This stylistic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). The chromosome is X-shaped because it is dividing. Introns are regions often found in eukaryote genes that are removed in the splicing process (after the DNA is transcribed into RNA): Only the exons encode the protein. This diagram labels a region of only 50 or so bases as a gene. In reality, most genes are hundreds of times larger.

A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a polypeptide or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains. Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring, although some organelles (e.g. mitochondria) are self-replicating and are not coded for by the organism's DNA. All organisms have many genes corresponding to various biological traits, some of which are immediately visible, such as eye color or number of limbs, and some of which are not, such as blood type or increased risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

The chemical structure of a four-base fragment of a DNA double helix.

A modern working definition of a gene is "a locatable region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a unit of inheritance, which is associated with regulatory regions, transcribed regions, and or other functional sequence regions ".^[1][2] Colloquial usage of the term gene (e.g. "good genes", "hair color gene") may actually refer to an allele: a gene is the basic instruction—a sequence of nucleic acids (DNA or, in the case of certain viruses RNA), while an allele is one variant of that gene. Referring to having a gene for a trait is no longer the scientifically accepted usage. In most cases, all people would have a gene for the trait in question, but certain people will have a specific allele of that gene, which results in the trait variant. Further, genes code for proteins, which might result in identifiable traits, but it is the gene, not the trait, which is inherited.

Physical definitions[link]

RNA genes and genomes[link]

When proteins are manufactured, the gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate product. In other cases, the RNA molecules are the actual functional products. For example, RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function, and microRNA has a regulatory role. The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as RNA genes.

Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA, and contain no DNA at all. Because they use RNA to store genes, their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription. On the other hand, RNA retroviruses, such as HIV, require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized. In 2006, French researchers came across a puzzling example of RNA-mediated inheritance in mice. Mice with a loss-of-function mutation in the gene Kit have white tails. Offspring of these mutants can have white tails despite having only normal Kit genes. The research team traced this effect back to mutated Kit RNA.^[3] While RNA is common as genetic storage material in viruses, in mammals in particular RNA inheritance has been observed very rarely.

Functional structure of a gene[link]

Diagram of the "typical" eukaryotic protein-coding gene. Promoters and enhancers determine what portions of the DNA will be transcribed into the precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA). The pre-mRNA is then spliced into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is later translated into protein.

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine. The most common form of DNA in a cell is in a double helix structure, in which two individual DNA strands twist around each other in a right-handed spiral. In this structure, the base pairing rules specify that guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with thymine. The base pairing between guanine and cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds, whereas the base pairing between adenine and thymine forms two hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, that is, their bases must align such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The directionality of DNA is vitally important to many cellular processes, since double helices are necessarily directional (a strand running 5'-3' pairs with a complementary strand running 3'-5'), and processes such as DNA replication occur in only one direction. All nucleic acid synthesis in a cell occurs in the 5'-3' direction, because new monomers are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the words in the genetic language. The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.

All genes have regulatory regions in addition to regions that explicitly code for a protein or RNA product. A regulatory region shared by almost all genes is known as the promoter, which provides a position that is recognized by the transcription machinery when a gene is about to be transcribed and expressed. A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in RNAs that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end.^[4] Although promoter regions have a consensus sequence that is the most common sequence at this position, some genes have "strong" promoters that bind the transcription machinery well, and others have "weak" promoters that bind poorly. These weak promoters usually permit a lower rate of transcription than the strong promoters, because the transcription machinery binds to them and initiates transcription less frequently. Other possible regulatory regions include enhancers, which can compensate for a weak promoter. Most regulatory regions are "upstream"—that is, before or toward the 5' end of the transcription initiation site. Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.

Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, or groups of genes whose products have related functions and which are transcribed as a unit. By contrast, eukaryotic genes are transcribed only one at a time, but may include long stretches of DNA called introns which are transcribed but never translated into protein (they are spliced out before translation). Splicing can also occur in prokaryotic genes, but is less common than in eukaryotes.^[5]

Chromosomes[link]

The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes; the region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded. Prokaryotes—bacteria and archaea—typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome, sometimes supplemented by additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are easily transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer. Although some simple eukaryotes also possess plasmids with small numbers of genes, the majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on multiple linear chromosomes, which are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones. The manner in which DNA is stored on the histone, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, are regulatory mechanisms governing whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. The ends of eukaryotic chromosomes are capped by long stretches of repetitive sequences called telomeres, which do not code for any gene product but are present to prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres tends to decrease each time the genome is replicated in preparation for cell division; the loss of telomeres has been proposed as an explanation for cellular senescence, or the loss of the ability to divide, and by extension for the aging process in organisms.^[6]

Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene-dense, those of eukaryotes often contain so-called "junk DNA", or regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single-celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function.^[7] However it now appears that, although protein-coding DNA makes up barely 2% of the human genome, about 80% of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA" may be a misnomer.^[2]

Gene expression[link]

In all organisms, there are two major steps separating a protein-coding gene from its protein: First, the DNA on which the gene resides must be transcribed from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA); and, second, it must be translated from mRNA to protein. RNA-coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule itself is called a gene product.

Genetic code[link]

The genetic code is the set of chemical symbols by which a gene is translated into a functional protein. Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleotides encoded in a DNA (or sometimes RNA in some viruses^[8]) strand; a correspondence between nucleotides, the basic building blocks of genetic material, and amino acids, the basic building blocks of proteins, must be established for genes to be successfully translated into functional proteins. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid or to a signal; three codons are known as "stop codons" and, instead of specifying a new amino acid, alert the translation machinery that the end of the gene has been reached. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 4³ possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.

Transcription[link]

The process of genetic transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed. The DNA strand whose sequence matches that of the RNA is known as the coding strand and the strand from which the RNA was synthesized is the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5' to 3'. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering of the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.

In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm; for very long transcripts, translation may begin at the 5' end of the RNA while the 3' end is still being transcribed. In eukaryotes, transcription necessarily occurs in the nucleus, where the cell's DNA is sequestered; the RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and must undergo post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation. The splicing of introns present within the transcribed region is a modification unique to eukaryotes; alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins. This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells.

Translation[link]

Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein. Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds. The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads; the tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon. When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand, the ribosome ligates its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain, which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus. During and after its synthesis, the new protein must fold to its active three-dimensional structure before it can carry out its cellular function.

DNA replication and inheritance[link]

The growth, development, and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division, or the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells. This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication. The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases, which "read" one strand of the double-helical DNA, known as the template strand, and synthesize a new complementary strand. Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing, the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy. The process of DNA replication is semiconservative; that is, the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.^[9]

After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells. In prokaryotes - bacteria and archaea - this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane-bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase. In many single-celled eukaryotes such as yeast, reproduction by budding is common, which results in asymmetrical portions of cytoplasm in the two daughter cells.

Molecular inheritance[link]

The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance, and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes. Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents' cells. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene. The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a fertilized egg, a single cell that once again has a diploid number of genes—each with one copy from the mother and one copy from the father.

During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid. This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same, but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different. The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them. This is known as genetic linkage.

History[link]

Gregor Mendel

The notion of a gene^[10] is evolving with the science of genetics, which began when Gregor Mendel noticed that biological variations are inherited from parent organisms as specific, discrete traits. The biological entity responsible for defining traits was later termed a gene, but the biological basis for inheritance remained unknown until DNA was identified as the genetic material in the 1940s. Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which proposes that the traits of the parents blend or mix in a smooth, continuous gradient in the offspring. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was rediscovered in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who had reached similar conclusions from their own research. However, these scientists were not yet aware of the identity of the 'discrete units' on which genetic material resides.

The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), who, in the 1860s, studied inheritance in peaplants (Pisum sativum) and hypothesized a factor that conveys traits from parent to offspring. He spent over 10 years of his life on one experiment. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of inherited characteristics. Mendel was also the first to hypothesize independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the difference between what would later be described as genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism).

Charles Darwin used the term Gemmule to describe a microscopic unit of inheritance, and what would later become known as Chromosomes had been observed separating out during cell division by Wilhelm Hofmeister as early as 1848. The idea that chromosomes are the carriers of inheritance was expressed in 1883 by Wilhelm Roux. Darwin also coined the word pangenesis by (1868).^[11] The word pangenesis is made from the Greek words pan (a prefix meaning "whole", "encompassing") and genesis ("birth") or genos ("origin").

Mendel's concept was given a name by Hugo de Vries in 1889, in his book Intracellular Pangenesis; although probably unaware of Mendel's work at the time, he coined the term "pangen" for "the smallest particle [representing] one hereditary characteristic".^[12] Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word "gene" ("gen" in Danish and German) in 1909 to describe the fundamental physical and functional units of heredity,^[13] while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.^[14] He derived the word from de Vries' "pangen". In the early 1900s, Mendel's work received renewed attention from scientists. In 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan showed that genes reside on specific chromosomes. He later showed that genes occupy specific locations on the chromosome. With this knowledge, Morgan and his students began the first chromosomal map of the fruit fly Drosophila. In 1928, Frederick Griffith showed that genes could be transferred. In what is now known as Griffith's experiment, injections into a mouse of a deadly strain of bacteria that had been heat-killed transferred genetic information to a safe strain of the same bacteria, killing the mouse.

A series of subsequent discoveries led to the realization decades later that chromosomes within cells are the carriers of genetic material, and that they are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), a polymeric molecule found in all cells on which the 'discrete units' of Mendelian inheritance are encoded. In 1941, George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum showed that mutations in genes caused errors in specific steps in metabolic pathways. This showed that specific genes code for specific proteins, leading to the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis.^[14] Oswald Avery, Colin Munro MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty showed in 1944 that DNA holds the gene's information.^[15] In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick demonstrated the molecular structure of DNA. Together, these discoveries established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses.

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein.^[16] Richard J. Roberts and Phillip Sharp discovered in 1977 that genes can be split into segments. This led to the idea that one gene can make several proteins. Recently (as of 2003–2006), biological results let the notion of gene appear more slippery. In particular, genes do not seem to sit side by side on DNA like discrete beads. Instead, regions of the DNA producing distinct proteins may overlap, so that the idea emerges that "genes are one long continuum".^[1] It was first hypothesized in 1986 by Walter Gilbert that neither DNA nor protein would be required in such a primitive system as that of a very early stage of the earth if RNA could perform as simply a catalyst and genetic information storage processor.

The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics and the synthesis of molecular genetics with traditional Darwinian evolution is known as the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Mendelian inheritance and classical genetics[link]

Crossing between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B, dominant) and white (b, recessive) blossoms

According to the theory of Mendelian inheritance, variations in phenotype—the observable physical and behavioral characteristics of an organism—are due to variations in genotype, or the organism's particular set of genes, each of which specifies a particular trait. Different forms of a gene, which may give rise to different phenotypes, are known as alleles. Organisms such as the pea plants Mendel worked on, along with many plants and animals, have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent. Alleles may be dominant or recessive; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait, whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele. For example, if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems, then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems. Mendel's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes, or germ cells, ensuring variation in the next generation.

Mutation[link]

DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate, with an error rate per site of around 10⁻⁶ to 10⁻¹⁰ in eukaryotes.^[9] Rare, spontaneous alterations in the base sequence of a particular gene arise from a number of sources, such as errors in DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage. These errors are called mutations. The cell contains many DNA repair mechanisms for preventing mutations and maintaining the integrity of the genome; however, in some cases—such as breaks in both DNA strands of a chromosome—repairing the physical damage to the molecule is a higher priority than producing an exact copy. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, some mutations in protein-coding genes are silent, or produce no change in the amino acid sequence of the protein for which they code; for example, the codons UCU and UUC both code for serine, so the U↔C mutation has no effect on the protein. Mutations that do have phenotypic effects are most often neutral or deleterious to the organism, but sometimes they confer benefits to the organism's fitness.

Mutations propagated to the next generation lead to variations within a species' population. Variants of a single gene are known as alleles, and differences in alleles may give rise to differences in traits. Although it is rare for the variants in a single gene to have clearly distinguishable phenotypic effects, certain well-defined traits are in fact controlled by single genetic loci. A gene's most common allele is called the wild type allele, and rare alleles are called mutants. However, this does not imply that the wild-type allele is the ancestor from which the mutants are descended.

Genome[link]

Chromosomal organization[link]

The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome. In prokaryotes, the vast majority of genes are located on a single chromosome of circular DNA, while eukaryotes usually possess multiple individual linear DNA helices packed into dense DNA-protein complexes called chromosomes. Genes that appear together on one chromosome of one species may appear on separate chromosomes in another species. Many species carry more than one copy of their genome within each of their somatic cells. Cells or organisms with only one copy of each chromosome are called haploid; those with two copies are called diploid; and those with more than two copies are called polyploid. The copies of genes on the chromosomes are not necessarily identical. In sexually reproducing organisms, one copy is normally inherited from each parent.

Number of genes[link]

The human genome, categorized by function of each gene product, given both as number of genes and as percentage of all genes.^[17]

Early estimates of the number of human genes that used expressed sequence tag data put it at 50 000–100 000.^[18] Following the sequencing of the human genome and other genomes, it has been found that rather few genes (~20 000 in human, mouse and fly, ~13 000 in roundworm, >46 000 in rice) encode all the proteins in an organism.^[19] These protein-coding sequences make up 1–2% of the human genome.^[20] A large part of the genome is transcribed however, to introns, retrotransposons and seemingly a large array of noncoding RNAs.^[19][20] Total number of proteins (the Earth's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.^[21]

Genetic and genomic nomenclature[link]

Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short-form abbreviation). All approved symbols are stored in the HGNC Database. Each symbol is unique and each gene is only given one approved gene symbol. This also facilitates electronic data retrieval from publications. In preference each symbol maintains parallel construction in different members of a gene family and can be used in other species, especially the mouse.

Evolutionary concept of a gene[link]

George C. Williams first explicitly advocated the gene-centric view of evolution in his 1966 book Adaptation and Natural Selection. He proposed an evolutionary concept of gene to be used when we are talking about natural selection favoring some genes. The definition is: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency." According to this definition, even an asexual genome could be considered a gene, insofar that it have an appreciable permanency through many generations.

The difference is: the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit.

Richard Dawkins' books The Selfish Gene (1976) and The Extended Phenotype (1982) defended the idea that the gene is the only replicator in living systems. This means that only genes transmit their structure largely intact and are potentially immortal in the form of copies. So, genes should be the unit of selection. In The Selfish Gene Dawkins attempts to redefine the word 'gene' to mean "an inheritable unit" instead of the generally accepted definition of "a section of DNA coding for a particular protein". In River Out of Eden, Dawkins further refined the idea of gene-centric selection by describing life as a river of compatible genes flowing through geological time. Scoop up a bucket of genes from the river of genes, and we have an organism serving as temporary bodies or survival machines. A river of genes may fork into two branches representing two non-interbreeding species as a result of geographical separation.

Gene targeting and implications[link]

Gene targeting is commonly referred to techniques for altering or disrupting mouse genes and provides the mouse models for studying the roles of individual genes in embryonic development, human disorders, aging and diseases. The mouse models, where one or more of its genes are deactivated or made inoperable, are called knockout mice. Since the first reports in which homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells was used to generate gene-targeted mice,^[22] gene targeting has proven to be a powerful means of precisely manipulating the mammalian genome, producing at least ten thousand mutant mouse strains and it is now possible to introduce mutations that can be activated at specific time points, or in specific cells or organs, both during development and in the adult animal.^[23][24]

Gene targeting strategies have been expanded to all kinds of modifications, including point mutations, isoform deletions, mutant allele correction, large pieces of chromosomal DNA insertion and deletion, tissue specific disruption combined with spatial and temporal regulation and so on. It is predicted that the ability to generate mouse models with predictable phenotypes will have a major impact on studies of all phases of development, immunology, neurobiology, oncology, physiology, metabolism, and human diseases. Gene targeting is also in theory applicable to species from which totipotent embryonic stem cells can be established, and therefore may offer a potential to the improvement of domestic animals and plants.^[24][25]

Changing concept[link]

The concept of the gene has changed considerably (see history section). From the original definition of a "unit of inheritance", the term evolved to mean a DNA-based unit that can exert its effects on the organism through RNA or protein products. It was also previously believed that one gene makes one protein; this concept was overthrown by the discovery of alternative splicing and trans-splicing.^[14]

The definition of a gene is still changing. The first cases of RNA-based inheritance have been discovered in mammals.^[3] Evidence is also accumulating that the control regions of a gene do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule or even on the same chromosome. Spilianakis and colleagues discovered that the promoter region of the interferon-gamma gene on chromosome 10 and the regulatory regions of the T(H)2 cytokine locus on chromosome 11 come into close proximity in the nucleus possibly to be jointly regulated.^[26]

The concept that genes are clearly delimited is also being eroded. There is evidence for fused proteins stemming from two adjacent genes that can produce two separate protein products. While it is not clear whether these fusion proteins are functional, the phenomenon is more frequent than previously thought.^[27] Even more ground-breaking than the discovery of fused genes is the observation that some proteins can be composed of exons from far away regions and even different chromosomes.^[2][28] This new data has led to an updated, and probably tentative, definition of a gene as "a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products".^[14] This new definition categorizes genes by functional products, whether they be proteins or RNA, rather than specific DNA loci; all regulatory elements of DNA are therefore classified as gene-associated regions.^[14]

See also[link]

	Biology portal
	Molecular and Cellular Biology portal

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Dawkins, Richard (1990). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286092-5.  Google Book Search; first published 1976.
• Dawkins, Richard (1995). River Out of Eden. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-06990-8. 
• Ridley, Matt (1999). Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters. Fourth Estate. ISBN 0-00-763573-7. 

External links[link]

Listen to this article (info/dl)

This audio file was created from a revision of the "Gene" article dated 2005-04-21, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)

More spoken articles

• Comparative Toxicogenomics Database
• DNA From The Beginning - a primer on genes and DNA
• Genes And DNA - Introduction to genes and DNA aimed at non-biologist
• Entrez Gene - a searchable database of genes
• IDconverter - converts gene IDs between public databases
• iHOP - Information Hyperlinked over Proteins
• TranscriptomeBrowser - Gene expression profile analysis
• The Protein Naming Utility, a database to identify and correct deficient gene names
• Genes - an Open Access journal
• IMPC (International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium) - Encyclopedia of mammalian gene function

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Gene Pitney
Pitney in 1967.
Background information
Birth name	Gene Francis Alan Pitney
Also known as	Billy Bryan
Born	(1941-02-17)February 17, 1941 Hartford, Connecticut, United States
Origin	Rockville, Connecticut, United States
Died	April 5, 2006(2006-04-05) (aged 65) Cardiff, Wales, UK
Genres	Rock and roll
Occupations	Singer, songwriter, musician
Instruments	Guitar, piano, drums
Years active	1961–2006

Gene Francis Alan Pitney (February 17, 1941 – April 5, 2006) was an American singer-songwriter, musician, and sound engineer. Through the mid-1960s, he enjoyed success as a recording artist on both sides of the Atlantic and was among the group of early 1960s American acts who continued to enjoy hits after the British Invasion. Pitney charted 16 Top-40 hits in the U.S., four in the Top 10. In the UK he had 22 Top-40 hits, and 11 singles in the Top Ten. He also wrote the early 1960s hits "Rubber Ball" by Bobby Vee, "He's a Rebel" by The Crystals, and "Hello Mary Lou" by Rick Nelson. In 2002, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Early years[link]

Pitney was born in Hartford, Connecticut, and grew up in Rockville, now part of Vernon, Connecticut. His early influences were Clyde McPhatter, country-blues singer Moon Mullican and doo-wop groups like The Crows. He attended Rockville High School, at which he was named "the Rockville Rocket", and where he formed his first band, Gene & the Genials. He made records as part of a duo called Jamie and Jane with Ginny Arnell (who in late 1963 had a solo hit, "Dumb Head"), and in 1959 recorded a single as Billy Bryan. The first of the two Decca 45s as Jamie and Jane was "Snuggle Up, Baby," a cover of a song Charlie Gracie recorded at Cameo 1957 or early 1958, which remained unreleased until London Records released Gracie's original version in Europe in 1978.

Career[link]

Rise to fame (1961–1964)[link]

Signed to songwriter Aaron Schroeder's newly formed Musicor label in 1961, Pitney scored his first chart single, which made the Top 40, the self-penned "(I Wanna) Love My Life Away", on which he played several instruments and multi-tracked the vocals. He followed that same year with his first Top 20 single, the title song from the film Town Without Pity starring Kirk Douglas. Written by Dimitri Tiomkin and Ned Washington, the song won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song. Pitney performed the song at the Oscars ceremony on 9 April 1962 (honoring the film year of 1961). The song lost the Academy Award to "Moon River". "Town Without Pity" would be the last song Gene Pitney would sing in public, at a gig in south Wales before his death at the age of 65.

Pitney is also remembered for Burt Bacharach-Hal David song "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance", which peaked at No. 4 in 1962. Though it shares a title with a 1962 John Ford western with the same title, The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, starring John Wayne, the song was not used in the film because of a publishing dispute between Famous Music and Paramount Pictures.

Meanwhile, Pitney wrote hits for others, including "He's a Rebel" for The Crystals, Vikki Carr, and Elkie Brooks; "Today's Teardrops" for Roy Orbison; "Rubber Ball" for Bobby Vee; and "Hello Mary Lou" for Ricky Nelson. "He's A Rebel" kept Pitney's own #2 hit Only Love Can Break a Heart, his highest-charting single in the U.S., from the top spot.

Pitney's 1963 hit "Mecca" can be regarded^{[weasel words]} as a precursor to psychedelia in its use of Arabian music several years before The Beatles began experimenting with exotic sounds. Exotic instruments became a Pitney trademark, such as mariachi trumpets in "Lonely Drifter", ukuleles in "Hawaii", and a gypsy fiddle in "Golden Earrings".

His popularity in the UK market was ensured by the breakthrough success of "Twenty Four Hours from Tulsa", a Bacharach and David song, which peaked at No.5 in Britain at the start of 1964 ("Twenty-Four Hours From Tulsa" was only Pitney's third single release in the UK to reach the singles chart and the first to break the Top Twenty there). "Twenty-Four Hours From Tulsa" was also a hit in the U.S, peaking at No.17 on the US Billboard Hot 100.

Involvement with the Rolling Stones (1964)[link]

Pitney was present with Phil Spector at some of the Rolling Stones' early recording sessions in London, including "Little by Little" and other tracks for their debut album;^[1] he played piano, though the extent is uncertain.

The Jagger/Richards song "That Girl Belongs to Yesterday" was a UK hit for Pitney in 1964; it was the first tune composed by the Rolling Stones to become a Top 10 hit in the UK.^[2] In the U.S. the single stalled at No. 49, ending a run of seven Top 40 singles for Pitney as a performer.

Maintaining popularity[link]

After another low-charting single, 1964's "Yesterday's Hero", Pitney rebounded with another string of hits in the mid-1960s, including the 1964 singles "It Hurts to Be in Love" (previously mentioned) and "I'm Gonna Be Strong", which reached No. 7 and No. 9, respectively, in the U.S., and 1966's "Nobody Needs Your Love", which peaked at No. 2 in the UK. ("I'm Gonna Be Strong" also reached No. 2 on the UK charts.) "It Hurts to Be in Love" had been planned for and recorded by Neil Sedaka, but RCA refused to release it because Sedaka had recorded the song outside RCA Victor in violation of his contract. The writers, Howard Greenfield and Helen Miller, presented the song to Pitney. Miller replaced Sedaka's voice with Pitney's, though Sedaka's trademark backing harmonies were left intact.

In 1965, Pitney recorded two successful albums with country singer George Jones. They were voted the most promising country-and-western duo of the year. Pitney also recorded songs in Italian, Spanish and German, and twice finished second in Italy's annual Sanremo Music Festival, where his strong vibrato reminded older listeners of the Italian tenor Caruso. He had a regional hit with "Nessuno Mi Puo' Giudicare".

UK, Australian and European stardom (1966–1970s)[link]

Pitney's career in the U.S. took a downturn after mid-1966, when "Backstage" ended another run of Top 40 hits. He returned one last time to the Top 40 with "She's a Heartbreaker" in mid-1968 and placed several singles in the lower reaches of the Hot 100 after that, but by 1970 he was no longer a hit-maker in the U.S.

Pitney maintained a successful career in Britain and the rest of Europe into the 1970s, appearing regularly on UK charts as late as 1974. In Australia, after a fallow period in the early 1970s, Pitney returned to Top 40 in 1974, as both Blue Angel (No. 2) and Trans-Canada Highway (No. 14; production by David Mackay) were substantial hits. Pitney continued to place records in the Australian charts through 1976, including the hit "Down This Road", written and produced by distant relation Edward Pitney. They also collaborated in the production of the hit song "Days of Summer".

In the early 1970s, Pitney decided to spend only six months each year on the road.

Later career[link]

Pitney's last hit on the UK charts came in 1989, after an absence of 15 years, when he and Soft Cell singer Marc Almond recorded a duet version of "Something's Gotten Hold of My Heart" by British writers Roger Cook and Roger Greenaway. The song had been a UK No. 5 for Pitney in 1967. The duet brought him his first UK No. 1, in late January 1989. The single remained at the top for four weeks, and also went to No. 1 elsewhere in Europe. Pitney and Almond appeared on the Terry Wogan television show in Britain, Almond dressed in leather, Pitney in a white tuxedo.

Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds had recorded "Something's Gotten Hold of My Heart" on their cover album, Kicking Against the Pricks, in 1986. However, it never had the success of Pitney-Almond.

On 26 February 1993, Pitney performed at Carnegie Hall in New York on the day of the first World Trade Center bombing. On 18 March 2002 he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Death[link]

Pitney died on April 5, 2006, aged 65. His tour manager found him dead in the Hilton Hotel, in Cardiff, Wales, in the middle of a UK tour.^[3] His final show at Cardiff's St. David's Hall earned him a standing ovation; he ended with "Town Without Pity". An autopsy confirmed that he had a heart disease, caused by atherosclerosis. He left a wife, Lynne, and three sons, Todd, Chris, and David.^[4] He was buried at Somers Center Cemetery in Somers, Connecticut.

Posthumous tributes[link]

Marc Almond recorded "Backstage (I'm Lonely)" for his 2007 covers album, Stardom Road.

On 20 September 2007, a plaque to Pitney was unveiled at the town hall in his hometown of Rockville, Connecticut. Members of the family attended. The event was emceed by nationally known oldies radio DJ and Pitney friend "Wild" Wayne. The Gene Pitney Commemorative Committee established a music scholarship in Pitney's name. It is awarded annually to Rockville High School. In October 2008, an international fan convention was held in Rockville. In 2009, Pitney was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.

Discography[link]

Singles[link]

Note that release dates refer to initial release. Pitney's early singles generally appeared one to four months later in the UK/Australia. Many of his later releases are UK/Australia/NZ only.

Sources include Joel Whitburn's Record Research material for the U.S. Top 100, "Bubbling Under" and U.S. Country charts; Tim Rice et al., Guinness Book of Hit Singles for the UK; CHUM Chart for Canada prior to mid-1964, and the Canadian RPM charts thereafter; and The Kent Report for Australia

References[link]

External links[link]

• Gene Pitney bio
• A site created to honor Gene in his hometown of Rockville, CT
• "Wild" Wayne - Ct. based nationally known Oldies Radio DJ & friend of Gene Pitney
• Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
• Report of Pitney's death from BBC News
• BBC Obituary
• Obituary from The Guardian
• Fan's Final Chat with Gene Pitney
• Interview with Gene Pitney in International Songwriters Association's "Songwriter Magazine", concentrating on his songwriting career

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012)

"The Man" is a slang phrase that may refer to the government or to some other authority in a position of power. In addition to this derogatory connotation, it may also serve as a term of respect and praise.

The phrase "the Man is keeping me down" is commonly used to describe oppression. The phrase "stick it to the Man" encourages resistance to authority, and essentially means "fight back" or "resist", either openly or via sabotage.^[1]

History[link]

The earliest recorded use^{[citation needed]} of the term "the Man" in the American sense dates back to a letter written by a young Alexander Hamilton in September 1772, when he was 15. In a letter to his father James Hamilton, published in the Royal Dutch-American Gazette, he described the response of the Dutch governor of St. Croix to a hurricane that raked that island on August 31, 1772. "Our General has issued several very salutary and humane regulations and both in his publick and private measures, has shewn himself the Man." ^{[2][dubious – discuss]} In the Southern U.S. states, the phrase came to be applied to any man or any group in a position of authority, or to authority in the abstract. From about the 1950s the phrase was also an underworld code word for police, the warden of a prison or other law enforcement or penal authorities.

It was also used as a term for a drug dealer in the 1950s and 1960s and can be seen in such media as Curtis Mayfield's "No Thing On Me", William Burroughs's novel Naked Lunch, and in the Velvet Underground song "I'm Waiting for the Man", in which Lou Reed sings about going to Uptown Manhattan, specifically Lexington Avenue and 125th Street, to buy heroin.

The use of this term was expanded to counterculture groups and their battles against authority, such as the Yippies, which, according to a May 19, 1969 article in U.S. News and World Report, had the "avowed aim ... to destroy 'The Man', their term for the present system of government". The term eventually found its way into humorous usage, such as in a December 1979 motorcycle ad from the magazine Easyriders which featured the tagline, "California residents: Add 6% sales tax for The Man."

In present day, the phrase has been popularized in commercials and cinema, featuring particularly prominently as a recurring motif in the 2003 film School of Rock.^[3][4][5][6]

Use as praise[link]

The term has also been used as an approbation or form of praise. This may refer to the recipient's status as the leader or authority within a particular context, or it might be assumed to be a shortened form of a phrase like "He is the man (who is in charge)." One example of this usage dates to 1879 when Otto von Bismarck commented, referring to Benjamin Disraeli's pre-eminent position at the Congress of Berlin, "The old Jew, he is the man."^{[7][dubious – discuss]}

In more modern usage, it can be a superlative compliment ("you da man!") indicating that the subject is currently standing out amongst his peers even though they have no special designation or rank, such as a basketball player who is performing better than the other players on the court. It can also be used as a genuine compliment with an implied, slightly exaggerated or sarcastic tone, usually indicating that the person has indeed impressed the speaker but by doing something relatively trivial.

See also[link]

• Absentee landlord
• Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)
• New World Order (conspiracy theory)
• Ruling class
• The Establishment
• Power elite
• Corrections officer
• YTMND

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Lighter, J.E. (Ed.). (1997). Random House Dictionary of American Slang. New York: Random House.

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this article if you can; the talk page may contain suggestions. (June 2009)

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

Vincent Eugene Craddock (February 11, 1935 – October 12, 1971), known as Gene Vincent, was an American musician who pioneered the styles of rock and roll and rockabilly. His 1956 top ten hit with his Blue Caps, "Be-Bop-A-Lula", is considered a significant early example of rockabilly. He is a member of the Rock and Roll and Rockabilly Halls of Fame.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Vincent Eugene Craddock was born in Norfolk, Virginia, on February 11, 1935. His early musical influences included country, rhythm and blues and gospel music. He showed his first real interest in music while his family lived in Munden Point, Princess Anne County (now Virginia Beach), Virginia, near the North Carolina line, where they ran a country store. He received his first guitar as a gift from a friend at the age of 12.

His father, Ezekiah Jackson Craddock, volunteered to serve in the U.S. Coast Guard and patrolled American coastal waters to protect Allied shipping against German U-boats during World War II. His mother, Mary Louise Craddock, maintained a general store at Munden Point. Craddock's parents moved the family and opened a new general store and sailor's tailoring shop in Norfolk.

Having spent his youth in the Norfolk area, Craddock decided to pursue the life of a sailor. He dropped out of school at age 17 and enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1952. Craddock's parents signed the required forms allowing him to join the Navy. He completed boot camp and joined the fleet as a crewman aboard the fleet oiler USS Chukawan, although he did spend a two week training period on the repair ship USS Amphion before returning to the Chukawan. He proved to be a good sailor while deployed at sea, but gained a reputation as a trouble-maker while on liberty ashore. Craddock never saw combat, but completed a Korean War deployment. He sailed home from Korean waters aboard battleship USS Wisconsin, but was not part of the ship's company.

Craddock planned a long career in the U.S. Navy and, in 1955, used his $612 dollar reenlistment bonus to buy a new Triumph motorbike.^[1] In July 1955, while in Norfolk, he was involved in a severe motorcycle accident that shattered his left leg. He refused to have it amputated. The leg was saved, but left him with a permanent limp and chronic pain for the rest of his life. Most accounts relate the accident as having been the fault of a drunk male or female driver who struck him, although some have claimed it was Craddock who had been riding his cycle drunk. Years later in some of his professional music bios, there is no mention of any accident, but it was claimed that Gene was wounded in combat in Korea^[2] He spent time in the Portsmouth Naval Hospital and was medically discharged from the Navy shortly thereafter.

Early music career[link]

Craddock became involved in the local music scene in Norfolk. He changed his name to Gene Vincent, and formed a rockabilly band called the Blue Caps (a term used in reference to enlisted sailors in the U.S. Navy).^[3] The band included Willie Williams on rhythm guitar, Jack Neal on upright bass, Dickie Harrell on drums, and the innovative and influential lead guitarist, Cliff Gallup. He and his band are named "Gene Vincent and His Blue Caps", not "...the Blue Caps" as often stated.

Gene Vincent and His Blue Caps soon gained a reputation playing in various country bars in his native Norfolk, Virginia. There, they won a talent contest organized by local radio DJ "Sheriff Tex" Davis, who became his manager.^[4]

Biggest hits[link]

In 1956 he wrote "Be-Bop-A-Lula", No. 102 on Rolling Stone magazine's "500 Greatest Rock and Roll Songs of All Time" list. Local radio DJ "Sheriff Tex" Davis arranged for this to be demoed and this secured him a contract with Capitol Records. He signed a publishing contract with Bill Lowery of The Lowery Group of music publishers in Atlanta, Georgia. "Be-Bop-A-Lula" was not on Vincent's first album and was picked by Capitol producer Ken Nelson as the B side of his first single. Prior to the release of the single, Lowery pressed promotional copies of "Be-Bop-A-Lula" and sent them to radio stations throughout the country. By the time Capitol released the single, "Be-Bop-A-Lula" had already gained attention from the public and radio DJs. The song was picked up and played by other U.S. radio stations (obscuring the original "A-side" song), and became a hit and launched Vincent as a rock 'n' roll star.

After "Be-Bop-A-Lula" became a hit (peaking at No. 5 and spending 20 weeks on the Billboard Pop Chart), Gene Vincent and His Blue Caps were unable to follow it up with the same level of commercial success, but released critically acclaimed songs like "Race With The Devil" (No. 96 in Billboard) and "Bluejean Bop" (No. 49). That year, Vincent was reportedly convicted of public obscenity and fined $10,000 by the state of Virginia for his live performance of the erotic song, "Woman Love", although this is now believed to have been a rumor, possibly started by his manager.

Cliff Gallup left the band and Johnny Meeks was ushered in as new guitarist for The Blue Caps in 1957. The group had another hit with 1957's "Lotta Lovin'" (highest position No. 13 and spending 19 weeks in the charts). Gene Vincent was awarded Gold Records for 2 million sales of Be-Bop-A-Lula and 1.5 million sales of Lotta Lovin'. The same year he toured the east coast of Australia with Little Richard and Eddie Cochran, drawing audiences totaling 72,000 to their Sydney Stadium concerts. Vincent also made an appearance in the film, The Girl Can't Help It with Jayne Mansfield, performing "Be-Bop-A-Lula with the Blue Caps in a rehearsal room..

"Dance to the Bop" was released by Capitol records on October 28, 1957.^[5] On November 17, 1957 Vincent and His Blue Caps performed the song on the nationally-broadcast Ed Sullivan Show.^[6] The song spent nine weeks on the charts and peaked at No. 23 on January 23, 1958, and would be Vincent's last American hit single.^[7] The song was used in the movie Hot Rod Gang for a dance rehearsal scene featuring dancers doing West Coast Swing.^[8]

Vincent and His Blue Caps also appeared several times on Town Hall Party, California's largest country music barn dance held at the Town Hall in Compton, California. Town Hall Party drew in excess of 2,800 paid admissions each Friday and Saturday with room for 1,200 dancers. The show was also on from 8:30 to 9:30 pm over the NBC Radio network. It was also shown on KTTV, channel 11 from 10 pm to 1 am on Saturday nights.^[9] Appearances were on October 25, 1958, as well as July 25 and November 7, 1959. Songs performed were: "Be-Bop-A-Lula", "High Blood Pressure", "Rip It Up", "Dance To The Bop", "You Win Again", "For Your Precious Love", "Rocky Road Blues", "Pretty Pearly", "High School Confidential", "Over The Rainbow", "Roll Over Beethoven" and "She She Little Sheila".^[10]

Europe[link]

A dispute with the US tax authorities and The American Musicians' Union over payments to his band and his having sold the band's equipment to pay a tax bill led him to leave the US and try his hand in Europe.

On 15 December 1959, Vincent appeared on Jack Good's TV show "Boy Meets Girl", his first appearance in England.^[11] He wore black leather, gloves, and a medallion, and stood in a hunched posture. Good is credited with the transformation of Vincent's image. After the TV appearance he toured France, Holland, Germany, and the UK performing in his US stage clothes. When joined by Eddie Cochran and a month-long extension of the tour, he resumed the maximum leather state dynamics.^[12]

On 16 April 1960, while on tour in the UK, Vincent, Eddie Cochran, and songwriter Sharon Sheeley were involved in a high-speed traffic accident in a private hire taxi in Chippenham, Wiltshire. Vincent broke his ribs and collarbone and further damaged his weakened leg. Sheeley suffered a broken pelvis. Cochran, who had been thrown from the vehicle, suffered serious brain injuries and died the next day. Vincent returned to the States after the accident.

Promoter Don Arden had Vincent return to the UK in 1961 to do an extensive tour in theatres and ballrooms with Chris Wayne and The Echoes. Due to the overwhelming success of this tour, Vincent subsequently moved to England in 1963. The accompanying band, Sounds Incorporated, a six-piece outfit which included three saxophones, guitar, bass and drums, later went on to play with The Beatles at their Shea Stadium concert.

Later career[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Vincent's attempts to re-establish his American career recording in folk rock and country rock genres proved unsuccessful; he is best remembered today for his recordings of the 1950s and early 1960s which originally appeared on the Capitol Records label. He also put out some tracks on EMI's Columbia label (the British label, not the U.S. CBS/Columbia), including a cover of Arthur Alexander's "Where Have You Been All My Life". A new backing band called The Shouts joined him at this time.

In 1966 and 1967, back in the States, he recorded tracks for Challenge Records. On these, he was backed by ex-members of The Champs and Glen Campbell. Challenge released three singles in the US and the UK London label released two singles and collected all the recordings onto an LP Gene Vincent on the UK London label in 1967. Although critically well received, none of these releases sold well.

In 1969, he recorded the album I'm Back and I'm Proud for long-time fan John Peel's Dandelion label, which was produced by maverick Kim Fowley with arrangements by The Byrds' Skip Battin and boasted backing vocals by Linda Ronstadt. He later recorded two other albums for the Kama Sutra label, reissued on one CD by Rev-Ola in March 2008.

On his final tour of the UK, he was backed by The Wild Angels, a British band who had previously worked at the Royal Albert Hall with Bill Haley & His Comets and Duane Eddy. Because of pressure from his ex-wife, the Inland Revenue and promoter Don Arden, Vincent had to return swiftly to the US.

His final US recordings were four tracks for Rockin' Ronny Weiser's Rolling Rock label, a few weeks before his death. These tracks were later released on a compilation album of tribute songs, including a version of "Say Mama" by his daughter Melody Jean Vincent (accompanied by Johnny Meeks on guitar). He later recorded four tracks (released years later as The Last Session) in Britain in October 1971.

Vincent died on October 12, 1971 from a ruptured stomach ulcer while visiting his father in California,^[2] and is interred in the Eternal Valley Memorial Park, Newhall, California.

He was the first inductee into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame upon its formation in 1997.^{[citation needed]} The following year he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Vincent has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1749 N. Vine Street. In 2012, his band, the Blue Caps, would be retroactively inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by a special committee, alongside Vincent.

Discography[link]

Singles[link]

• "Woman Love"/"Be-Bop-A-Lula" (Capitol F 3450 US) (6/4/56) (Capitol 45-CL 14599 UK)
• "Race With the Devil"/"Gonna Back Up Baby" (Capitol F3530 US) (9/10/56) (Capitol 45-CL 14628 UK)
• "Blue Jean Bop"/"Who Slapped John" (Capitol F3558 US) (10/56) (Capitol 45-CL 14637 UK)
• "Jumps, Giggles And Shouts"/"Wedding Bells" (Capitol 14681 UK)
• "Crazy Legs"/"Important Words" (Capitol F3617 US) (1/7/57) (Capitol 45-CL 14693 UK)
• "Five Days"/"Bi Bickey Bi Bo Bo Go" (Capitol F3678 US) (3/25/57) (Capitol 45-CL 14722 UK)
• "Lotta Lovin'"/"Wear My Ring" (Capitol F3763 US) (7/22/57) (Capitol 45-CL 14763 UK)
• "Dance to the Bop"/"I Got It" (Capitol F3839 US) (11/18/57) (Capitol 45-CL 14808)
• "Lotta Lovin'"/Be Bop A Lula" (Capitol F3871 US) (11/20/57) (Re-issue)
• "I Got a Baby"/"Walking Home From School" (Capitol F3874 US) (1/58) (Capitol 45-CL 14830)
• "Baby Blue"/"True to You" (Capitol F3959 US) (5/58) (Capitol 45-CL 14868 UK)
• "Rocky Road Blues"/"Yes I Love You Baby" (Capitol F4010 US) (7/58) (Capitol 45-CL 14908 UK)
• "Git It"/"Little Lover" (Capitol F4051 US) (9/58) (Capitol 5-CL 14935 UK)
• "Say Mama"/"Be Bop Boogie Boy" (Capitol F4105 US) (11/58) (Capitol 45-CL 14974 UK)
• "Over the Rainbow"/"Who's Pushing Your Swing" (Capitol F4153 US) (1/59) (Capitol 45-CL 15000 UK)
• "Summertime"/"Frankie And Johnnie" (Capitol 45-CL 15035 UK)
• "The Night is So Lonely"/"Right Now" (Capitol F4237 US) (6/59) (Capitol 45-CL 15053 UK)
• "Wild Cat"/"Right Here on Earth" (Capitol F4313 US) (11/59) (Capitol 45-CL 15099 UK)
• "My Heart"/"I Got To Get To You Yet" (Capitol 45-CL 15115 UK)
• "Pistol Packin' Mama"/"Weeping Willow" (Capitol 45-CL 15136 UK) (6/60)
• "Pistol Packin' Mama"/"Anna Annabelle" (Capitol F4442 US) (9/60)
• "Anna Annabelle"/"Accentuate The Positive" (Capitol 45-CL 15169 UK) (60)
• "Jezebel"/"Maybe" (Capitol 45-CL 15179 UK) (61)
• "If You Want My Lovin'"/"Mister Loneliness" (Capitol F4525 US) (61) (Capitol 45-CL 15185 UK)
• "She She Little Sheila"/"Hot Dollar" (Capitol 45-CL 15202 UK) (61)
• "I'm Going Home (To See My Baby)"/"Love Of A Man" (Capitol 45-CL 15215 UK) (61)
• "Brand New Beat"/"Unchained Melody" (Capitol 45-CL 15231 UK) (61)
• "Lucky Star"/"Baby Don't Believe Him" (Capitol F4665 US) (61) (Capitol 45-CL 15243 UK (62)
• "King Of Fools"/"Be-Bop-A-Lula '62" (Capitol 45-CL 15264 UK) (62)
• "Held For Questioning"/"You're Still In My Heart" (Capitol 45-CL 15290 UK) (63)
• "Crazy Beat"/"High Blood Pressure" (Capitol 45-CL 15307 UK) (63)
• "Where Have You Been All My Life"/"Temptation Baby" (Columbia DB 7174 UK) (63)
• "Humpity Dumpity"/"A Love 'Em And Leave 'Em Kinda Guy" (Columbia DB 7218 UK) (64)
• "La Den Da Den Da Da"/"The Beginning Of The End" (Columbia DB 7293 UK) (64)
• "Private Detective"/"You Are My Sunshine" (Columbia DB 7343 UK) (64)
• "Bird Doggin'"/"Ain't That Too Much" (Challenge 59337 US) (66) (London HLH 10079 UK)
• "Lonely Street"/"I've Got My Eyes On You" (Challenge 59347 US) (66) (London HLH 10099 UK)
• "Born To Be A Rolling Stone"/"Hurtin' For You Baby" (Challenge 59365 US) (67)
• "Be-Bop-A-Lula '69"/"Ruby Baby" (Dandelion S 4596 UK) (69)
• "White Lightning"/"Scarlet Ribbons" (Dandelion S 4974 UK) (70)
• "Story Of The Rockers"/"Pickin' Poppies" (Forever FR6001 US) (70) (Spark SRL 1091 UK) (73)
• "Sunshine"/"Geese" (Kama Sutra KA514 US) (70)
• "The Day The World Turned Blue"/"How I Love Them Old Songs" (Kama Sutra KA518 US) (70)
• "The Day The World Turned Blue"/"High On Life" (Kama Sutra KS2013018 UK) (71)
• "Roll Over Beethoven"/"Say Mama"/"Be-Bop-A-Lula" (Beeb 001 UK) (74)
• "Hound Dog"(live)/"Be-Bop-A-Lula"(live) (Norton 45-114 US) (04)

(NB Apart from the first 1957 reissue, this listing omits the very many reissue singles released over the decades)

Albums[link]

• Bluejean Bop (Capitol T764 US & UK) (8/13/56)
• Gene Vincent and The Blue Caps (Capitol T811 US & UK) (1957)
• Gene Vincent Rocks! And The Blue Caps Roll (Capitol T970 US & UK) (3/58)
• A Gene Vincent Record Date (Capitol T1059 US & UK) (11/58)
• Sounds Like Gene Vincent (Capitol T1207 US & UK) (6/59)
• Crazy Times (Capitol T1342 US & UK mono) (Capitol ST1342 US & UK stereo) (3/60)
• The Crazy Beat of Gene Vincent (Capitol T 20453 UK) (63)
• Shakin' Up A Storm (Columbia 33-OSX 1646 UK) (64)
• Gene Vincent (London HAH 8333 UK) (67)
• I'm Back And I'm Proud (Dandelion D9 102 US)(69) (Dandelion 63754 UK) (70)
• Gene Vincent (Kama Sutra KSBS 2019 US) (70) retitled If Only You Could See Me Today (Kama Sutra 2361009 UK) (71)
• The Day The World Turned Blue (Kama Sutra KSBS 2027 US) (70) (Kama Sutra 2316005 (UK) (71)
• Rhythm in Blue (bootleg) (Bluecap Records BC2-11-35 Canada) (79)
• Be-Bop-A-Lula (bootleg) (Koala KOA 14617 US) (80)
• Forever Gene Vincent (Rolling Rock LP 022 US) (80) (contains 4 rare recordings by Gene Vincent)
• Dressed in Black (Magnum Force MFLP 016 UK) (82)
• Gene Vincent With Interview By Red Robinson (bootleg) (The Great Northwest Music Company GNW 4016 US) (82)
• From LA to Frisco (Magnum Force MFLP 1023 UK) (82)
• For Collectors Only (Magnum Force MFLP 020 UK) (84)
• Rareties (sic) (bootleg) (Dr Kollector CRA 001 France) (86)
• Rarities Vol 2 (bootleg) (Doktor Kollector DK 005 France) (85)
• Important Words (Rockstar RSR LP 1020 UK) (90)
• Hey Mama! (Rollercoaster ROLL 2012 UK) (98)

(NB This listing omits the many reissue albums released over the decades)

EPs[link]

• Hot Rod Gang (Capitol EAP 1-985 US & UK) (9/58)
• Be-Bop-A-Lula '62 (Capitol EAP 1-20448 France) (62)
• Live and Rockin' (Fan club issue UK) (69)
• The Screamin' Kid Live! (bootleg) (no label 20240 France) (69)
• The Screaming Kid (bootleg) (no label 20.266 France) (69)
• Rainyday Sunshine (Rollin' Danny RD1 UK) (80)
• On Tour With Gene Vincent & Eddie Cochran (Rockstar RSR-EP 2013 UK) (86)
• In Concert Vol 1 (bootleg) (Savas SA 178305 France) (88)
• The Last Session (Strange Fruit SFNT 001 UK) (88)
• Hey Mama! (Rollercoaster CDEP 123 UK) (98)
• Blue Gene (Norton EP-076 US) (99)

(NB This listing omits the many EPs of album tracks & compilations)

Film appearances[link]

• The Girl Can't Help It (1956)
• Hot Rod Gang (aka Fury Unleashed) (1958)
• Live It Up! (aka Sing And Swing) (1960)
• It's Trad, Dad! (aka Ring A Ding Rhythm) (1962)
• Vincent was played by Carl Barât in the 2009 movie, Telstar

See also[link]

Biography portal

Music[link]

• Ian Dury - "Sweet Gene Vincent", from New Boots and Panties!! (1977)
• Havana 3 a.m. - "Blue Gene Vincent"
• Johnny Carroll - "Black Leather Rebel"
• Robert Gordon - "The Catman" on his album Rock Billy Boogie
• Stray Cats - "Gene and Eddie" on their album Blast Off!.

Movies[link]

The embedded lists in this article may contain items that are not encyclopedic. Please help out by removing such elements and incorporating appropriate items into the main body of the article. (July 2010)

• Early in the movie, Quadrophenia, Kevin, played by Ray Winstone, sings "Be-Bop-A-Lula" in the bathtub.
• In the 2003 movie, The Singing Detective, Robert Downey Jr, sings "In My Dreams", "Important Words" and "Woman Love"
• "Be-Bop-A-Lula" appears in the 1990 movie, Wild at Heart; one of the main characters is named Lula.

Bibliography[link]

• Britt Hagarty: The Day The World Turned Blue Blandford Press (1984) ISBN 07137153316
• Susan Vanhecke: Race With the Devil: Gene Vincent's Life in the Fast Lane. Saint Martin's Press (2000) ISBN 0-312-26222-1
• Steven Mandich: Sweet Gene Vincent (The Bitter End) Orange Syringe Publications. (2002) 1000 Printed. ISBN 0-9537626-0-2
• Mick Farren: Gene Vincent. There's One In Every Town The Do-Not Press (2004) ISBN 1-904316-37-9
• John Collis: Gene Vincent and Eddie Cochran, Rock 'N' Roll Revolutionaries Virgin Books (2004) ISBN 1-85227-193-0
• Derek Henderson: Gene Vincent, A Companion Spent Brothers Productions (2005) ISBN 0-9519416-7-4 (NB contains an extensive Bibliography on Gene Vincent)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Gene Vincent website from Rockabilly Hall of Fame.
• Derek Henderson's Gene Vincent website
• Gene Vincent Fan club & website