C. P. Joshi
C. P. Joshi in 2010
Union Minister for Road Transport and Highways
Incumbent
Assumed office January 19, 2011
Preceded by	Kamal Nath
Constituency	Bhilwara
Minister of Panchayati Raj
In office May 22, 2009 - January 18, 2011
Preceded by	Mani Shankar Aiyar
Succeeded by	Vilasrao Deshmukh
Constituency	Bhilwara
Union Minister for Rural Develeopment
In office May 22, 2009 - January 18, 2011
Preceded by	Raghuvansh Prasad Singh
Succeeded by	Vilasrao Deshmukh
Constituency	Bhilwara
Personal details
Born	(1950-07-29) 29 July 1950 (age 61) Nathdwara, Rajastan, India
Political party	INC
Profession	Professor of Psychology
Religion	Atheist[1][2]

C. P. Joshi (born 29 July 1950) is an Indian Politician and Member of Parliament of India from Bhilwara in the 15th Lok Sabha. He was one of the first 19 members of India's new cabinet sworn in on May 22, 2009, despite being a first-time member of the Lok Sabha and he has taken the office of Minister of Rural Development. He is a member of the Indian National Congress.^[3]

Educational background[link]

Joshi completed his Primary and Higher Secondary education at his birthplace Nathdwara, Rajastan. He finished his graduation from M. B. College Udaipur with a B.A. in Law, and completed his Masters in Physics. He also completed his Masters and Ph.D. degrees in Psychology. He began his academic career as a lecturer at the M. B. College, Udaipur. Before entering full time politics, Joshi was a Professor of Psychology at Udaipur's Mohanlal Sukhadia University, with a specialisation in Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

Political career[link]

Mohan Lal Sukhadia, founder of modern Mewar, recognised Joshi's social commitments and encouraged him to actively participate in politics. Thereafter he was

• Elected as Student's Union President for Mohanlal Sukhadia University in 1973.
• Elected MLA from Nathdwara Assembly (1980 and 1985, 1998 and 2003).
• He worked very hard for Nathadwara and addressed various issues like Lack of Education, Roads, Animal food.
• In 1998 he got the honour to become the Cabinet Minister for the state handling key portfolios like Panchayti Raj, Education, Rural Development, Public Health Engineering, Policy Planning, and Information Technology. He gave a new direction to the significant departments of Abhiyantrik Yojna, Panchayti Raj and Education and made his distinguished presence in these fields.
• In 2003, as an opposition MLA, he was appointed President of the Rajasthan Pradesh Congress Committee. In a few months he brought the state unit together to win the 2008 assembly elections, only to lose his own seat. He was second one in the Indian election history to lose an assembly election by one vote. Surprisingly, his mother, wife, and driver didn't turn up to vote on the polling day. The first candidate to lose from one vote was A. R. Krishnamurthy against R. Dhruvanarayana at the Santhemarahalli constituency of Karnataka during 2004 assembly elections. R. Dhruvanarayana is currently the Member of Parliament in 15th Lok Sabha from Chamarajanagar constituency, who defeated the same opponent A. R. Krishnamurthy in the 15th Lok Sabha elections.

References[link]

External links[link]

• C P Joshi

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C

The C Programming Language[1] (aka "K&R") is the seminal book on C.
Paradigm(s)	Imperative (procedural), structured
Appeared in	1972[2]
Designed by	Dennis Ritchie
Developer	Originally: Dennis Ritchie & Bell Labs ANSI C: ANSI X3J11 ISO C: ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14
Stable release	C11 (December 2011)
Typing discipline	Static, weak, manifest, nominal
Major implementations	Clang, GCC, Intel C, MSVC, Turbo C, Watcom C
Dialects	Cyclone, Unified Parallel C, Split-C, Cilk, C*
Influenced by	B (BCPL, CPL), ALGOL 68,[3] Assembly, PL/I, FORTRAN
Influenced	Numerous: AMPL, AWK, csh, C++, C--, C#, Objective-C, BitC, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Pike, Processing
OS	Cross-platform (multi-platform)
Usual filename extensions	.h .c
C Programming at Wikibooks

C (pronounced see, like the letter C) is a general-purpose computer programming language developed between 1969 and 1973 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.^[4]

Although C was designed for implementing system software,^[5] it is also widely used for developing portable application software.

C is one of the most widely used programming languages of all time^[6][7] and there are very few computer architectures for which a C compiler does not exist. C has greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which began as an extension to C^{[citation needed]}.

Design[link]

C is an imperative (procedural) systems implementation language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler, to provide low-level access to memory, to provide language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, and to require minimal run-time support. C was therefore useful for many applications that had formerly been coded in assembly language.

Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant and portably written C program can be compiled for a very wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language has become available on a very wide range of platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers.

Characteristics[link]

Like most imperative languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion, while a static type system prevents many unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines, which are called "functions" (although not in the strict sense of functional programming). Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.

The C language also exhibits the following more specific characteristics:

• There are a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of flow of control primitives: for, if, while, switch, and do..while. There is basically one namespace, and user-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
• There are a large number of arithmetical and logical operators, such as +, +=, ++, &, ~, etc.
• More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.
• Function return values can be ignored when not needed.
• Typing is static, but weakly enforced: all data has a type, but implicit conversions can be performed; for instance, characters can be used as integers.
• Declaration syntax mimics usage context. C has no "define" keyword; instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no "function" keyword; instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list.
• User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible.
  • Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be accessed, for example assigned, as a unit.
  • Array indexing is a secondary notion, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects; they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no "array" keyword, in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, e.g. month[11].
  • Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword. They are not tagged, and are freely interconvertible with integers.
  • Strings are not a separate data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated arrays of characters.
• Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers.
• Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function, with a dummy return type void.
• Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.
• Function and data pointers permit ad hoc run-time polymorphism.
• A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation.
• There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via static and extern attributes.
• Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines.

C does not include some features found in newer, more modern high-level languages, including:

• Object orientation
• Garbage collection

History[link]

Early developments[link]

Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie

The initial development of C occurred at AT&T Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973;^[3] according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named "C" because its features were derived from an earlier language called "B", which according to Ken Thompson was a stripped-down version of the BCPL programming language.

The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Ritchie and Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. B's inability to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's features, notably byte addressability, led to the development of an early version of C.

The original PDP-11 version of the Unix system was developed in assembly language. By 1973, with the addition of struct types, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the Unix kernel was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the Multics system (written in PL/I), and MCP (Master Control Program) for the Burroughs B5000 written in ALGOL in 1961.)

K&R C[link]

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language.^[8] This book, known to C programmers as "K&R", served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as K&R C. The second edition of the book^[9] covers the later ANSI C standard.

K&R introduced several language features:

• standard I/O library
• long int data type
• unsigned int data type
• compound assignment operators of the form =op (such as =-) were changed to the form op= to remove the semantic ambiguity created by such constructs as i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 instead of the possibly intended i = -10

Even after the publication of the 1989 C standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the "lowest common denominator" to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.

In early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-int value needed to be declared if used before the function definition; a function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return type int, if its value was used.

For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">

long some_function(); /* int */ other_function();

/* int */ calling_function() {

   long test1;
   register /* int */ test2;

   test1 = some_function();
   if (test1 > 0)
         test2 = 0;
   else
         test2 = other_function();
   return test2;

}

</syntaxhighlight>

All the above commented-out int declarations could be omitted in K&R C.

Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.

In the years following the publication of K&R C, several unofficial features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T and some other vendors. These included:

• void functions (i.e. functions with no return value)
• functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
• assignment for struct data types
• enumerated types

The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C[link]

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEE working group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C". This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.

In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to the same programming language.

ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.

One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.

C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written today is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.

In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to prevent the use on a K&R C-based compiler of features available only in Standard C.

C99[link]

After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years. In 1995 Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets. The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as "C99". It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda.^[10]

C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.

C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99.

C11[link]

In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called "C1X" until its official publication on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations.

The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++.

Embedded C[link]

Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.

In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C language^[11] to address these issues by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features not available in normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing.

Uses[link]

C is often used for "system programming", including implementing operating systems and embedded system applications, due to a combination of desirable characteristics such as code portability and efficiency, ability to access specific hardware addresses, ability to pun types to match externally imposed data access requirements, and low run-time demand on system resources. C can also be used for website programming using CGI as a "gateway" for information between the Web application, the server, and the browser.^[12] Some reasons for choosing C over interpreted languages are its speed, stability, and near-universal availability.^[13]

One consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. The primary implementations of Python (CPython), Perl 5, and PHP are all written in C.

Due to its thin layer of abstraction and low overhead, C allows efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, which is useful for programs that perform a lot of computations. For example, the GNU Multi-Precision Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, it is not necessary to develop machine-specific code generators. Some languages and compilers which have used C this way are BitC, C++, COBOL, Eiffel, Gambit, GHC, Modula-3, Squeak, and Vala.^[14] However, C was designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, and is thus less than ideal for use as an intermediate language. This has led to development of C-based intermediate languages such as C--.

C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications, but much of that development has shifted to newer languages.

Syntax[link]

C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard.^[15] Unlike languages such as FORTRAN 77, C source code is free-form which allows arbitrary use of whitespace to format code, rather than column-based or text-line-based restrictions. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line.

C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called "curly brackets") to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures.

As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by if(-else) conditional execution and by do-while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. break and continue can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to its reinitialization. There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function. switch selects a case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression.

Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators (see below) and may contain function calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next "sequence point"; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call. Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, ||, ?: and the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages.

Character set[link]

The basic C source character set includes the following characters:

• Letters: a – z, A – Z, _
• Digits: 0 – 9
• Punctuation: ~ ! @ # % ^ & * ( ) - + = : ; " ' < > , . ? | / \ { } [ ]
• Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, newline

Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.

Additional multibyte encoded characters may be used, but are not portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows multinational Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using a \uDDDD encoding (where DDDD denotes a Unicode character code), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.

The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return. Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.

Keywords[link]

C89 has 32 keywords (reserved words with special meaning):

C99 adds five more keywords:

C11 adds seven more keywords:^[16]

Most of the recently added keywords begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language.

Operators[link]

C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for:

• arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
• assignment: =
• augmented assignment: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, |=, ^=, <<=, >>=
• bitwise logic: ~, &, |, ^
• bitwise shifts: <<, >>
• boolean logic: !, &&, ||
• conditional evaluation: ? :
• equality testing: ==, !=
• calling functions: ( )
• increment and decrement: ++, --
• member selection: ., ->
• object size: sizeof
• order relations: <, <=, >, >=
• reference and dereference: &, *, [ ]
• sequencing: ,
• subexpression grouping: ( )
• type conversion: (typename)

Criticism[link]

Although mimicked by many languages because of its widespread familiarity, C's syntax has often been criticized. Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language, "C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better."^[17] The C standard did not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such changes on already existing software.

Some specific problems are:

• Non-intuitive operator precedence, such as == binding more tightly than & and | in expressions like x & 1 == 0, which would need to be written (x & 1) == 0 to be properly evaluated.^[18]
• Use of the = operator, reserved in mathematics to express equality, to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives.
• Similarity of the assignment and equality operators (= and ==), making it easy to accidentally substitute one for the other. In many cases, each may be used in the context of the other without a compilation error (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression in if (a=b) is true if a is not zero after the assignment.^[19]
• A declaration syntax that some find unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: "declaration reflects use".)^[20]
• C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.
• C has no implicit array-size check at run-time, again for efficiency reasons. If array size checking is needed, it must be done manually.

"Hello, world" example[link]

The "hello, world" example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R, has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks, regardless of programming language. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.

The original version was:^[21]

<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> main() {

   printf("hello, world\n");

} </syntaxhighlight>

A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is:^{[nb 1]}

<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp">

1. include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {

   printf("hello, world\n");
   return 0;

} </syntaxhighlight>

The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers standard headers to other headers having the same name. (Double quotes are used to include local or project-specific header files.)

The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments.^{[nb 2]}

The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function.

The next line calls (diverts execution to) a function named printf, which is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf function is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal "hello, world\n". The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array (printf needs to know this). The \n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the printf function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement.

The return statement terminates the execution of the main function and causes it to return the integer value 0, which is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution.

The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function.

Data types[link]

C has a static weak typing type system that shares some similarities with that of other ALGOL descendants such as Pascal. There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, characters, and enumerated types (enum). C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and untagged unions (union).

C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.

Pointers[link]

C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. (See Array-pointer interchangeability below.) Pointers are used for many different purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch) or as callbacks to be invoked by event handlers.

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.

Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore be used as "generic" data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type.

Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may be deallocated and reused (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.

Arrays[link]

Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. (The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays.) However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers (see below) means that declared arrays and these dynamically allocated simulated arrays are virtually interchangeable. Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option. Array bounds violations are therefore possible and rather common in carelessly written code, and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions.

C does not have a special provision for declaring multidimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting "multidimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order.

Multidimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, since arrays are passed merely as pointers, the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this is to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns.)

C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address some, but not all, of the issues with ordinary C arrays.

Array-pointer interchangeability[link]

A distinctive (but potentially confusing) feature of C is its treatment of arrays and pointers. The array-subscript notation x[i] can also be used when x is a pointer; the interpretation (using pointer arithmetic) is to access the (i + 1)th object of several adjacent data objects pointed to by x, counting the object that x points to (which is x[0]) as the first element of the array.

Formally, x[i] is equivalent to *(x + i). Since the type of the pointer involved is known to the compiler at compile time, the address that x + i points to is not the address pointed to by x incremented by i bytes, but rather incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. The size of these elements can be determined with the operator sizeof by applying it to any dereferenced element of x, as in n = sizeof *x or n = sizeof x[0].

Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of sizeof), the name of an array is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element; this implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference.

The number of elements in a declared array x can be determined as sizeof x / sizeof x[0].

A demonstration of the interchangeability of pointers and arrays is shown below. The four assignments are equivalent and each is valid C code. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> /* x is an array OR a pointer. i is an integer. */

x[i] = 1; /* equivalent to *(x + i) */

• (x + i) = 1;
• (i + x) = 1;

i[x] = 1; /* equivalent to *(i + x) */ </syntaxhighlight>

Note that although all four assignments are equivalent, only the first represents good coding style. The last line might be found in obfuscated C code.

Despite this apparent equivalence between array and pointer variables, there is still a distinction to be made between them. Even though the name of an array is, in most expression contexts, converted into a pointer (to its first element), this pointer does not itself occupy any storage, unlike a pointer variable. Consequently, what an array "points to" cannot be changed, and it is impossible to assign a value to an array variable. (Array contents may be copied, however, by using the memcpy function, or by accessing the individual elements.)

Memory management[link]

One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:

• Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.
• Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited
• Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function realloc or free

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various tradeoffs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.

Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary. Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this. (See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the program can even begin execution.)

Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur.

Another issue is that heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program in order for it to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before free() is called, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed but continue to be referenced, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the symptoms will appear in a portion of the program far removed from the actual error, making it difficult to track down the problem. (Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection.)

Libraries[link]

The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for "math library").

The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation. (“Freestanding” C implementations, which target embedded systems, may provide only a subset of the standard library.) This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities.

Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.

Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python.

Language tools[link]

Tools have been created to help C programmers avoid some of the problems inherent in the language, such as statements with undefined behavior or statements that are not a good practice because they are likely to result in unintended behavior or run-time errors.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.

There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as array bounds checking, buffer overflow detection, serialization, and automatic garbage collection.

Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage.

Related languages[link]

C has directly or indirectly influenced many later languages such as C#, D programming language, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Python, and Unix's C Shell. The most pervasive influence has been syntactical: all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models and/or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.

Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting.

When object-oriented languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.

The C++ programming language was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as one approach to providing object-oriented functionality with C-like syntax. C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions (see Compatibility of C and C++).

Objective-C was originally a very "thin" layer on top of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C.

See also[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Banahan, M.; Brady, D.; Doran, M. (1991). The C Book (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. http://publications.gbdirect.co.uk/c_book/. 
• Jones, Derek M.. The New C Standard: A Cultural and Economic Commentary. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-70917-1. http://www.coding-guidelines.com/cbook/cbook1_2.pdf. 
• King, K. N. (April 2008). C Programming: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.). Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-97950-3. 
• Ritchie, Dennis M. (1993). "The Development of the C Language". The second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II) (ACM): 201–208. DOI:10.1145/154766.155580. ISBN 0-89791-570-4. http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html. 
• Thompson, Ken. A New C Compiler. Murray Hill, New Jersey: AT&T Bell Laboratories. http://doc.cat-v.org/bell_labs/new_c_compilers/new_c_compiler.pdf. 

External links[link]

Wikibooks covers the subject mentioned in this article, C (programming language).

Wikiversity has learning materials about Topic:C

Media related to C (programming language) at Wikimedia Commons

• ISO C Working Group official website
• comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions
• ISO/IEC 9899. Official C99 documents.
• ANSI C Standard (ANSI X3J11/88-090) (Published 13 May 1988), Third Public Review
• ANSI C Rationale (ANSI X3J11/88-151) (Published 18 November 1988)
• The current draft Standard (C99 with Technical corrigenda TC1, TC2, and TC3 included)PDF (3.61 MB)

Syed Shahnawaz Hussain is a top politician of the Bharatiya Janata Party and a former Cabinet Minister.

Born in Supaul Bihar in 1968, he has a Diploma in Engineering from Patna and Delhi.

He was elected to 13th Lok Sabha in 1999 and was appointed Minister of State and held various portfolios like food processing industries, youth affairs and sports and human resource development at different times. He was given independent charge of Ministry of Coal in 2001 and was elevated to the rank of a Cabinet Minister with Civil Aviation portfolio in September 2001, thereby becoming the youngest Cabinet Minister ever in the Government of India. Later he held the Textiles portfolio as Cabinet Minister from 2003 to 2004.He is often referred to as 'The Original Youth leader'

Though he lost in 2004 general elections, he re-entered the Lok Sabha in November 2006 in a bye-election when he won the vacant seat of Bhagalpur in Bihar. He entered 15th Lok Sabha from Bhagalpur in 2009.^[1]

He is one of the few prominent Muslim leaders in the Bharatiya Janata Party.

While in Delhi, he organized rickshaw-pullers and fought for the rights of the poor hailing from his home state of Bihar. He candidly voiced against the poor and poverty-stricken image of those hailing from Bihar and blames fellow native Laloo Prasad Yadav for projecting the poor image.

Election record[link]

• 1999 : Lok Sabha elections contested from Kishanganj, Won
• 2004 : Lok Sabha elections contested from Kishanganj,Lost
• 2006 : Contested Lok Sabha By-election from Bhagalpur,Won
• 2009 : Lok Sabha elections contested from Bhagalpur.Won

Positions Held[link]

• All India Secretary, Bharatiya Janata Yuva Morcha (BJP Youth Wing);1999
• All India Secretary, Bharatiya Janata Party, 2006
• National Spokesperson, Bhaartiya janata Party, 2010

References[link]

1. ^ "Memeber Profile - Lok Sabha". http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/Members/Biography.aspx?mpsno=152. Retrieved 17 February 2012. 

• ibnlive

Indira Gandhi इंदिरा गांधी
3rd Prime Minister of India
In office 14 January 1980 – 31 October 1984
President	Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Zail Singh
Preceded by	Charan Singh
Succeeded by	Rajiv Gandhi
In office 24 January 1966 – 24 March 1977
President	Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Zakir Hussain Varahagiri Venkata Giri (Acting) Mohammad Hidayatullah (Acting) Varahagiri Venkata Giri Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Basappa Danappa Jatti (Acting)
Deputy	Morarji Desai
Preceded by	Gulzarilal Nanda (Acting)
Succeeded by	Morarji Desai
Minister of External Affairs
In office 9 March 1984 – 31 October 1984
Preceded by	Narasimha Rao
Succeeded by	Rajiv Gandhi
In office 22 August 1967 – 14 March 1969
Preceded by	Mahommedali Currim Chagla
Succeeded by	Dinesh Singh
Minister of Defence
In office 14 January 1980 – 15 January 1982
Preceded by	Chidambaram Subramaniam
Succeeded by	Ramaswamy Venkataraman
In office 30 November 1975 – 20 December 1975
Preceded by	Sardar Swaran Singh
Succeeded by	Bansi Lal
Minister of Home Affairs
In office 27 June 1970 – 4 February 1973
Preceded by	Yashwantrao Chavan
Succeeded by	Uma Shankar Dikshit
Minister of Finance
In office 16 July 1969 – 27 June 1970
Preceded by	Morarji Desai
Succeeded by	Yashwantrao Chavan
Personal details
Born	Indira Priyadarshini Nehru (1917-11-19)19 November 1917 Allahabad, United Provinces, British India
Died	31 October 1984(1984-10-31) (aged 66) New Delhi, India
Political party	Indian National Congress
Spouse(s)	Feroze Gandhi
Children	Rajiv Sanjay
Signature

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (Hindi: इंदिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गांधी Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī  listen (help·info), née Nehru; 19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term (1980–84). Gandhi was the second female head of government in the world after Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, and she remains as the world's second longest serving female Prime Minister as of 2012. She was the first woman to become prime minister in India.^[1]

Gandhi was the only child of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India. She adhered to the quasi-socialist policies of industrial development that had been begun by her father. Gandhi established closer relations with the Soviet Union, depending on that nation for support in India’s long-standing conflict with Pakistan. She was also the only Indian Prime Minister to have declared a state of emergency in order to 'rule by decree' and the only Indian Prime Minister to have been imprisoned after holding that office. She was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation for ordering Operation Blue Star.

Early life and career[link]

Indira Gandhi was born on 19 November 1917 at the Anand Bhavan in the historically important town of Allahabad, in what was then the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, into the politically influential Nehru Family.^[2] Indira Gandhi's father was Jawaharlal Nehru and her mother was Kamla Nehru. Her grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a prominent Indian nationalist leader. Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a pivotal figure in the independence movement of India.

With M. K. Gandhi fasting, mid 1920s

In 1934–35, after finishing school, Indira joined Shantiniketan,^[3] a school set up by Rabindranath Tagore. Subsequently, she went to England and sat for the University of Oxford entrance examination, but she failed,^[4] and spent a few months at Badminton School in Bristol, before passing the exam in 1937 and enrolling at Somerville College, Oxford where she never finished her degree. Khushwant Singh, who has personally known Indira Gandhi, has said that she felt uncomfortable around educated people because she had no real education.^[5] During her stay in the UK, she frequently met Feroze Gandhi, whom she knew from Allahabad, and who was studying at the London School of Economics. The marriage took place in Allahabad according to Hindu rituals though Feroze belonged to a Parsi family of Gujarat.^[6]

She returned to India in 1941. In the 1950s, she served her father unofficially as a personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964 she was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and became a member of Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet as Minister of Information and Broadcasting.^[7]

Then Congress Party President K. Kamaraj was instrumental in making Indira Gandhi the Prime Minister after the sudden demise of Shastri. Gandhi soon showed an ability to win elections and outmaneuver opponents. She introduced more left-wing economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity. She led India as Prime Minister during the decisive victory of East Pakistan over Pakistan in 1971 war and creation of an independent Bangladesh. She imposed a state of emergency in 1975. Congress Party and Indira Gandhi herself lost the next general election for the first time in 1977. Indira Gandhi led the Congress back to victory in 1980 elections and Gandhi resumed the office of the Prime Minister. In June 1984, under Gandhi's order, the Indian army forcefully entered the Golden Temple, the most sacred Sikh Gurdwara, to remove armed insurgents present inside the temple. She was killed on 31 October 1984 in retaliation for this operation by her bodyguards.

Legislative career[link]

When Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the Congress was split in two factions, the socialists led by Gandhi, and the conservatives led by Morarji Desai. Rammanohar Lohia called her Gungi Gudiya which means 'Dumb Doll'.^[8] The internal problems showed in the 1967 election where the Congress lost nearly 60 seats winning 297 seats in the 545 seat Lok Sabha. She had to accommodate Desai as Deputy Prime Minister of India and Minister of Finance. In 1969 after many disagreements with Desai, the Indian National Congress split. She ruled with support from Socialist and Communist Parties for the next two years. In the same year, in July 1969 she nationalized banks.

War with Pakistan in 1971[link]

The Pakistan army conducted atrocities against the civilian populations of East Pakistan.^[9][10] An estimated 10 million refugees fled to India, causing financial hardship and instability in the country. The United States under Richard Nixon supported Pakistan, and mooted a UN resolution warning India against going to war. Nixon apparently disliked Indira personally, referring to her as a "witch" and "clever fox" in his private communication with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (now released by the State Department).^[11] Indira signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, resulting in political support and a Soviet veto at the UN.

Foreign policy[link]

Indira Gandhi & Nicolae Ceauşescu

Gandhi invited the Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to Shimla for a week-long summit. The two national leaders eventually signed the Shimla Agreement, which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means. Due to her antipathy for Nixon, relations with the United States grew distant, while relations with the Soviet Union grew closer.

Congress was criticized by some for not making the Line of Control (LoC) a permanent border while a few critics even believed that Pakistan-administered Kashmir should have been extracted from Pakistan, whose 93,000 prisoners of war were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate United Nations and third party interference, and greatly reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from Bhutto, she had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized, though much contact remained frozen (sealed) for years.

Nuclear weapons program[link]

Gandhi contributed and further carried out the vision of Jawarharalal Nehru, former Premier of India to develop the program. Gandhi gave authorization of developing nuclear weapons in 1967, in response to the Test No. 6 by People's Republic of China. Gandhi saw this test as Chinese nuclear intimidation, therefore, Gandhi promoted the views of Nehru to establish India's stability and security interests as independent from those of the nuclear superpowers.

The program became fully mature in 1974, when dr. Raja Ramanna reported to Gandhi that India has ability to test the first nuclear weapon. Gandhi gave verbal authorization of this test, and preparations were made in a long-constructed army base, the Indian Army Pokhran Test Range. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test, unofficially code named as "Smiling Buddha", near the desert village of Pokhran in Rajasthan. As the world was quiet by this test, a vehement protest came forward from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, Pakistan's Prime minister Zulfi Ali Bhutto described this test as "Indian hegemony" to intimidate Pakistan. Gandhi directed a letter to Bhutto and, later to the world, describing the test as for peaceful purposes and India's commitment as to develop its programme for industrial and scientific use.

Green Revolution[link]

Special agricultural innovation programs and extra government support launched in the 1960s finally transformed India's chronic food shortages into surplus production of wheat, rice, cotton and milk, the success mainly attributed to the hard working majority Sikh farmers of Punjab. Rather than relying on food aid from the United States – headed by a President whom Gandhi disliked considerably (the feeling was mutual: to Nixon, Indira was "the old witch"),^[11] the country became a food exporter. That achievement, along with the diversification of its commercial crop production, has become known as the "Green Revolution". At the same time, the White Revolution was an expansion in milk production which helped to combat malnutrition, especially amidst young children. 'Food security', as the program was called, was another source of support for Gandhi in the years leading up to 1975.^[12]

Gandhi with Jacqueline Kennedy in New Delhi, 1962

Established in the early 1960s, the Green Revolution was the unofficial name given to the Intense Agricultural District Program (IADP) which sought to insure abundant, inexpensive grain for urban dwellers upon whose support Gandhi—as indeed all Indian politicians—heavily depended.^[13] The program was based on four premises: 1) New varieties of seed(s), 2) Acceptance of the necessity of the chemicalization of Indian agriculture, i.e. fertilizers, pesticides, weed killers, etc., 3) A commitment to national and international cooperative research to develop new and improved existing seed varieties, 4) The concept of developing a scientific, agricultural institutions in the form of land grant colleges.^[14]

Bank nationalizations[link]

In 1969, fourteen major banks were nationalized as a means of encouraging economic development^[15] and widening access to banking facilities. Banks were given targets for lending in priority areas (like agriculture) and were directed to offer banking services to poorer members of Indian society who ahd been neglected by the private banks. Under the nationalization drive, the number of bank branches rose from 8,200 to over 62,000, most of which were opened in the unbanked, rural areas. The nationalization drive not only helped to increase household savings, but it also provided considerable investments in the informal sector, in small and medium-sized enterprises, and in agriculture, and contributed significantly to regional development and to the expansion of India’s industrial and agricultural base.^[16]

1971 election victory and second term[link]

The government faced major problems after her tremendous mandate of 1971. The internal structure of the Congress Party had withered following its numerous splits, leaving it entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Garibi Hatao (Eradicate Poverty) was the theme for Gandhi's 1971 bid. The slogan and the proposed anti-poverty programs that came with it were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor. This would allow her to bypass the dominant rural castes both in and of state and local government; likewise the urban commercial class. And, for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last gain both political worth and political weight.

The programs created through Garibi Hatao, though carried out locally, were funded, developed, supervised, and staffed by New Delhi and the Indian National Congress party. "These programs also provided the central political leadership with new and vast patronage resources to be disbursed... throughout the country."^[17] Scholars and historians now agree as to the extent of the failure of Garibi Hatao in alleviating poverty – only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever reached the 'poorest of the poor' – and the empty sloganeering of the program was mainly used instead to engender populist support for Gandhi's re-election.

Verdict on electoral malpractice[link]

Gandhi meeting with Shah of Iran Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi and Shahbanu Farah Pahlavi during the latters' State visit to India in 1970.

On 12 June 1975 the High Court of Allahabad declared Indira Gandhi's election to the Lok Sabha void on grounds of electoral malpractice. In an election petition filed by Raj Narain (who later on defeated her in 1977 parliamentary election from Rae Bareily), he had alleged several major as well as minor instances of using government resources for campaigning.^[18] The court thus ordered her to be removed from her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years. The Prime Minister must be a member of either the Lok Sabha (Lower house in the Parliament of India) or the Rajya Sabha (the Higher house of the Parliament). Thus, this decision effectively removed her from office. Mrs Gandhi had asked one of India's best legal minds and also one of her colleagues in government, Mr Ashoke Kumar Sen to defend her in court. It has been written that Mrs Gandhi was told she would only win if Mr Sen appeared for her^{[citation needed]}.

But Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. The verdict was delivered by Mr Justice Jagmohanlal Sinha at Allahabad High Court. It came almost four years after the case was brought by Raj Narain, the premier's defeated opponent in the 1971 parliamentary election. Gandhi, who gave evidence in her defence during the trial, was found guilty of dishonest election practices, excessive election expenditure, and of using government machinery and officials for party purposes.^[19] The judge rejected more serious charges of bribery against her.

With Richard Nixon, 1971

Indira insisted the conviction did not undermine her position, despite having been unseated from the lower house of parliament, Lok Sabha, by order of the High Court. She said: "There is a lot of talk about our government not being clean, but from our experience the situation was very much worse when [opposition] parties were forming governments". And she dismissed criticism of the way her Congress Party raised election campaign money, saying all parties used the same methods. The prime minister retained the support of her party, which issued a statement backing her. After news of the verdict spread, hundreds of supporters demonstrated outside her house, pledging their loyalty. Indian High Commissioner BK Nehru said Gandhi's conviction would not harm her political career. "Mrs Gandhi has still today overwhelming support in the country," he said. "I believe the prime minister of India will continue in office until the electorate of India decides otherwise".

State of Emergency (1975–1977)[link]

Gandhi moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the unrest. Her Cabinet and government then recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declare a state of emergency, because of the disorder and lawlessness following the Allahabad High Court decision. Accordingly, Ahmed declared a State of Emergency caused by internal disorder, based on the provisions of Article 352 of the Constitution, on 26 June 1975.

Rule by decree[link]

Within a few months, President's Rule was imposed on the two opposition party ruled states of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu thereby bringing the entire country under direct Central rule or by governments led by the ruling Congress party.^[20] Police were granted powers to impose curfews and indefinitely detain citizens and all publications were subjected to substantial censorship by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Finally, impending legislative assembly elections were indefinitely postponed, with all opposition-controlled state governments being removed by virtue of the constitutional provision allowing for a dismissal of a state government on recommendation of the state's governor.

Indira Gandhi used the emergency provisions to change conflicting party members.

"Unlike her father Jawaharlal Nehru, who preferred to deal with strong chief ministers in control of their legislative parties and state party organizations, Mrs. Gandhi set out to remove every Congress chief minister who had an independent base and to replace each of them with ministers personally loyal to her...Even so, stability could not be maintained in the states..."^[21]

President Ahmed issued a ordinances that did not need to be debated in the Parliament, allowing her to rule by decree.

Elections[link]

After extending the state of emergency twice, in 1977 Indira Gandhi called elections, to give the electorate a chance to vindicate her rule. Gandhi may have grossly misjudged her popularity^{[citation needed]} by reading what the heavily censored press wrote about her. In any case, she was opposed by the Janata Party. Janata, led by her long-time rival, Desai and with Jai Prakash Narayan as its spiritual guide, claimed the elections were the last chance for India to choose between "democracy and dictatorship." Indira's Congress party was crushed soundly in the elections which followed. Indira and Sanjay Gandhi both lost their seats, and Congress was cut down to 153 seats (compared with 350 in the previous Lok Sabha), 92 of which were in the south.

Removal, arrest, and return[link]

(R-L) Smt. Indira Gandhi and her close friend Smt. Nandini Satpathy (CM of Orissa) year 1973

Mrs. Gandhi with M.G. Ramachandran, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. In the post-emergency elections in 1977, only the Southern states returned Congress majorities.

1984 USSR commemorative stamp

The Congress Party split during the election campaign of 1977: veteran Gandhi supporters like Jagjivan Ram and her most loyal Bahuguna and Nandini Satpathy, the three were compelled to part ways and form a new political entity CFD (Congress for Democracy) primarily due to intra party politicking and also due to circumstances created by Sanjay Gandhi.The prevailing rumour was that Sanjay had intentions of dislodging Indira and the trio stood between that.

The Janata Party came into power after the State of Emergency was lifted. The leader of the Janata Party was Jayaprakash Narayan. The other party leaders of the Janata Party were Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, Raj Narain and Atal Bihari Vajpayee. The Janata government's Home Minister, Choudhary Charan Singh, ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on several charges, none of which would be easy to prove in an Indian court. The arrest meant that Indira was automatically expelled from Parliament. These allegations included that Indira Gandhi “‘had planned or thought of killing all opposition leaders in jail during the Emergency’”.^[22] However, this strategy backfired disastrously. Her arrest and long-running trial, however, gained her great sympathy from many people. The Janata coalition was only united by its hatred of Indira (or "that woman" as some called her). With so little in common, the government was bogged down by infighting. Jayaprakash Narayan died on 8 October 1979, which broke the unity of the Janata Party and Desai took his place. Desai resigned in June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by Reddy after Gandhi promised that Congress would support his government from outside.

After a short interval, Congress withdrew support and President Reddy dissolved Parliament in the winter of 1979. In elections held the following January, Congress was returned to power with a landslide majority.

Currency crisis[link]

During the early 1980s, there was a 40 percent fall in the value of the Indian Rupee from 7 to 12 against the US Dollar. The Reserve Bank of India had decided to devalue the rupee to make Indian exports more competitive.^{[citation needed]}

Operation Blue Star[link]

In July 1982, Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, the head of the Sikh religious institution the Damdami Taksal based in the northern Indian state of Punjab, led a campaign for the implementation of the Anandpur Sahib Resolution for greater rights to the Sikhs. In response to this, Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian army to attack the Bhindrawale. The State of Punjab was closed to international media, its phone and communication lines shut. To this day the events remain controversial with a disputed number of victims; Sikhs seeing the attack as unjustified and Bhindrawale being declared the greatest sikh martyr of the 21st century by Akal Takht (Sikh Political Authority) in 2003.

Assassination[link]

The day before her death Mrs Indira Gandhi was in visit of Orissa on 30 October 1984 where she gave her last speech for all the Indians.

I am alive today I may not be there tomorrow I shall continue to serve till my last breath and when I die every drop of my blood will strengthen India and keep a united India alive

Indira Gandhi's last speech at Bhubaneswar

^[23]

On 31 October 1984, two of Gandhi's Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, shot her with their service weapons in the garden of the Prime Minister's residence at 1 Safdarjung Road, New Delhi as she was walking past a wicket gate guarded by Satwant and Beant. She was to be interviewed by the British actor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television. According to information immediately following the incident, Beant Singh shot her three times using his side-arm, and Satwant Singh fired 30 rounds.^[24] Beant Singh and Satwant Singh dropped their weapons and surrendered. Afterwards they were taken away by other guards into a closed room where Beant Singh was shot dead. Kehar Singh was later arrested for conspiracy in the attack. Both Satwant and Kehar were sentenced to death and hanged in Delhi's Tihar jail.

Indira Gandhi was brought at 9.30 AM to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, where doctors operated on her. She was declared dead at 2.20 PM. The postmortem examination was conducted by team of Doctors headed by Dr. T D Dogra. He stated that as many as 30 bullets wounds were sustained by Indira Gandhi, from two sources, an SLR and a Pistol. The assailants had fired 31 bullets at her, of which 30 had hit; 23 had passed through her body while 7 were trapped inside her. Dr. T D Dogra extricated bullets to establish the identity of the weapons and to correlate each weapon with the bullets recovered by ballistic examination. The bullets were matched with respective weapons at CFSL Delhi. Subsequently Dr. Dogra appeared in the court of Shri Mahesh Chandra as an expert witness (PW-5), and his testimony lasted several sessions. The cross examination was conducted by Shri P N Lekhi, the defense counsel.^[25]

Gandhi was cremated on 3 November near Raj Ghat. Her funeral was televised live on domestic and international stations, including the BBC. Following her cremation, millions of Sikhs were rendered homeless and thousands burnt alive (5000 by government estimate)^{[citation needed]} in anti-Sikh riots. Rajiv Gandhi on a live TV show said of the carnage, "When a big tree falls, the earth shakes."

Family and personal life[link]

Initially, her younger son Sanjay had been her chosen heir; but after his death in a flying accident in June 1980, his mother persuaded a reluctant elder son Rajiv Gandhi to quit his job as a pilot and enter politics in February 1981. Over a decade later, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated.

Indira's yoga guru, Dhirendra Brahmachari, helped her in making certain decisions and also executed certain top level political tasks on her behalf, especially from 1975 to 1977 when Gandhi "dissolved Parliament, declared a state of emergency and suspended civil liberties."^[26][27]

Legacy[link]

Indira Gandhi is associated with fostering a culture of nepotism in Indian politics and in India's institutions.^[28][29]

The Indira Awaas Yojana, a central government low-cost housing programme for the rural poor, is named after her. The international airport at New Delhi is named Indira Gandhi International Airport in her honour. The Indira Gandhi National Open University, the largest university in the world, is also named after her.

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Ved Mehta, A Family Affair: India Under Three Prime Ministers (1982) ISBN 0-19-503118-0
• Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography (1992) ISBN 978-0-679-42479-6
• Katherine Frank, Indira: the life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (2002) ISBN 0-395-73097-X
• Ramachandra Guha, India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007) ISBN 978-0-06-019881-7
• Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A personal and political biography (1991) ISBN 0-340-53548-2
• Indira Gandhi - Iron Lady of India by Dr Sulakshi Thelikorala

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Indira Gandhi

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Indira Gandhi

• Indira Gandhi at the Open Directory Project
• Rare pictures of Indira Gandhi

v t e Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru Lal Bahadur Shastri Indira Gandhi Morarji Desai Charan Singh Rajiv Gandhi V. P. Singh Chandra Shekhar P. V. Narasimha Rao Atal Bihari Vajpayee H. D. Deve Gowda I. K. Gujral Manmohan Singh

v t e Bharat Ratna laureates Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1954) C. Rajagopalachari (1954) C. V. Raman (1954) Bhagwan Das (1955) Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya (1955) Jawaharlal Nehru (1955) Govind Ballabh Pant (1957) Dhondo Keshav Karve (1958) Bidhan Chandra Roy (1961) Purushottam Das Tandon (1961) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1962) Dr. Zakir Hussain (1963) Pandurang Vaman Kane (1963) Lal Bahadur Shastri (1966) Indira Gandhi (1971) V. V. Giri (1975) K. Kamaraj (1976) Mother Teresa (1980) Acharya Vinoba Bhave (1983) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1987) M. G. Ramachandran (1988) B. R. Ambedkar (1990) Nelson Mandela (1990) Rajiv Gandhi (1991) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1991) Morarji Desai (1991) Abul Kalam Azad (1992) J. R. D. Tata (1992) Satyajit Ray (1992) A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (1997) Gulzarilal Nanda (1997) Aruna Asaf Ali (1997) M. S. Subbulakshmi (1998) Chidambaram Subramaniam (1998) Jayaprakash Narayan (1998) Ravi Shankar (1999) Amartya Sen (1999) Gopinath Bordoloi (1999) Lata Mangeshkar (2001) Bismillah Khan (2001) Bhimsen Joshi (2008)

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Lalit Kumar Modi, (Hindi: ललित कुमार मोदी; born November 29, 1963, Delhi, India) is one of the architects of the Indian Premier League (IPL)^[4]

Best known for his stint as the Chairman and Commissioner of the Indian Premier League and the Chairman of the Champions League, between 2008 and 2010, he has also occupied the roles of Vice President of the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), between 2005 and September 2010, and Vice President of the Punjab Cricket Association.^[5]

Lalit Modi is also the President and Managing Director of Modi Enterprises and the Executive Director of Godfrey Phillips India.^[6]

Early life[link]

Lalit Kumar Modi was born into a wealthy and successful business family. His father Krishan Kumar Modi is Chairman of Modi Enterprises, a Rs40 billion business empire, which was founded by his grandfather, Rai Bahadur Gujarmal Modi, who also founded the town of Modinagar.^[7]

Family[link]

Lalit Modi is married to Minal, whom he met while studying in the USA. Modi has three children, Karima, Ruchir and Aliya.

Karima, who is Minal’s daughter from a previous marriage, is married and currently living in London. Karima has a daughter named Arya. ^{[8] [9]}

Due to security reasons the Modis had left Mumbai in May 2010 and have relocated to London.

Family Security Threat[link]

In March 2009 the Mumbai police arrested and interrogated Rashid Malabari, who is reportedly the hit man of underworld don Chota Shakeel.^[10] During the interrogation, Malabari revealed that the there was a plan to assassinate Lalit Modi, his wife Minal and son Ruchir.^[11]

This was later cross-referenced by a government intelligence agency, who picked up a phone conversation between Chota Shakeel and his boss Dawood Ibrahim instructing him to hire four assassins to carry out the assassination of Modi and his family in either South Africa or in India.^[12]

Till today, Modi remains under constant threat and is rumoured to travel in a bullet-proof car and to be protected by three layers of around-the-clock security. ^[13]

His son Ruchir remains under a high security cover as well after 2 near incidents took place on his life as mentioned on a letter sent by him to the Commissioner of Mumbai Police. In Mumbai and the rest of India Ruchir never leaves his house which was for a few months the five star deluxe Four Seasons Hotel in Southern Bombay without his convoy containing 7 vehicles including a police escort vehicle. He has a highly trained security team containing approximately 12 private Bodyguards including foreign security specialists and 4 heavily armed members of the Mumbai Police Protection Squad. ^[14], ^[15], ^[16]

Education[link]

Lalit Modi joined Bishop Cotton School in Shimla, Asia's first boarding school, in 1971.^[17] Modi is noted to have been a brilliant sportsman and used to play a number of sports, including cricket.^[17] He also attended St Joseph's College in Nainital. Having scored well in the SAT^{[citation needed]}, he chose to skip the school-leaving examinations, which were required for entrance to colleges and universities in India, and travelled to the United States to continue with his studies, where he is believed to have studied in Pace University and Duke University, between 1983 and 1986.^[18] Considering that he was a sophomore at the time of his criminal trials in 1985, it is not clear if he finished the degree in 1986.

On March 1, 1985, while a sophomore, Modi was arrested on charges of conspiracy to traffic cocaine, assault with a deadly weapon with the intent to kill^[19] and second-degree kidnapping. On April 2, 1985, Modi and another student were indicted.^{[20] [21]}Modi pleaded guilty to the crime when the case was heard in the Durham County court, North Carolina and later entered a plea bargain, which resulted in a suspended two year prison sentence.^[22]

Business career[link]

Modi is the President and Managing Director of Modi Enterprises, an industrial conglomerate created and run by his family.^[23] Modi has been the Executive Director of Godfrey Phillips India since 1992, one of India's largest tobacco companies.^[23] The company is jointly promoted by the Modi Enterprises and Philip Morris International.^[24]

Modi Entertainment Networks[link]

Modi started a 10-year joint venture with Walt Disney Pictures in 1993, called Modi Entertainment Networks (MEN), to broadcast some of Disney's content in India, including Fashion TV.^[25][26]

In 1994, he became the pan-India distributor of ESPN on a ten-year contract worth $975 million. His job was to collect money from the cable companies in India in exchange for them broadcasting ESPN.^[27]

The deal, gave ESS exclusive global commercial rights for all T20 Champions League seasons until 2017, making it the highest cricket tournament by value on a per game basis.^[28]

Apart from ESS, bids were received from Abu Dhabi Sports Club and Dubai International Capital (DIC). While the DIC bid was for $751.3 million, Abu Dhabi Sports Club’s bid, being a conditional one, was disqualified. ESS had bid $900 million for the deal and an additional $75 million for marketing.^[29]

Of the deal, ESS Managing Director, Manu Sawhney said: “This deal will cement our relationship with BCCI, Cricket Australia and Cricket South Africa and we are committed to setting new benchmarks in broadcast and distribution.” Lalit Modi, who was IPL chairman and commissioner at the time, said: “We believe this is the best commercial deal for Champions League.”^[30]

In 2008 ESPN, paid almost $1 billion for the global rights to the Twenty20 Champions League, in a ten year deal. Lalit Modi called it: “The best commercial deal for the inaugural Champions League Twenty20 season and for cricket fans across the world.” ^[31]

On 24th January 2008 The Indian Premier League announced the new owners of eight franchises. The base price of the auction was set at $400 million, but the final auction total reached $723.59 million. Mumbai was the most expensive team, costing $111.9 million. ^[32]

In October 2009, Nimbus Communications paid $431 million for the rights to India's home international games for four years, which commenced in April 2010. Although the deal didn’t include internet or radio rights, Lalit Modi indicated the deal was: "The highest price ever that will be paid per match by a broadcaster to any national board." ^[33]

Pune and Kochi were unveiled on 21st March 2010 as the two new franchises for the fourth edition of the Indian Premier League. Pune was bought by Sahara Adventure Sports Group for $370 million and the Kochi franchise was bought by Rendezvous Sports World Limited for $333.3 million. The auction fetched a total $723.59 million. ^[34]

Other Interests[link]

In 2002, he launched an online lottery business in Kerala called Sixo.[1] He later went into the real estate business in Rajasthan, with a company called Amer Heritage City Construction Pvt Ltd, where his wife, Minal, is a director.^[5][35]

Cricket Administration[link]

Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association[link]

Lalit Modi joined the Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association in 1999 (when it had no cricket stadium) after promising to build a cricket stadium that would be used to play cricket in the Indian summer.^[36] In 2000, he started raising concerns with the way things were run in Himachal, and was booted-out when Mr. Prem Kumar Dhumal became the Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh and installed his son as the President of the HP Cricket Association.

Rajasthan Cricket Association[link]

In 2005, Lalit Modi joined the Rajasthan Cricket Association. He became a member of the Nagore district. He allegedly submitted his name to the RCA as Lalit Kumar, because he did not want to be "cut-off" like he was with the HPCA.^[37] He raised concerns with the way RCA was run by the Rungta family for 40 years. There were 32 district associations in Rajasthan and 57 members, of which all 57 were related to the Rungta family. There were no elections in the RCA for 40 years.

He eventually became president of the Rajasthan Cricket Association, with the help of then Chief Minister of Rajasthan, Vasundhara Raje, who changed the law in Rajasthan, effective 18 August 2004, so that the RCA becomes a more democratic organisation with elections. His election was mired in controversy as he was accused of impersonating one Lalit Kumar to gain eligibility. His stint was over after Vasundhara lost the elections and he had to fight a fair election. He lost to Sanjay Dixit on 1st March 2009, a career bureuacrat and firebrand cricket administrator with whose brains and help, Lalit Modi had got into Rajasthan Cricket Association. He did try to engineer a comeback by fomenting a revolt against Sanjay Dixit and the Government of Rajasthan, in a surprise move, ordered re-election. The wily fighter that he is, Sanjay Dixit patched up with Dr. CP Joshi, a Union Cabinet Minister, and Lalit Modi had the dubious distinction of losing twice in a calendar year after he lost the re-election to CP Joshi - Sanjay Dixit combine. CP Joshi is now the President while Sanjay Dixit as Secretary General continues to run the Rajasthan Cricket Association far more successfully compared to Lalit Modi, making Rajasthan win the Ranji Trophy in 2011.

Board of Control for Cricket in India[link]

In 2004, Lalit Modi ran for President of Rajasthan Cricket Association and won, which entitled him to a seat on the Board of Control for Cricket in India.^[38]

In 2005, Modi figured in a power struggle that resulted in Sharad Pawar, an influential politician and national cabinet minister, ousting former Indian cricket supremo and International Cricket Council Chief, Jagmohan Dalmiya, in the Board of Control for Cricket in India elections. Modi was then appointed Vice-President of the BCCI.^[39]

Lalit Modi was heavily involved in the commercial side of the Board of Control for Cricket in India and it is reported he was responsible for increasing the BCCI's revenues sevenfold between 2005 and 2008, with the BCCI then reporting annual revenues of over $1 billion.^[40]

During his time at the BCCI, Lalit Modi concluded the following deals:

• Pan-India distributor deal with ESPN on a ten-year contract - $975 million in 1994
• Team Sponsorship Deal for Team India with Sahara Thenyamukkim group for 4 years - $103 million (415 Crores) on 20.12.05^[41]
• Team Apparel Sponsor Deal for Team India with Nike for 4 year - $53 million (215 Crores) on 24.12.05^[42]
• Media Rights Deal with Nimbus for 4 years - $612 million on 18.2.06^[43]
• Media Rights for overseas matches with Zee for 4 years - $219 million on 7.4.06^[42]
• BCCI Sponsorship Deal with WSG - $46 million (173 Crores) on 27.8.07^[44]
• The Indian Premier League sold eight franchises - $723.59 million on 24.01.08 ^[45]
• ESPN deal for Twenty20 global rights - $1 billion in 2008 ^[46]
• IPL Media Rights Deal with Sony - $1.26 Billion on 15.1.08^[47]
• Web Media Rights to Live current Media - $50 million on 18.4.08^[48]
• IPL Title sponsorship and Ground sponsors - $220 million in March 2008^[49]
• Renegotiated with Sony WSG the IPL Media rights from $1.26 billion to over $2.46 billion on 25.3.2009^[50]
• Nimbus Communications four year deal for the rights to India's home international games - US$431 million in October 2009 ^[51]
• IPL Theatrical Rights Deal with UFO and ESD for over 300 Crores on 12 November 2009^[52]
• IPL Entertainment Broadcast deal with Viacom for over $30 Million on 23 January 2010^[53]
• IPL undisclosed sum deal with Google and YouTube on 22 January 2010^[54]
• Pune and Kochi deal with Sahara Adventure Sports Group and Rendezvous Sports World Limited - US$703 million on 21st March 2010 ^[55]

Punjab Cricket Association[link]

Lalit Modi is currently the Vice President of the Punjab Cricket Association under the patronage of former Board of Control for Cricket in India President, I.S. Bindra.^[56]

IPL 5: Punjab sign Awana, Gurkreet

Indian Premier League[link]

In 2008, Lalit Modi was instrumental in launching the Indian Premier League (IPL), a league based around Twenty20 cricket, where each team is limited to batting for a maximum of 20 overs.^[57] he also engineered the Indian Premier League's move to South Africa in 2009 after the dates of the tournament clashed with the Indian general election and the Union Minister of Home Affairs, P. Chidambaram, could not commit to the security of the tournament.^[57]

The IPL has since grown into one of the world's biggest sports, worth over $4 billion.^[58] The commercial success of the Indian Premier League and Modi's control of the league has led to him being compared to Don King and Bernie Ecclestone.^[58]

In 2010, Modi oversaw the bidding process and creation of two new teams in the Indian Premier League. Pune and Kochi were declared the new franchises. A Twitter entry by Modi declaring the stakeholders of the Kochi IPL Team allegedly breaching confidentiality agreements led to the resignation of the then Indian Minister of State for External Affairs Dr. Shashi Tharoor.^[59][60]

Modi was then suspended as Chairman and Commissioner of the IPL in April 2010.^[61] A suspension notice and a 34-page letter stating 22 charges of impropriety were served via email to Modi. Modi publicly protested his innocence immediately after the 2010 Indian Premier League Final had been played.^[58]

An income tax department report on Modi has revealed that he holds a silent stake in three IPL teams - the Rajasthan Royals, Mumbai Indians and Kings XI Punjab.^[62] Furthermore, there are questions as to whether Modi was involved in match fixing and betting in Indian Premier League games.^[63] He is also under fire for helping his family and friends buy stakes in Indian Premier League teams.^[64]

In March 2012 New Zealand cricketer Chris Cairns successfully sued Modi for making false, malicious statements in the media about Mr Cairns. This is after Modi posted on Twitter in 2010 that Cairns had been involved in match-fixing during 2008, which was proven to be lies made up by Modi. Cairns won costs and damages.^[65]

Mihir Bose Interview[link]

On 25th November 2010 an exclusive interview conducted in London between Mihir Bose and Lalit Modi was posted on the official www.lalitmodi.org website. During his first interview since being suspended as commissioner of the IPL, Lalit Modi rejected a number of allegations levelled against him during his career. Global news networks, newspapers and social media sources reported on the interview, including The Times of India, AFP and The Economic Times. ^[66]

When questioned about the $80 million that he allegedly cost the BCCI, Modi claimed that ”the way I did the deals I made the BCCI billions of dollars not cost them eighty million dollars.” ^[67]

Modi indicated that his security agencies advised him not to return to India until the threat level reduced. Security protection has remained high since Modi moved the IPL to South Africa in 2009. ^[68]

Awards and Recognitions[link]

• In October 2011, Lalit Modi was bestowed the 'Outstanding Contribution Award' at the 2011 International Sports Event Management (ISEM) Awards^[69]
• In February 2010, Sports Illustrated named Lalit Modi as the 2nd Most Powerful Person in Indian Sports^[3]
• On 28 December 2009, Business Standard named Lalit Modi as one of the ‘Game Changers of the Decade’^[70]
• On 26 September 2009, Lalit Modi was presented with the ‘Brand of the Year’ award by India Leadership Conclave^[71]
• In August 2009, Forbes Magazine described the IPL as ‘the world's hottest sports league’ – a remarkable accolade from a US magazine less than a year after the IPL’s launch^[72]
• On 22 January 2009, Lalit Modi was given the ‘Sport Business Leader’ award by CBNC-TV18^[73]
• On 30 December 2008, SportzPower ranked Lalit Modi No. 1 in their annual Top 20^[74]
• On 12 November 2008, Lalit Modi was given the SportsBusiness ‘Rushmans Award For Sports Event Innovation’ by Rushmans^[75]
• On 8 November 2008, Lalit Modi was given the ‘Teacher's Achievement of the Year’ award by Beam Global Spirits & Wine^[76]
• In October 2008, Business Week ranked Lalit Modi 19th in a list of 25 most powerful global sports figures^[77]
• On 24 October 2008, Lalit Modi was awarded for ‘Excellence in Innovation’ at the Frost & Sullivan Growth Excellence Awards^[78]
• On 6 October 2008, Lalit Modi was named ‘The Most Innovative Business Leader in India’ by NDTV Profit^[79]
• On 26 September 2008, Lalit Modi was presented with ‘The Consumer Award for Transforming Cricket in India’ by CNBC Awaaz^[80]
• On 25 September 2008, Lalit Modi was named ‘Brand Builder of the Year’ by Asia Brand Conference^[81]
• In August 2008, Lalit Modi was ranked number 17 in the leading sports magazine Sports Pro’s Power List of global figures connected with sports^[82]
• In July 2008, Time Magazine ranked Lalit Modi 16th in a list of the world’s best sports executives^[83]
• In July 2008 he featured on the cover of Sports Pro and was hailed as the Best Rain Maker (money maker) for any sports body in the history of sports globally^[84]
• On 21 June 2008, Lalit Modi was given the ‘Business Standard Award’ for making BCCI the Most Innovative Company in India for that year^[85]
• On 9 April 2006, Mike Atherton described Lalit Modi as arguably ‘the most important cricket administrator in the world today’^[86]
• In March 2008, Lalit Modi was listed among India's 30 most powerful people by the India Today magazine^[40]

See also[link]