Look up hopper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

A slant or gravity wagon is essentially a hopper

Hopper or hoppers may refer to:

Mechanical parts[link]

• A general term for a chute with additional width and depth for temporary storage
• Hopper (particulate collection container), a large container used for dust collection
• Part of a combine harvester
• A storage container used to dispense granular materials through the use of gravity, sometimes assisted by mechanical agitation, an example is a paintball loader

Transportation[link]

• Hopper (spacecraft), a proposed spacecraft
• Hopper balloon, a kind of ultralight hot air balloon
• Hopper barge, a kind of barge
• Hopper car, a type of railway freight car
• Slant wagon, a type of wagon that is essentially a hopper; used in agriculture.
• Space hopper, a self powered mode of transportation.
• USS Hopper, a U.S. Navy destroyer

Insects[link]

• Leafhopper, a member of the family Cicadellidae
• Treehopper, a member of the family Membracidae (typical treehoppers) or Aetalionidae
• The immature form of a locust
• Grasshoppers

People with the surname Hopper[link]

• Andy Hopper (born 1953), British computer scientist
• Dennis Hopper (1936–2010), American actor
• DeWolf Hopper (1858–1935), American actor, singer, comedian and producer
• Edward Hopper (1882–1967), American painter and printmaker
• Franz Hopper, fictional character in Code Lyoko
• Grace Hopper (1906–1992), American computer scientist and naval officer
• Hedda Hopper (1885–1966), American actress and gossip columnist
• Hugh Hopper (1945—2009), English guitarist and composer
• Isaac Hopper (1771–1852), American abolitionist and underground railroad pioneer
• Josephine Hopper (1883–1968), American artist and wife of Edward Hopper
• Kev Hopper (born 1961), musician
• Max Hopper (1934–2010), an American IT manager
• Paul Hopper, American linguist of British birth
• Shirley Ximena Hopper Russell (1886–1985), American artist best known for Hawaiian themes
• Stephen Hopper (born 1951), Australian botanist denoted by the author abbreviation "Hopper" when citing a botanical name
• Thomas Hopper (1776–1856), English architect
• Tom Hopper (born 1985), English actor
• Wilbert Hopper (1933–2006), Canadian business executive
• William Hopper (1915–1970), American actor
• The Hoppers, a Southern Gospel family ensemble

This page or section lists people with the surname Hopper. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.

Other[link]

• Grasshopper (disambiguation)
• one who harvests hops
• Hoppers (game), peg solitaire game released by Think Fun
• Hopper (video game), a 1984 Frogger clone published by Acornsoft
• Hopper (food) or Appam or Aappam hoppers, a type of food in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Sri Lankan cuisine
• fairy chess piece
• The bill hopper, wooden box on the desk of the Clerk of the United States House of Representatives in which bills or resolutions to be voted on are deposited
• Hopper, the primary antagonist in Disney's animanted film A Bug's Life
• a mountain and valley in the Hunza–Nagar District of Pakistan
• Hopper crystal, a type of crystal formation shaped like a hopper wagon
• Urban entry-level drug dealers or drug dealers' aides –typically minors– are colloquially called hoppers.^[1][2]
• Hopper Inc., a travel-oriented search engine company

See also[link]

• Hop (disambiguation)
• HOP (disambiguation)

Notes and references[link]

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Edward Hopper
Edward Hopper, Self-Portrait, 1906
Born	(1882-07-22)July 22, 1882 Nyack, New York
Died	May 15, 1967(1967-05-15) (aged 84) New York City
Nationality	American
Field	Painting
Works	Automat (1927) Chop Suey (1929) Nighthawks (1942) Office in a Small City (1953)
Influenced by	Robert Henri

Edward Hopper (July 22, 1882 – May 15, 1967) was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was equally proficient as a watercolorist and printmaker in etching. Both in his urban and rural scenes, his spare and finely calculated renderings reflected his personal vision of modern American life.^[1]

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Hopper was born in upper Nyack, New York, a yacht-building center on the Hudson River north of New York City. He was one of two children of a comfortably well-off, middle-class family. His parents, of mostly Dutch ancestry, were Garret Henry Hopper, a dry-goods merchant, and his wife Elizabeth Griffiths Smith.^[2] Though not as successful as his forebears, Garrett provided well for his two children with considerable help from his wife’s inheritance. He retired at age forty-nine.^[3] Edward and his only sister Marion attended both private and public schools. They were raised in a strict Baptist home.^[4] His father had a mild nature, and the household was dominated by women: Hopper's mother, grandmother, sister, and maid.^[5] His birthplace and boyhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000. Today the house is the Edward Hopper House Art Center.^[6] It serves as a non-profit community cultural center featuring exhibitions, workshops, lectures, performances and special events.^[7]

Hopper was a good student in grade school and showed talent in drawing at age five. He readily absorbed his father’s intellectual tendencies and love of French and Russian culture. He also demonstrated his mother’s artistic heritage.^[8] Hopper’s parents encouraged his art and kept him amply supplied with materials, instructional magazines, and illustrated books. By his teens, he was working in pen-and-ink, charcoal, watercolor, and oil—drawing from nature as well as making political cartoons.^[9] In 1895, he created his first signed oil painting, Rowboat in Rocky Cove. It showed his early interest in nautical subjects.^[10]

In his early self-portraits, Hopper tended to represent himself as skinny, ungraceful, and homely. Though a tall and quiet teenager, his prankish sense of humor found outlet in his art, sometimes in depictions of immigrants or of women dominating men in comic situations. Later in life, he depicted mostly women as figures in his paintings.^[11] In high school, he dreamed of being a naval architect, but after graduation he declared his intention to follow an art career. Hopper’s parents insisted that he study commercial art to have a reliable means of income.^[12] In developing his self-image and individualistic philosophy of life, Hopper was influenced by the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. He later said, “I admire him greatly…I read him over and over again.”^[13]

Hopper began art studies with a correspondence course in 1899. Soon, however, he transferred to the New York Institute of Art and Design. There he studied for six years, with teachers including William Merritt Chase, who instructed him in oil painting.^[12] Early on, Hopper modeled his style after Chase and French masters Édouard Manet and Edgar Degas.^[14] Sketching from live models proved a challenge and a shock for the conservatively raised Hopper.

Another of his teachers, artist Robert Henri, taught life class. Henri encouraged his students to use their art to "make a stir in the world". He also advised his students, “It isn’t the subject that counts but what you feel about it” and “Forget about art and paint pictures of what interests you in life.”^[12] In this manner, Henri influenced Hopper, as well as notable future artists George Bellows and Rockwell Kent. He encouraged them to imbue a modern spirit in their work. Some artists in Henri's circle, including John Sloan, became members of “The Eight”, also known as the Ashcan School of American Art.^[15] Hopper's first existing oil painting to hint at his famous interiors was Solitary Figure in a Theater (c.1904).^[16] During his student years, he also painted dozens of nudes, still lifes, landscapes, and portraits, including his self-portraits.^[17]

In 1905, Hopper landed a part-time job with an advertising agency, where he did cover designs for trade magazines.^[18] Much like famed illustrator N. C. Wyeth, Hopper came to detest illustration. He was bound to it by economic necessity until the mid-1920s.^[19] He temporarily escaped by making three trips to Europe, each centered in Paris, ostensibly to study the emerging art scene there. In fact, however, he studied alone and seemed mostly unaffected by the new currents in art. Later he said that he “didn’t remember having heard of Picasso at all.”^[15] He was highly impressed by Rembrandt, particularly his Night Watch, which he said was “the most wonderful thing of his I have seen; it’s past belief in its reality.”^[20]

Hopper began painting urban and architectural scenes in a dark palette. Then he shifted to the lighter palette of the Impressionists before returning to the darker palette with which he was comfortable. Hopper later said, "I got over that and later things done in Paris were more the kind of things I do now.”^[21] Hopper spent much of his time drawing street and café scenes, and going to the theater and opera. Unlike many of his contemporaries who imitated the abstract cubist experiments, Hopper was attracted to realist art. Later, he admitted to no European influences other than French engraver Charles Méryon, whose moody Paris scenes Hopper imitated.^[22]

Years of struggle[link]

Summer Interior (1909).

After returning from his last European trip, Hopper rented a studio in New York City, where he struggled to define his own style. Reluctantly, he returned to illustration. Being a free-lancer, Hopper was forced to solicit for projects, and had to knock on the doors of magazine and agency offices to find business.^[23] His painting languished: “it’s hard for me to decide what I want to paint. I go for months without finding it sometimes. It comes slowly.”^[24] His fellow illustrator Walter Tittle described Hopper’s depressed emotional state in sharper terms, seeing his friend “suffering…from long periods of unconquerable inertia, sitting for days at a time before his easel in helpless unhappiness, unable to raise a hand to break the spell.”^[25] In 1912, Hopper traveled to Gloucester, Massachusetts, to seek some inspiration and did his first outdoor paintings in America.^[24] He painted Squam Light, the first of many lighthouse paintings to come.^[26]

In 1913, at the famous Armory Show, Hopper sold his first painting, Sailing (1911), which he painted over an earlier self-portrait.^[27] Hopper was thirty-one, and though he hoped his first sale would lead to others in short order, his career would not catch fire for many more years to come.^[28] Shortly after his father’s death that same year, Hopper moved to the Washington Square apartment in the Greenwich Village section of New York City where he would live for the rest of his life.

The following year he received a commission to make some movie posters and handle publicity for a movie company.^[29] Though he did not like the illustration work, Hopper was a life-long devotee of the cinema and the theatre, both of which became subjects for his paintings. Each form influenced his compositional methods.^[30]

At an impasse over his oil paintings, in 1915 Hopper turned to etching, producing about 70 works, many of urban scenes of both Paris and New York.^[31] He also produced some posters for the war effort, as well as continuing with occasional commercial projects.^[32] When he could, Hopper did some outdoor watercolors on visits to New England, especially at the art colonies at Ogunquit, Maine, and Monhegan Island. His etchings around 1920 began to get public recognition and expressed some of his later themes, as in Night on the El Train (couples in silence), Evening Wind (solitary female), and The Catboat (simple nautical scene).^[33] Two notable oil paintings of this time were New York Interior (1921) and New York Restaurant (1922).^[34] He also painted two of his many “window” paintings to come: Girl at Sewing Machine and Moonlight Interior, that show a figure (clothed or nude) near or gazing out a window of an apartment or viewed from the outside looking in.^[35]

Although these were frustrating years, they did not go by completely without recognition. In 1918, Hopper was awarded the U.S. Shipping Board Prize for his war poster, “Smash the Hun,” and he was able to exhibit on three occasions: in 1917 with the Society of Independent Artists, in January 1920 (a one-man exhibition at the Whitney Studio Club, which was the precursor to the Whitney Museum), and in 1922 (again with the Whitney Studio Club). In 1923, Hopper received two awards for his etchings: the Logan Prize from the Chicago Society of Etchers, and the W.A. Bryan Prize.^[36]

Breakthrough and mature career[link]

Road in Maine (1914).

By 1923, Hopper’s slow climb finally produced a breakthrough. He re-encountered his future wife Josephine Nivison, an artist and former student of Robert Henri, during a summer painting trip in Gloucester, Massachusetts. They were opposites: she was short, open, gregarious, sociable, and liberal, while he was tall, secretive, shy, quiet, introspective, and conservative.^[32] They married a year later. She remarked famously, “Sometimes talking to Eddie is just like dropping a stone in a well, except that it doesn’t thump when it hits bottom.”^[37] She subordinated her career to his and shared his reclusive life style. The rest of their lives revolved around their spare walk-up apartment in the city and their summers in South Truro on Cape Cod. She managed his career and his interviews, was his primary model, and was his life companion.^[37]

With Nivison’s help, six of Hopper’s Gloucester watercolors were admitted to an exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum in 1923. One of them, The Mansard Roof, was purchased by the museum for its permanent collection for the sum of $100.^[38] The critics generally raved about his work; one stated, “What vitality, force and directness! Observe what can be done with the homeliest subject.”^[38] Hopper sold all his watercolors at a one-man show the following year and finally decided to put illustration behind him.

The artist had demonstrated his ability to transfer his attraction to Parisian architecture to American urban and rural architecture. According to Boston Museum of Fine Arts curator Carol Troyen, "Hopper really liked the way these houses, with their turrets and towers and porches and mansard roofs and ornament cast wonderful shadows. He always said that his favorite thing was painting sunlight on the side of a house."^[39]

At forty-one, Hopper received further recognition for his work. He continued to harbor bitterness about his career, later turning down appearances and awards.^[37] His financial stability now secured, Hopper would live a simple, stable life and continue creating art in his distinctive style for four more decades.

His Two on the Aisle (1927) sold for a personal record $1,500, enabling Hopper to purchase an automobile, which he used to make field trips to remote areas of New England.^[40] In 1929, he produced Chop Suey and Railroad Sunset. The following year, art patron Stephen Clark donated House by the Railroad (1925) to the Museum of Modern Art, the first oil painting it acquired for its collection.^[41] Hopper painted his last self-portrait in oil around 1930. Though she posed for many of his paintings, Josephine modeled for only one oil portrait, Jo Painting (1936).^[42]

Hopper fared better than many other artists during the Great Depression. His stature took a sharp rise in 1931 when major museums, including the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, paid thousands of dollars for his works. He sold 30 paintings that year, including 13 watercolors.^[40] The following year he participated in the first Whitney Annual, and he continued to exhibit in every annual at the museum for the rest of his life.^[40] In 1933, the Museum of Modern Art gave Hopper his first large-scale retrospective.^[43] The Hoppers built their summer house in South Truro in 1934.

Hopper was very productive through the 1930s and early 1940s, producing among many important works New York Movie (1939), Girlie Show (1941), Nighthawks (1942), Hotel Lobby (1943), and Morning in a City (1944). During the late 1940s, however, he suffered a period of relative inactivity. He admitted, “I wish I could paint more. I get sick of reading and going to the movies.”^[44] In the two decades to come his health faltered, and he had several prostate surgeries and other medical problems.^[44] Nonetheless, in the 1950s and early 1960s, he created several more major works, including First Row Orchestra (1951); as well as Morning Sun and Hotel by a Railroad, both in 1952; and Intermission (1963).^[45]

Death[link]

Hopper died in his studio near Washington Square in New York City on May 15, 1967. His wife, who died 10 months later, bequeathed their joint collection of over three thousand works to the Whitney Museum of American Art.^[46] Other significant paintings by Hopper are held by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, The Des Moines Art Center, and the Art Institute of Chicago.

Hopper’s art[link]

Personality and vision[link]

Always reluctant to discuss himself and his art, Hopper simply summed up his art by stating, “The whole answer is there on the canvas.”^[43] Hopper was stoic and fatalistic—a quiet introverted man with a gentle sense of humor and a frank manner. Conservative in politics and social matters, he accepted things as they were and displayed a lack of idealism. Cultured and sophisticated, he was well-read, and many of his paintings show figures reading.^[47] He was generally good company and unperturbed by silences, though sometimes taciturn, grumpy or detached. He was always serious about his art and the art of others, and when asked would return frank opinions.^[48]

Hopper's most systematic declaration of his philosophy as an artist was given in a handwritten note, titled "Statement", submitted in 1953 to the journal, Reality:

Though Hopper claimed that he didn’t consciously embed psychological meaning in his paintings, he was deeply interested in Freud and the power of the subconscious mind. He wrote in 1939, “So much of every art is an expression of the subconscious that it seems to me most of all the important qualities are put there unconsciously, and little of importance by the conscious intellect.”^[50]

Methods[link]

Although he is best known for his oil paintings, Hopper initially achieved recognition for his watercolours and he also produced some commercially successful etchings. Additionally, his notebooks contain high-quality pen and pencil sketches, which were never meant for public viewing.

Hopper paid particular attention to geometrical design and the careful placement of human figures in proper balance with their environment. He was a slow and methodical artist; as he wrote, “It takes a long time for an idea to strike. Then I have to think about it for a long time. I don’t start painting until I have it all worked out in my mind. I’m all right when I get to the easel".^[51] He often made preparatory sketches to work out his carefully calculated compositions. He and his wife kept a detailed ledger of their works noting such items as “sad face of woman unlit”, “electric light from ceiling”, and “thighs cooler”.^[52]

For New York Movie (1939), Hopper demonstrates his thorough preparation with more than 53 sketches of the theater interior and the figure of the pensive usherette.^[53]

The effective use of light and shadow to create mood is also central to Hopper’s methods. Bright sunlight (as an emblem of insight or revelation), and the shadows it casts, also play symbolically powerful roles in Hopper paintings such as Early Sunday Morning (1930), Summertime (1943), Seven A.M. (1948), and Sun in an Empty Room (1963). His use of light and shadow effects have been compared to the cinematography of film noir.^[54]

Though a realist painter, Hopper’s “soft” realism simplified shapes and details. He used saturated color to heighten contrast and create mood.

Subjects and themes[link]

Girl at Sewing Machine (1921).

Hopper derived his subject matter from two primary sources: one, the common features of American life (gas stations, motels, restaurants, theaters, railroads, and street scenes) and its inhabitants; and two, seascapes and rural landscapes. Regarding his style, Hopper defined himself as “an amalgam of many races” and not a member of any school, particularly the “Ashcan School”.^[55] Once Hopper achieved his mature style, his art remained consistent and self-contained, in spite of the numerous art trends that came and went during his long career.^[55]

Hopper’s seascapes fall into three main groups: pure landscapes of rocks, sea, and beach grass; lighthouses and farmhouses; and sailboats. Sometimes he combined these elements. Most of these paintings depict strong light and fair weather; he showed little interest in snow or rain scenes, or in seasonal color changes. He painted the majority of the pure seascapes in the period between 1916 and 1919 on Monhegan Island.^[56] Hopper’s The Long Leg (1935) is a nearly all-blue sailing picture with the simplest of elements, while his Ground Swell (1939) is more complex and depicts a group of youngsters out for a sail, a theme reminiscent of Winslow Homer’s iconic Breezing Up (1876).^[57]

Urban architecture and cityscapes were also major subjects for Hopper. He was fascinated with the American urban scene, “our native architecture with its hideous beauty, its fantastic roofs, pseudo-gothic, French Mansard, Colonial, mongrel or what not, with eye-searing color or delicate harmonies of faded paint, shouldering one another along interminable streets that taper off into swamps or dump heaps.”^[58]

In 1925, he produced House by the Railroad. This classic work depicts an isolated Victorian wood mansion, partly obscured by the raised embankment of a railroad. It marked Hopper’s artistic maturity. Critic Lloyd Goodrich praised the work as “one of the most poignant and desolating pieces of realism.”^[59] The work is the first of a series of stark rural and urban scenes that uses sharp lines and large shapes, played upon by unusual lighting to capture the lonely mood of his subjects. Though critics and viewers interpret meaning and mood in these cityscapes, Hopper insisted “I was more interested in the sunlight on the buildings and on the figures than any symbolism.”^[60] As if to prove the point, his late painting Sun in an Empty Room (1963) is a pure study of sunlight.^[61]

Most of Hopper's figure paintings focus on the subtle interaction of human beings with their environment—carried out with solo figures, couples, or groups. His primary emotional themes are solitude, loneliness, regret, boredom, and resignation. He expresses the emotions in various environments, including the office, in public places, in apartments, on the road, or on vacation.^[62] As if he were creating stills for a movie or tableaux in a play, Hopper positioned his characters as if they were captured just before or just after the climax of a scene.^[63]

Hopper’s solitary figures are mostly women—dressed, semi-clad, and nude—often reading or looking out a window, or in the workplace. In the early 1920s, Hopper painted his first such pictures Girl at Sewing Machine (1921), New York Interior (another woman sewing) (1921), and Moonlight Interior (a nude getting into bed) (1923). However, Automat (1927) and Hotel Room (1931) are more representative of his mature style, emphasizing the solitude more overtly.^[64]

As Hopper scholar Gail Levin wrote of “Hotel Room”:

Hopper’s Room in New York (1932) and Cape Cod Evening (1939) are prime examples of his “couple” paintings. In the first, a young couple appear alienated and uncommunicative—he reading the newspaper while she idles by the piano. The viewer takes on the role of a voyeur, as if looking with a telescope through the window of the apartment to spy on the couple’s lack of intimacy. In the latter painting, an older couple with little to say to each other, are playing with their dog, whose own attention is drawn away from his masters.^[66] Hopper takes the couple theme to a more ambitious level with Excursion into Philosophy (1959). A middle-aged man sits dejectedly on the edge of a bed. Beside him lays an open book and a partially clad woman. A shaft of light illuminates the floor in front of him. Jo Hopper noted in their log book, “[T]he open book is Plato, reread too late”.

Levin interprets the painting:

In Office at Night (1940), another “couple” painting, Hopper creates a psychological puzzle. The painting shows a man focusing on his work papers, while nearby his attractive female secretary pulls a file. Several studies for the painting show how Hopper experimented with the positioning of the two figures, perhaps to heighten the eroticism and the tension. Hopper presents the viewer with the possibilities that the man is either truly uninterested in the woman's appeal or that he is working hard to ignore her. Another interesting aspect of the painting is how Hopper employs three light sources,^[66] from a desk lamp, through a window and indirect light from above. Hopper went on to make several “office” pictures, but none with a sensual undercurrent.

The best-known of Hopper's paintings, Nighthawks (1942), is one of his paintings of groups. It shows customers sitting at the counter of an all-night diner. The shapes and diagonals are carefully constructed. The viewpoint is cinematic—from the sidewalk, as if the viewer were approaching the restaurant. The diner's harsh electric light sets it apart from the dark night outside, enhancing the mood and subtle emotion.^[68] As in many Hopper paintings, the interaction is minimal. The restaurant depicted was inspired by one in Greenwich Village. Both Hopper and his wife posed for the figures, and Jo Hopper gave the painting its title. The inspiration for the picture may have come from Ernest Hemingway’s short story The Killers, which Hopper greatly admired, or from the more philosophical A Clean, Well-Lighted Place.^[69] In keeping with the title of his painting, Hopper later said, “Nighthawks” has more to do with the possibility of predators in the night than with loneliness.^[70]

His second most recognizable painting after Nighthawks is another urban painting, Early Sunday Morning (originally called Seventh Avenue Shops), which shows an empty street scene in sharp side light, with a fire hydrant and a barber pole as stand-ins for human figures. Originally Hopper intended to put figures in the upstairs windows but left them empty to heighten the feeling of desolation.^[71]

Hopper's rural New England scenes, such as Gas (1940), are no less meaningful. "Gas" represents "a different, equally clean, well-lighted refuge.... ke[pt] open for those in need as they navigate the night, traveling their own miles to go before they sleep."^[72] The work presents a fusion of several Hopper themes: the solitary figure, the melancholy of dusk, and the lonely road.^[73]

Hopper approaches Surrealism with Rooms by the Sea (1951), where an open door gives on to the ocean, without an apparent ladder or steps.^[74]

After his student years, Hopper’s nudes were all female. Unlike past artists who painted the female nude to glorify the female form and to highlight female eroticism, Hopper's nudes are solitary women who are psychologically exposed.^[75] One audacious exception is Girlie Show (1941), where a red-headed strip-tease queen strides confidently across a stage to the accompaniment of the musicians in the pit. Girlie Show was inspired by Hopper's visit to a burlesque show a few days earlier. Hopper’s wife, as usual, posed for him for the painting, and noted in her diary, “Ed beginning a new canvas—a burlesque queen doing a strip tease—and I posing without a stitch on in front of the stove—-nothing but high heels in a lottery dance pose.”^[76]

Hopper's portraits and self-portraits were relatively few after his student years.^[77] Hopper did produce a commissioned “portrait” of a house, The MacArthurs’ Home (1939), where he faithfully details the Victorian architecture of the home of actress Helen Hayes. She reported later, “I guess I never met a more misanthropic, grumpy individual in my life.” Hopper grumbled throughout the project and never again accepted a commission.^[78] Hopper also painted Portrait of Orleans (1950), a “portrait” of the Cape Cod town from its main street.^[79]

Though very interested in the American Civil War and Mathew Brady’s battlefield photographs, Hopper made only two historical pictures. Both depicted soldiers on their way to Gettysburg.^[80] Also rare among his themes are paintings showing action. The best example of an action painting is Bridle Path (1939), but Hopper’s struggle with the proper anatomy of the horses may have discouraged him from similar attempts.^[81]

Hopper’s final oil painting, Two Comedians (1966), painted one year before his death, focuses on his love of the theater. Two French pantomime actors, one male and one female, both dressed in bright white costumes, take their bow in front of a darkened stage. Jo Hopper confirmed that her husband intended the figures to suggest their taking their life's last bows together as husband and wife.^[82]

Hopper's paintings have often been seen by others as having a narrative or thematic content that the artist himself may not have intended. Much meaning can be added to a painting by its title, but the titles of Hopper's paintings were sometimes chosen by others, or were selected by Hopper and his wife in a way that makes it unclear whether they have any real connection with the artist's meaning. For example, Hopper once told an interviewer that he was "fond of Early Sunday Morning... but it wasn't necessarily Sunday. That word was tacked on later by someone else."^[83]

The tendency to read thematic or narrative content into Hopper's paintings, that Hopper himself had not intended, extended even to his wife. When Jo Hopper commented on the figure in Cape Cod Morning “It’s a woman looking out to see if the weather’s good enough to hang out her wash,” Hopper retorted, “Did I say that? You’re making it Norman Rockwell. From my point of view she’s just looking out the window.”^[84] Another example of the same phenomenon is recorded in a 1948 article in Time:

New York Restaurant (1922).

Place in American art[link]

In focusing primarily on quiet moments, very rarely showing action, Hopper employed a form of realism adopted by another leading American realist Andrew Wyeth, but Hopper’s technique was completely different from Wyeth’s hyper-detailed style.^[43] In league with some of his contemporaries, Hopper shared his urban sensibility with John Sloan and George Bellows but avoided their overt action and violence. Where Joseph Stella and Georgia O’Keeffe glamorized the monumental structures of the city, Hopper reduced them to everyday geometrics and he depicted the pulse of the city as desolate and dangerous rather than “elegant or seductive”.^[86]

Charles Burchfield, whom Hopper admired and whom he was compared to, said of Hopper, “he achieves such a complete verity that you can read into his interpretations of houses and conceptions of New York life any human implications you wish.”^[87] He also attributed Hopper’s success to his “bold individualism…In him we have regained that sturdy American independence which Thomas Eakins gave us, but which for a time was lost.”^[88] Hopper considered this a high compliment since he considered Eakins the greatest American painter.^[89]

Hopper scholar Deborah Lyons writes, "Our own moments of revelation are often mirrored, transcendent, in his work. Once seen, Hopper's interpretations exist in our consciousness in tandem with our own experience. We forever see a certain type of house as a Hopper house, invested perhaps with a mystery that Hopper implanted in our own vision." Hopper's paintings highlight the seemingly mundane and typical scenes in our everyday life and give them cause for epiphany. In this way Hopper's art takes the gritty American landscape and lonely gas stations and creates within them a sense of beautiful anticipation.^[90]

Though compared to his contemporary Norman Rockwell in terms of subject matter, Hopper didn’t like the comparison. Hopper considered himself more subtle, less illustrative, and certainly not sentimental. Hopper also rejected comparisons with Grant Wood and Thomas Hart Benton stating “I think the American Scene painters caricatured America. I always wanted to do myself.”^[91]

Influence[link]

Hopper's influence on the art world and pop culture is undeniable. Though he had no formal students, many artists have cited him as an influence, including Willem de Kooning, Jim Dine, and Mark Rothko.^[55] An illustration of Hopper’s influence is Rothko’s early work Composition I (c. 1931`), which is a direct paraphrase of Hopper’s Chop Suey.^[92]

Hopper's cinematic compositions and dramatic use of light and dark has made him a favorite among filmmakers. For example, House by the Railroad is reported to have heavily influenced the iconic house in the Alfred Hitchcock film Psycho.^[93] The same painting has also been cited as being an influence on the home in the Terrence Malick film Days of Heaven. German director Wim Wenders also cites Hopper influence.^[94] His 1997 film The End of Violence incorporates a tableau vivant of Nighthawks, recreated by actors. Noted surrealist horror film director Dario Argento went so far as to recreate the diner and the patrons in Nighthawks as part of a set for his 1976 film Deep Red (aka Profondo Rosso). Ridley Scott has cited the same painting as a visual inspiration for Blade Runner. To establish the lighting of scenes in the 2002 film Road to Perdition, director Sam Mendes drew from the paintings of Hopper as a source of inspiration, particularly New York Movie.^[95]

Homages to Nighthawks featuring cartoon characters or famous pop culture icons such as James Dean and Marilyn Monroe are often found in poster stores and gift shops. The cable television channel Turner Classic Movies sometimes runs animated clips based on Hopper paintings prior to airing its films. Hopper's painting New York Movie was featured in the television show Dead Like Me; the girl standing in the corner resembles Daisy Adair. In a 1998 episode of That '70s Show titled "Drive In," Red and Kitty settle in at a diner and create a reproduction of Nighthawks.

Musical influences include singer/songwriter Tom Waits's 1975 live-in-the-studio album titled Nighthawks at the Diner, after the painting. In 1993, Madonna was inspired sufficiently by Hopper's 1941 painting Girlie Show that she named her world tour after it and incorporated many of the theatrical elements and mood of the painting into the show. In 2004 British guitarist John Squire (formerly of The Stone Roses) released a concept album based on Hopper's work entitled Marshall's House. Each song on the album is inspired by, and shares its title with, a painting by Hopper. Canadian rock group The Weakerthans released their album Reunion Tour in 2007 featuring two songs inspired by and named after Hopper paintings, "Sun in an Empty Room", and "Night Windows", and have also referenced him in songs such as "Hospital Vespers". Polish composer Paweł Szymański's Compartment 2, Car 7 for violin, viola, cello and vibraphone (2003) was inspired by Hopper's Compartment C, Car 193. Hopper's painting Early Sunday Morning was the inspiration for the sleeve of British band Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark's 1985 album Crush.

Each of the twelve chapters in New Zealander Chris Bell's 2004 novel Liquidambar (UKA Press/PABD) interprets one of Hopper's paintings to create a surreal detective story.

Hopper's influence reached the Japanese animation world in the dark cyberpunk thriller Texhnolyze. His artwork was used as the basis for the surface world in Texhnolyze^{[citation needed]} as well as for much of the 2008 animated film Bolt.

Exhibitions[link]

In 1980, the groundbreaking show Edward Hopper: The Art and the Artist opened at the Whitney Museum of American Art and visited London, Düsseldorf, and Amsterdam, as well as San Francisco and Chicago. For the first time ever, this show presented Hopper's oil paintings together with preparatory studies for those works. This was the beginning of Hopper's popularity in Europe and his large worldwide reputation.^{[citation needed]}

In 2004, a large selection of Hopper's paintings toured Europe, visiting Museum Ludwig in Cologne, Germany, and the Tate Modern in London. The Tate exhibition became the second most popular in the gallery's history, with 420,000 visitors in the three months it was open.

In 2007, an exhibition focused on the period of Hopper’s greatest achievements—from about 1925 to mid-century—and was presented at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The exhibit comprised fifty oil paintings, thirty watercolors, and twelve prints, including the favorites Nighthawks, Chop Suey, and Lighthouse and Buildings. The exhibition was organized by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the National Gallery of Art, Washington, and the Art Institute of Chicago and sponsored by the global management consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton.

In 2010, the Fondation de l’Hermitage museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, held an exhibition that covered Hopper’s entire career, with works drawn largely from the Whitney Museum in New York City. It included paintings, watercolors, etchings, cartoons, posters, as well as some of the preparatory studies for selected paintings. The exhibition had previously been seen in Milan and Rome. In 2011 The Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City held an exhibition called Edward Hopper and His Times.

Selected works[link]

Works of Edward Hopper with their own Wikipedia pages:

Title	Medium	Date	Collection	Dimensions	Image
Girl at Sewing Machine	oil on canvas	1921	Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum	48 cm × 46 cm (19 in × 18 in)
Automat	oil on canvas	1927	Des Moines Art Center	71.4 cm × 91.4 cm (28 in × 36 in)	Automat
Chop Suey	oil on canvas	1929	Barney A. Ebsworth Collection	81.3 cm × 96.5 cm (32 in × 38 in)	Chop Suey
Early Sunday Morning	oil on canvas	1930	Whitney Museum of American Art	89.4 cm × 153 cm (35.2 in × 60.3 in)	[2]
Office at Night	oil on canvas	1940	Walker Art Center (Minneapolis)	56.356 cm × 63.82 cm (22.1875 in × 25.125 in)	[3]
Nighthawks	oil on canvas	1942	Art Institute of Chicago	84.1 cm × 152.4 cm (33 1⁄8 in × 60 in)	Nighthawks
Hotel Lobby	oil on canvas	1943	Indianapolis Museum of Art	81.9 cm × 103.5 cm (32 1⁄4 in × 40 3⁄4 in)	File:Hotel Lobby by Edward Hopper.JPG
Office in a Small City	oil on canvas	1953	Metropolitan Museum of Art	71 cm × 102 cm (28 in × 40 in)	Office in a Small City

See also[link]

• Automat
• Chop Suey
• Early Sunday Morning
• List of works by Edward Hopper
• Logan Medal of the arts
• Office at Night
• Office in a Small City
• Nighthawks
• Precisionism

Bibliography[link]

• Cook, Greg, "Visions of Isolation: Edward Hopper at the MFA", Boston Phoenix, May 4, 2007, p. 22, Arts and Entertainment.
• Goodrich, Lloyd. Edward Hopper, (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1971)
• Haskell, Barbara. Modern Life: Edward Hopper and His Time, (Hamburg: Bucerius Kunst Forum, 2009)
• Healy, Pat. "Look at all the lonely people: MFA's 'Hopper' celebrates solitude", Metro newspaper, Tuesday, May 8, 2007, p. 18.
• Kranzfelder, Ivo. Hopper (New York: Taschen, 1994)
• Kuh, Katharine. Interview with Edward Hopper in Katherine Kuh, The Artist's Voice: Talks with Seventeen Artists. (New York: 1962, Di Capo Press, 2000, pp. 130-142)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper (New York: Crown, 1984)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper: A Catalogue Raisonne (New York: Norton, 1995)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper: An Intimate Biography (New York: Knopf, 1995; Rizzoli Books, 2007)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper: Gli anni della formazione (Milan: Electra Editrice, 1981)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper: The Art and the Artist (New York: Norton, 1980, London, 1981; Munich: Schirmer/Mosel, 1986)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper: The Complete Prints (New York: Norton, 1979, London, 1980; Munich: Schirmer/Mosel, 1986)
• Levin, Gail. Edward Hopper as Illustrator (New York: Norton, 1979, London, 1980)
• Levin, Gail. Hopper's Places (New York: Knopf, 1985; 2nd expanded edition, University of California Press, 1998)
• Levin, Gail. The Complete Oil Paintings of Edward Hopper (New York: Norton, 2001)
• Lyons, Deborah, Brian O'Doherty. Edward Hopper: A Journal of His Work (New York: Norton, 1997)
• Maker, Sherry. Edward Hopper (New York: Brompton Books, 1990)
• Mecklenburg, Virginia M. Edward Hopper: The Watercolors (New York: Norton, 1999)
• Renner, Rolf G. Edward Hopper 1882-1967: Transformation of the Real (New York: Taschen, 1999)
• Wagstaff, Sheena, Ed. Edward Hopper (London, Tate Publishing, London)
• Wells, Walter. Silent Theater: The Art of Edward Hopper (London/New York: Phaidon, 2007). Winner of the 2009 Umhoefer Prize for Achievement in the Arts and Humanities.

References[link]

Haskell, Barbara. Modern Life: Edward Hopper and His Time. Exhibition Catalogue. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 2009.

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Edward Hopper

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Edward Hopper

• Edward Hopper at the National Gallery of Art, Washington
• "Alone, Together: examining the work of Edward Hopper" ArtsEditor.com article
• Separate and Together: Opposites in the Life of Edward Hopper by Dorothy Koppelman
• Art and Bio of Hopper at the WebMuseum
• Exhaustive list of Hopper's works (in German)
• An Edward Hopper Scrapbook, compiled by the staff of the *Smithsonian American Art Museum based on research by Gail Levin
• Hopper exhibition at Tate 2004
• Gallery of Edward Hopper's Paintings
• Celebrating Hopper, a Favorite Son NYTimes.com
• Agnes Albert letter from Edward Hopper, 1955 February 4 from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
• Website comparing many Hopper paintings to photos of the same subjects, photographed from the spots where the artist had set up his easel.

Grace Murray Hopper
Grace Hopper (January 1984)
Born	(1906-12-09)December 9, 1906 New York City, New York
Died	January 1, 1992(1992-01-01) (aged 85) Arlington, Virginia
Place of burial	Arlington National Cemetery
Allegiance	United States of America
Service/branch	United States Navy
Years of service	1943–1966, 1967–1971, 1972–1986
Rank	Rear Admiral (lower half)
Awards	Defense Distinguished Service Medal Legion of Merit Meritorious Service Medal American Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal National Defense Service Medal 30px Armed Forces Reserve Medal with two Hourglass Devices Naval Reserve Medal

Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper (December 9, 1906 – January 1, 1992) was an American computer scientist and United States Navy officer. A pioneer in the field, she was one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, and developed the first compiler for a computer programming language.^{[1][2][3][4][5]} She conceptualized the idea of machine-independent programming languages, which led to the development of COBOL, one of the first modern programming languages. She is credited with popularizing the term "debugging" for fixing computer glitches (motivated by an actual moth removed from the computer). Due to the breadth of her accomplishments and her naval rank, she is sometimes referred to as "Amazing Grace." The U.S. Navy destroyer USS Hopper (DDG-70) was named for her, as was the Cray XE6 "Hopper" supercomputer at NERSC.

Early life and education[link]

Hopper was born Grace Brewster Murray in New York City. She was the oldest in a family of three children. She was curious as a child, a life-long trait. At the age of seven she decided to determine how an alarm clock worked. She dismantled seven alarm clocks before her mother realized what she was doing; she was then limited to one clock.^[6] For her preparatory school education, she attended the Hartridge School in Plainfield, New Jersey. Rejected for early admission to Vassar College at age 16 (her test scores in Latin were too low), she was admitted the following year. She graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Vassar in 1928 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics and earned her Master's degree at Yale University in 1930.

In 1934, she earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale under the direction of Øystein Ore.^[7][8] Her dissertation, New Types of Irreducibility Criteria, was published that same year.^[9] Hopper began teaching mathematics at Vassar in 1931, and was promoted to associate professor in 1941.

She was married to New York University professor Vincent Foster Hopper (1906–1976^[10]) from 1930 until their divorce in 1945.^[7] She never remarried, and she kept his surname.

World War II naval service[link]

In 1943, Hopper obtained a leave of absence from Vassar and was sworn in to the United States Navy Reserve, one of many women to volunteer to serve in the WAVES. She had to get an exemption to enlist; she was 15 pounds (6.8 kg) below the Navy minimum weight of 120 pounds (54 kg). She reported in December and trained at the Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. Hopper graduated first in her class in 1944, and was assigned to the Bureau of Ships Computation Project at Harvard University as a lieutenant, junior grade. She served on the Mark I computer programming staff headed by Howard H. Aiken. Hopper and Aiken coauthored three papers on the Mark I, also known as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. Hopper's request to transfer to the regular Navy at the end of the war was declined due to her age (38). She continued to serve in the Navy Reserve. Hopper remained at the Harvard Computation Lab until 1949, turning down a full professorship at Vassar in favor of working as a research fellow under a Navy contract at Harvard.^[11]

UNIVAC[link]

In 1949, Hopper became an employee of the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation as a senior mathematician and joined the team developing the UNIVAC I. In the early 1950s the company was taken over by the Remington Rand corporation and it was while she was working for them that her original compiler work was done. The compiler was known as the A compiler and its first version was A-0.^[12]:11

In 1952 she had an operational compiler. "Nobody believed that," she said. "I had a running compiler and nobody would touch it. They told me computers could only do arithmetic."^[13]

In 1954 Hopper was named the company's first director of automatic programming, and her department released some of the first compiler-based programming languages, including ARITH-MATIC, MATH-MATIC and FLOW-MATIC.

COBOL[link]

In the spring of 1959 a two day conference known as the CODASYL brought together computer experts from industry and government. Hopper served as the technical consultant to the committee, and many of her former employees served on the short-term committee that defined the new language COBOL. The new language extended Hopper's FLOW-MATIC language with some ideas from the IBM equivalent, COMTRAN. Hopper's belief that programs should be written in a language that was close to English rather than in machine code or languages close to machine code (such as assembly language) was captured in the new business language, and COBOL would go on to be the most ubiquitous business language to date.^[14]

From 1967 to 1977, Hopper served as the director of the Navy Programming Languages Group in the Navy's Office of Information Systems Planning and was promoted to the rank of captain in 1973.^[11] She developed validation software for COBOL and its compiler as part of a COBOL standardization program for the entire Navy.^[11]

Standards[link]

In the 1970s, Hopper advocated for the Defense Department to replace large, centralized systems with networks of small, distributed computers. Any user on any computer node could access common databases located on the network.^[12]:119 She pioneered the implementation of standards for testing computer systems and components, most significantly for early programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL. The Navy tests for conformance to these standards led to significant convergence among the programming language dialects of the major computer vendors. In the 1980s, these tests (and their official administration) were assumed by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), known today as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Retirement[link]

Hopper retired from the Naval Reserve with the rank of commander at the end of 1966. She was recalled to active duty in August 1967 for a six-month period that turned into an indefinite assignment. She again retired in 1971, but was asked to return to active duty again in 1972. She was promoted to captain in 1973 by Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt, Jr.

After Rep. Philip Crane saw her on a March 1983 segment of 60 Minutes, he championed H.J.Res. 341, a joint resolution in the House of Representatives which led to her promotion to commodore by special Presidential appointment.^[15] In 1985, the rank of commodore was renamed rear admiral, lower half. She retired (involuntarily) from the Navy on August 14, 1986. At a celebration held in Boston on the USS Constitution to celebrate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest non-combat award possible by the Department of Defense. At the time of her retirement, she was the oldest commissioned officer in the United States Navy (79 years, eight months and five days), and aboard the oldest commissioned ship in the United States Navy (188 years, nine months and 23 days).^[16]

She was then hired as a senior consultant to Digital Equipment Corporation, a position she retained until her death in 1992, aged 85.

Her primary activity in this capacity was as a goodwill ambassador, lecturing widely on the early days of computers, her career, and on efforts that computer vendors could take to make life easier for their users. She visited a large fraction of Digital's engineering facilities, where she generally received a standing ovation at the conclusion of her remarks. She was an interesting and engaging speaker, and the most memorable part of these talks was her illustration of a nanosecond. She salvaged an obsolete Bell System 25 pair telephone cable, cut it to 11.8 inch (30 cm) lengths (which is the distance that light travels in one nanosecond) and handed out the individual wires to her listeners. Although no longer a serving officer, she always wore her Navy full dress uniform to these lectures.

"The most important thing I’ve accomplished, other than building the compiler, is training young people. They come to me, you know, and say, “Do you think we can do this?” I say, “Try it.” And I back ‘em up. They need that. I keep track of them as they get older and I stir ‘em up at intervals so they don’t forget to take chances."^[17]

She was laid to rest with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery.

Honors[link]

• 1969: She won the inaugural "computer sciences man of the year" award from the Data Processing Management Association.^[18]
• 1971: The annual Grace Murray Hopper Award for Outstanding Young Computer Professionals was established in 1971 by the Association for Computing Machinery.
• 1973: She became the first person from the United States and the first woman of any nationality to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society.
• 1986: Upon her retirement, she received the Defense Distinguished Service Medal.
• 1987: She became a Computer History Museum Fellow Award Recipient.^[19]
• 1988: She received the Golden Gavel Award at the Toastmasters International convention in Washington, DC.
• 1991: She received the National Medal of Technology.
• 1996: USS Hopper (DDG-70) was launched. Nicknamed Amazing Grace, it is on a very short list of U.S. military vessels named after women.
• 2001: Eavan Boland wrote a poem dedicated to Grace Hopper titled "Code" in her 2001 release Against Love Poetry.
• 2009: The Department of Energy's National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center named its flagship system "Hopper".^[20]

The Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center is located at 7 Grace Hopper Avenue in Monterey, California.

Grace Murray Hopper Park, located on South Joyce Street in Arlington, Virginia, is a small memorial park in front of her former residence (River House Apartments) and is now owned by Arlington County, Virginia.

Women at the world's largest software company, Microsoft Corporation, formed an employee group called Hoppers and established a scholarship in her honor. Hoppers has over 3000 members worldwide.

Brewster Academy, a school located in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, United States, dedicated their computer lab to her in 1985, calling it the Grace Murray Hopper Center for Computer Learning. Hopper had spent her childhood summers at a family home in Wolfeboro.

An administration building on Naval Support Activity Annapolis (previously known as Naval Station Annapolis) in Annapolis, Maryland is named the Grace Hopper Building in her honor.

Building 1482 aboard Naval Air Station North Island, housing the Naval Computer and Telecommunication Station San Diego, is named the Grace Hopper Building.

Building 6007, C2/CNT West, Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, or C4ISR, Center of Excellence in Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland is named the Rear Admiral Grace Hopper Building.

Grace Hopper's legacy was an inspiring factor in the creation of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing.^[21] Held yearly, this conference is designed to bring the research and career interests of women in computing to the forefront.

Anecdotes[link]

Photo of "first computer bug"

Throughout much of her later career, Grace Hopper was much in demand as a speaker at various computer-related events. She was well known for her lively and irreverent speaking style, as well as a rich treasury of early war stories. She also received the nickname "Grandma COBOL".

• While she was working on a Mark II Computer at Harvard University in 1947, her associates discovered a moth stuck in a relay and thereby impeding operation, whereupon she remarked that they were "debugging" the system. Though the term computer bug cannot be definitively attributed to Admiral Hopper, she did bring the term into popularity.^[22] The remains of the moth can be found in the group's log book at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.^[23]
• Grace Hopper is famous for her nanoseconds visual aid. People (such as generals and admirals) used to ask her why satellite communication took so long. She started handing out pieces of wire which were just under one foot long, which is the distance that light travels in one nanosecond. She gave these pieces of wire the metonym "nanoseconds."^[24] She was careful to tell her audience that the length of her nanoseconds was actually the maximum speed the signals would travel in a vacuum, and that signals would travel more slowly through the actual wires that were her teaching aids. Later she used the same pieces of wire to illustrate why computers had to be small to be fast. At many of her talks and visits, she handed out "nanoseconds" to everyone in the audience, contrasting them with a coil of wire nearly a thousand feet long, representing a microsecond. Later, while giving these lectures while working for DEC, she passed out packets of pepper which she called picoseconds.^[25]

Jay Elliot described Grace Hopper as appearing to be "all Navy" but when you reach inside, you find a "Pirate" dying to be released.^[26]

Obituary notices[link]

• Betts, Mitch (Computerworld 26: 14, 1992)
• Bromberg, Howard (IEEE Software 9: 103–104, 1992)
• Danca, Richard A. (Federal Computer Week 6: 26–27, 1992)
• Hancock, Bill (Digital Review 9: 40, 1992)
• Power, Kevin (Government Computer News 11: 70, 1992)
• Sammet, J.E. (Communications of the ACM 35 (4): 128–131, 1992)
• Weiss, Eric A. (IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 14: 56–58, 1992)

See also[link]

	United States Navy portal
	World War II portal
	Software Testing portal

• Women in computing
• Systems engineering
• Women in the United States Navy

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Beyer, Kurt W. (2009-09-30). Grace Hopper and the Invention of the Information Age (1st ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01310-9. 
• Williams, Kathleen Broome (2004-11-15). Grace Hopper: Admiral of the Cyber Sea (1st ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-952-9. 
• Marx, Christy (August 2003). Grace Hopper: the first woman to program the first computer in the United States. Women hall of famers in mathematics and science (1st ed.). New York City: Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3877-3. 
• Williams, Kathleen Broome (2001). Improbable Warriors: Women Scientists and the U.S. Navy in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-961-1.  Williams' book focuses on the lives and contributions of four notable women scientists: Mary Sears (1905–1997); Florence van Straten (1913–1992); Grace Murray Hopper (1906–1992); Mina Spiegel Rees (1902–1997).

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Grace Hopper

• Extensive Grace Hopper Biography and Images from the United States Navy Naval Historical Center
• Grace Hopper links from Chips, the United States Navy information technology magazine
• "Grace Murray Hopper", Biographies of Women Mathematicians, Agnes Scott College
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Grace Hopper", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hopper.html .
• www.GraceHopper.org site for the annual Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing
• www.hopper.navy.mil Official United States Navy website for the USS Hopper, which includes a biography of Hopper
• Grace Murray Hopper Award
• The Government Technology Leadership Awards: The Gracies
• Grace Hopper at the Mathematics Genealogy Project