram SXDL 7604]
• 1983 - Mozart Opera Arias - London Symphony Orchestra, Sir Colin Davis [Philips], [Polygram 5414319]
• 1983 - Verdi & Puccini - London Philharmonic Orchestra, John Pritchard [CBS 37298]
• 1984 - Come To The Fair - Folk Songs & Ballads - with the Medici String Quartet and members of the National Philharmonic Orchestra, Douglas Gamley [EMI EMC 222]
• 1984 - Puccini - Tosca - as Floria Tosca in a studio recording under Georg Solti
• 1984 - Ave Maria - a collection of religious favorites with the English Chamber Orchestra and the Choir of St. Paul's Cathedral, London
• 1984 - A Portrait of Kiri Te Kanawa [CBS SBR 236068]
• 1985 - Handel - Messiah - with Anne Gjevang, Keith Lewis, Gwynne Howell, Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus, Sir Georg Solti [3xLP, Album + Box, London Records]
• 1985 - Leonard Bernstein West Side Story - a recording of Bernstein's music for the Broadway production West Side Story, with José Carreras singing the part of Tony and Leonard Bernstein himself conducting the orchestra and chorus [Polygram 415253]
• 1985 - A Room With A View (OST) - the Verdi and Puccini arias "O mio babbino caro" (Gianni Schicchi) and "Chi bel sogno di Doretta" (La Rondine) in the Merchant Ivory film A Room with a View [DRG CDSBL 12588]
• 1986 - Richard Strauss -Arabella - as Arabella in a studio recording with Covent Garden Royal Opera House Chorus and Orchestra, Jeffrey Tate
• 1986 - Gounod -Faust - sang the role of Marguerite in a studio recording with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, Colin Davis
• 1986 - South Pacific - London Studio Cast, Kiri Te Kanawa, Mandy Patinkin, José Carreras and Sarah Vaughan
• 1986 - Kiri - Blue Skies - with Nelson Riddle And His Orchestra [Polygram/Decca 414 666-1 ]
• 1986 - Christmas with Kiri (with Philharmonia Orchestra of London and Chorus, Carl Davis) London Classic / Polygram
• 1987 - Puccini Manon Lescaut - sang the title role in a studio recording with Teatro Comunale di Bologna, Riccardo Chailly
• 1987 - Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick 'Fritz' Loewe - My Fair Lady - a studio cast recording with Te Kanawa singing the role of Eliza Doolittle and Jeremy Irons singing the role of Henry Higgins [Polygram 421200]
• 1987 - Kiri Sings Gershwin - a collection of George Gershwin songs with the New Princess Theater Orchestra, John McGlinn [EMI]
• 1987 - Portrait [Polygram 417645]
• 1987 - Beethoven - Symphonie No.9 - Te Kanawa, Hamari, Burrows, Holl, London Symphony Chorus, London Symphony Orchestra, Eugen Jochum [EMI]
• 1988 - Mozart - Così fan tutte - recorded the role of Fiordiligi again this time with Vienna State Opera, James Levine
• 1988 - Bach - Matthäus-Passion - Te Kanawa, von Otter, Rolfe Johnson, Krause, Blochwitz, Bär, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Sir Georg Solti [Box, Album + 3xCD, Decca]
• 1988 - Gabriel Fauré - Requiem · Pelléas Et Mélisande · Pavane - Te Kanawa, Milnes, Choeur De L'Orchestre Symphonique De Montreal, Orchestre Symphonique De Montréal, Charles Dutoit [Decca]
• 1989 - Verdi - Simon Boccanegra - recorded the role of Amelia Grimaldi in a studio recording with La Scala, Milan, Georg Solti
• 1989 - Songs Of Inspiration - Kiri Te Kanawa, Mormon Tabernacle Choir, Utah Symphony Orchestra, Julius Rudel [London/Decca/Polygram 425431]
• 1989 - Mozart - Die Zauberflöte - recorded the role of Pamina again this time with Neville Marriner and the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields
• 1990 - Johann Strauss II - Die Fledermaus - sang the part of Rosalinde with Vienna State Opera, André Previn
• 1990 - Mozart - Le nozze di Figaro - re-recorded the role of Contessa Almaviva in a studio recording with the Metropolitan Opera, James Levine
• 1990 - Richard Strauss - Der Rosenkavalier - sang the role of the Marschallin with the Semperoper Dresden under Bernard Haitink
• 1990 - Mozart - Der Schauspieldirector - sang the role of Mademoiselle Silberklang with the Vienna Philharmonic under John Pritchard
• 1990 - Ave Maria - Kiri Te Kanawa, English Chamber Orchestra, Choir of St Paul's Cathedral, Barry Rose [Philips 412629]
• 1990 - Kiri In Recital - Liszt, Obradors, Ravel - Kiri Te Kanawa, with Roger Vignoles (Piano) [London/Decca 425820 ]
• 1991 - Richard Strauss - 4 Letzte Lieder and other songs - with Georg Solti and the Vienna Philharmonic
• 1991 - The Kiri Selection
• 1991 - Kiri Sings Kern
• 1991 - Bernard Herrmann - Citizen Kane - The Classic Film Scores Of Bernard Herrmann - Kiri Te Kanawa, Joaquin Achucarro, National Philharmonic Orchestra, Charles Gerhardt [RCA Victor, BMG Classics]
• 1991 - World In Union (Single, 7") - (Rugby Union World Cup Theme Song) [Columbia]
• 1992 - Paul McCartney and Carl Davis - Paul McCartney's Liverpool Oratorio (Movement VII: Crises)
• 1992 - Tchaikovsky - Eugene Onegin - sang the role of Tatyana in a studio recording with Welsh National Opera under Charles Mackerras
• 1992 - Verdi La traviata - sang the role of Violetta in a studio recording with the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, Zubin Mehta
• 1992 - Kiri Sidetracks: The Jazz Album
• 1992 - Mahler - Symphony No. 4, Kiri Te Kanawa, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Georg Solti [Decca]
• 1993 - Wagner -Tannhäuser - sang the role of Elisabeth in a studio recording with the London Philharmonia Orchestra and the Ambrosian Singers, Marek Janowski
• 1993 - Mozart Arias (Grand Voci) [Decca]
• 1993 - Classics - Mozart, Handel, Gounod, Schubet, Strauss [Philips 434725]
• 1994 - Mozart - Great Mass in C minor - (chorus master: Laszlo Heltay) [Philips]
• 1994 - Heart to Heart - with Malcolm McNeill
• 1994 - Puccini - La bohème - recorded the title role in a studio recording with the London Symphony Orchestra, Kent Nagano
• 1994 - The Sorceress - arias from Handel operas with Hogwood and The Academy of Ancient Music
• 1994 - Kiri! Her Greatest Hits Live [Decca 443600]
• 1995 - Christmas with Kiri Te Kanawa: Carols from Coventry Cathedral - Kiri Te Kanawa, Michael George, BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, Robin Stapleton [Teldec]
• 1996 - Richard Strauss Capriccio - recorded the role of the Countess in a studio recording with Wiener Philharmoniker, Ulf Schirmer, Decca/London
• 1996 - Franz Schubert - Lieder - Judith Raskin, Kiri Te Kanawa, Elly Ameling, Peter Pears, Judith Blegen [Sony Classical]
• 1997 - French Songs and Arias
• 1997 - Sole et amore - Puccini Arias - Te Kanawa, Vignoles, Orchestre de L'Opera National de Lyon, Kent Nagano [Erato]
• 1998 - Bizet - Carmen - Highlights - Troyanos, Domingo, Te Kanawa, London Philharmonic Orchestra, Georg Solti [Decca]
• 1998 - The Greatest Classical Stars On Earth - Plácido Domingo, Kiri Te Kanawa, Luciano Pavarotti, Lesley Garrett, Nigel Kennedy (2CD, Compilation) [Decca]
• 1999 - Maori Songs - Kiri Te Kanawa, (Air New Zealand) [EMI Classics 5 56828-2]
• 1999 - Greatest Hits [EMI Classics]
• 2001 - Kiri (also known as Kiri - The Best Of)
• 2003 - The Very Best Of
• 2004 - Kiri - A Portrait
• 2005 - The Best of Kiri Te Kanawa (20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection)
• 2006 - Kiri Sings Karl - Songs of Mystery & Enchantment (with Karl Jenkins) – arranged and conducted by Karl Jenkins

References[link]

Notes

Sources

• Encyclopædia Britannica Online, "Dame Kiri Te Kanawa" Accessed 7 July 2008
• Fingleton, David (1982). Kiri Te Kanawa: A Biography. Collins. ISBN 0-00-216365-9. 
• Gilbert, Susie; and Jay Shir (2003). A Tale of Four Houses: Opera at Covent Garden, La Scala, Vienna and the Met since 1945. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-255820-3. 
• Jenkins, Garry; and Stephen d'Antal (1998). Kiri: Her Unsung Story. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-255942-0. 
• Lebrecht, Norman (2000). Covent Garden: The Untold Story: Dispatches from the English Culture War, 1945-2000. London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85143-1. 
• Scott, Eleanor (1976). The First Twenty Years of the Santa Fe Opera. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Sunstone Press. 

External links[link]

• Kiri Te Kanawa Discogs discography
• Kiri Te Kanawa operadis opera discography recordings
• Kiri Te Kanawa Michael Storrs Music management
• "Kiri Te Kanawa: IMG Artists". http://www.imgartists.com/?page=artist&id=369. 
• "Kiri Te Kanawa: Famous New Zealanders". Christchurch City library. http://library.christchurch.org.nz/Childrens/FamousNewZealanders/Kiri.asp. 
• Kiri Te Kanawa at the Internet Movie Database
• Kiri Te Kanawa Foundation NZ based charitable trust

For the New Zealand opera singer, see Kiri Te Kanawa

There are at least four different people called Te Kanawa.

Te Kanawa, ancestor of Ngāti Te Kanawa[link]

One is the ancestor of the Ngāti Te Kanawa iwi of the Tainui confederation of iwi. He was born before 1700 and lived in Hangatiki.

Te Kanawa of Ngāti Maniapoto[link]

Another was a chief of the Ngāti Maniapoto, another Tainui iwi. He was alive in the early 19th century. Te Kanawa was a warlord of Maniapoto; he settled disputes with a taiaha within Tainui or outside Tainui. Some of these disputes were boundary disputes, hence the Ngāti Hari connection. The boundary line between Tu Wharetoa and Maniapoto and the marae Hia Kaitupeka by Taumarunui. He is represented by an amo on their carved meeting house.

Te Kanawa of Ngati Katoa[link]

Another was a chief of the Ngāti Katoa. He was killed in the campaign known as Putu-karekare (or Patu-karekare, or Te Karekaernga), which was fought at Kawhia in the time when Ngāti Katoa were the tangata whenua. This was before Te Rauparaha had left Kawhia around 1820.

Sources[link]

Angela Ballara: "Taua".

Pei Te Hurunui: "King Potatau"

Te Kanawa of Ngāti Mahuta and Ngāti Naho[link]

Another was a chief of the Ngāti Mahuta and Ngāti Naho iwi, and was one of the principal chiefs of the Waikato Māori. He was a close confederate of Pōtatau Te Wherowhero, the first Māori King, and lived from c. 1770 to c. 1860. He was also known as Tuhoro Te Kanawa and was signatory to the treaty signing at Kawhia. He was one of the eight chiefs who sat with Pōtatau at Haurua Pā, which stood where the Waitomo golf links are now.

His mother was Te Rahuruake (according to Pei Te Hurunui in his book King Potatau, p. 120) and his sister was Parekohu. He also had a daughter or niece, Te Rangiata.

Tuhoro Te Kanawa is the only descendant that has blood line links to Te Kanawa of Ngāti Te Kanawa. Tuhoro Te Kanawa was one of the paramount chiefs of Ngāti Maniapoto confederation and Ngāti Kinohaku.

Sources[link]

• Whakapapa Forum Post

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