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Buddhism (Pali/Sanskrit: बौद्ध धर्म Buddha Dharma) is an ancient, polyvalent ideological system that originated in the Iron Age Indian subcontinent, referred to variously throughout history by one or more of a myriad of concepts – including, but not limited to any of the following: a Dharmic religion, a philosophy or quasi-philosophical tradition, a spiritual schema, or a culturally dynamic psychological method of self-improvement. The Buddhist faith was founded by the teacher Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama), known honorifically as the eponymic Buddha, around the 6th or [[5th century BC]5th century BCE].

The classification and nature of various doctrinal, philosophical or cultural facets or schools of Buddhism is vague and has been interpreted in many different ways, often due to the sheer number (perhaps thousands) of different sects, subsects, movements, etc. that have or currently make up the whole of Buddhist traditions. The sectarian and conceptual divisions of Buddhic thought are part of the modern framework of Buddhist studies, as well as comparative religion in Asia.

From a largely English-language standpoint, and to some extent in most of Western academia, Buddhism is separated into two groups at its foundation: Theravāda literally, "the Teaching of the Elders" or "the Ancient Teaching" and Mahāyāna. The most common classification among scholars is threefold, with Mahāyāna split into East Asian (also known simply as Mahāyāna) and Vajrayāna, which includes Tibetan Buddhism and the Japanese Shingon school.

Classifications[link]

The Macmillan Encyclopedia of Religion distinguishes three types of classification of Buddhism, separated into "Movements", "Nikāyas" and "Doctrinal schools":^{[clarification needed]}

• Schools:
  • Theravada
  • Mahāyāna
  • Vajrayāna
• Nikāyas, or monastic fraternities, three of which survive at the present day:
  • Theravāda, in Southeast Asia
  • Dharmaguptaka, in China, Korea and Vietnam
  • Mūlasarvāstivāda, in the Tibetan tradition
• Doctrinal schools

Terminology[link]

The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria, with different terms often being used in different contexts. The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:

"Conservative Buddhism"

an alternative name for the early Buddhist schools.

"Early Buddhist Schools"

the schools into which Buddhism became divided in its first few centuries; only one of these survives as an independent school, Theravāda

"East Asian Buddhism"

a term used by scholars^[1] to cover the Buddhist traditions of Japan, Korea, Singapore and most of China and Vietnam

"Eastern Buddhism"

an alternative name used by some scholars^{[2][page needed]} for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.

"Esoteric Buddhism"

usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".^[3] Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within the Theravāda, particularly in Cambodia.^{[4][page needed]}

"Hīnayāna"

literally meaning "lesser vehicle." It is considered a controversial term when applied by the Mahāyāna to mistakenly refer to the Theravāda school, and as such is widely viewed as condescending and pejorative.^[5] Moreover, Hīnayāna refers to the now non extant schools with limited set of views, practices and results, prior to the development of the Mahāyāna traditions. The term is currently most often used as a way of describing a stage on the path in Tibetan Buddhism, but is often mistakenly confused with the contemporary Theravāda tradition, which is far more complex, diversified and profound, than the literal and limiting definition attributed to Hīnayāna .^[6] Its use in scholarly publications is now also considered controversial.^[7]

"Lamaism"

an old term, still sometimes used, synonymous with Tibetan Buddhism; widely considered derogatory.

"Mahāyāna"

a movement that emerged out of early Buddhist schools, together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayāna traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels,^{[8][page needed]} regardless of school.

"Mainstream Buddhism"

a term used by some scholars for the early Buddhist schools.

"Mantrayāna"

usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".^[9] The Tendai school in Japan has been described as influenced by Mantrayana.^{[8][page needed]}

"Newar Buddhism"

a non-monastic, caste based Buddhism with patrilineal descent and Sanskrit texts.

"Nikāya Buddhism" or "schools"

an alternative term for the early Buddhist schools.

"Non-Mahāyāna"

an alternative term for the early Buddhist schools.

"Northern Buddhism"

an alternative term used by some scholars^{[2][page needed]} for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass both East Asian and Tibetan traditions. It has even been used to refer to East Asian Buddhism alone, without Tibetan Buddhism.

"Secret Mantra"

an alternative rendering of Mantrayāna, a more literal translation of the term used by schools in Tibetan Buddhism when referring to themselves.^[10]

"Sectarian Buddhism"

an alternative name for the early Buddhist schools.

"Southeast Asian Buddhism"

an alternative name used by some scholars^{[11][page needed]} for Theravāda.

"Southern Buddhism"

an alternative name used by some scholars^{[2][page needed]} for Theravāda.

"Śravakayāna"

an alternative term sometimes used for the early Buddhist schools.

"Tantrayāna" or "Tantric Buddhism"

usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".^[9] However, one scholar describes the tantra divisions of some editions of the Tibetan scriptures as including Śravakayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna texts^[12] (see Buddhist texts). Some scholars^{[13][page needed]}, particularly François Bizot,^[14] have used the term "Tantric Theravāda" to refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.

"Theravāda"

the traditional Buddhism of Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and parts of Vietnam, China, India, Bangladesh and Malaysia. It is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. The term "Theravāda" is also sometimes used to refer to all the early Buddhist schools.^[15]

"Tibetan Buddhism"

usually understood as including the Buddhism of Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan and parts of China, India and Russia, which follow the Tibetan tradition.

"Vajrayāna"

a movement that developed out of Indian Mahāyāna, together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading; many also include the Japanese Shingon school. Some scholars^{[16][page needed]}, also apply the term to the Korean milgyo tradition, which is not a separate school. One scholar says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers, it remains exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets the Vajrayana apart."^[17]

Early schools[link]

An image of Gautama Buddha with a swastika, a traditional Buddhist symbol of infinity, on his chest. Ananda, the Buddha's disciple, appears in the background. This statue is from Hsi Lai Temple.

• Sthaviravāda
  • Pudgalavāda ('Personalist') (c. 280 BCE)
  • Sarvāstivāda
    • Vibhajjavāda (prior to 240 BCE; during Aśoka)
      • Theravāda (c. 240 BCE)
        • Theravāda subschools (see below)
      • Mahīśāsaka (after 232 BCE)
        • Dharmaguptaka (after 232 BCE)
      • Kāśyapīya (after 232 BCE)
      • Vatsīputrīya (under Aśoka) later name: Saṃmitīya
        • Dharmottarīya
        • Bhadrayānīya
        • Sannāgarika
    • Mūlasarvāstivāda (third and fourth centuries)
    • Sautrāntika (between 50 BCE and c. 100 CE)
• Mahāsaṃghika ('Majority', c. 380 BCE)
  • Ekavyahārikas (under Aśoka)
    • Lokottaravāda
  • Golulika (during Aśoka)
    • Bahuśrutīya (late third century BCE)
    • Prajñaptivāda (late third century BCE)
      • Cetiyavāda
  • Caitika (mid-first century BCE)
    • Apara Śaila
    • Uttara Śaila

Twenty sects[link]

The following lists the twenty sects described as Hīnayāna, as the classification is understood in some Mahāyāna texts:

Sthaviravāda split into the 11 sects:

• Sarvāstivādin
• Haimavata
• Vatsīputrīya
• Dharmottara
• Bhadrayānīya
• Sammitiya
• Channagirika
• Mahīśāsaka
• Dharmaguptaka
• Kāśyapīya
• Sautrāntika

 Sthaviravāda─┬─ Haimavata────────────────────────────────────────────
              └─ Sarvāstivādin─┬───────────────────────────────────
                               ├ Vatsīputrīya ─┬────────────────────
                               │               ├ Dharmottara───────
                               │               ├ Bhadrayānīya─────
                               │               ├ Sammitiya────────
                               │               └ Channagirika─────
                               ├ Mahīśāsaka─┬─────────────────────
                               │            └ Dharmaguptaka──────
                               ├ Kāśyapīya────────────────────────
                               └ Sautrāntika──────────────────────

Mahāsaṃghika split into 9 sects:

• Ekavyahārika
• Lokottaravādin
• Kaukkutika
• Bahuśrutīya
• Prajñaptivāda
• Caitika
• Aparaśaila
• Uttaraśaila.

Mahasanghika─┬──────────────────────┬─────
             ├ Ekavyahārika         ├ Caitika
             ├ Lokottaravādin       ├ Aparaśaila
             ├ Kaukkutika           └ Uttaraśaila
             ├ Bahuśrutīya
             └ Prajñaptivāda

Influences on East Asian schools[link]

The following later schools used the vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka:

• Chinese Buddhism, especially the Vinaya School
• Korean Buddhism, especially Gyeyul
• Vietnamese Buddhism
• Japanese Ritsu

The following involve philosophical influence:

• The Japanese Jojitsu is considered by some an offshoot of Sautrāntika; others consider it to be derived from Bahuśrutīya
• The Chinese/Japanese Kusha school is considered an offshoot of Sarvāstivāda, influenced by Vasubandhu.

Theravāda subschools[link]

The different schools in Theravāda often emphasize different aspects (or parts) of the Pāli canon and the later commentaries, or differ in the focus on and recommended way of practice. There are also significant differences in strictness or interpretation of the vinaya.

• Bangladesh:
  • Sangharaj Nikaya
  • Mahasthabir Nikaya
• Burma:
  • Thudhamma Nikaya
    • Vipassana tradition of Mahasi Sayadaw and disciples
  • Shwekyin Nikaya
  • Dvaya Nikaya or Dvara Nikaya (see Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975)
• Sri Lanka:
  • Siam Nikaya
    • Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya)
  • Amarapura Nikaya
    • Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)
    • Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)
  • Ramañña Nikaya
    • Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha (or ‘Galduwa Tradition’)
    • Delduwa
  • forest nikaya
• Thailand
  • Maha Nikaya
    • Dhammakaya Movement
    • Mahasati meditation (mindfulness meditation)
  • Thammayut Nikaya
    • Thai Forest Tradition
      • Tradition of Ajahn Chah

Mahāyāna schools[link]

Chinese Glazed stoneware of a Buddhist monk, or Future Buddha, dated to the 20th year of the Chenghua Emperor, or 1468 AD.

• Tibetan Buddhism
• Mādhyamaka
  • Prāsangika
  • Svātantrika
  • Sanlun (Three Treatise school)
    • Sanron
  • Mahā-Mādhyamaka (Jonangpa)
• Yogācāra
  • Cittamātra in Tibet
  • Wei-Shi (Consciousness-only school) or Faxiang (Dharma-character school)
    • Beopsang
    • Hossō
• Tathāgatagarbha
  • Daśabhūmikā (absorbed into Huayan)
  • Huayan (Avataṃsaka)
    • Hwaeom
    • Kegon
• Chan / Zen / Seon / Thien
  • Caodong
    • Sōtō
      • Keizan line
      • Jakuen line
      • Giin line
  • Linji
    • Rinzai
    • Ōbaku
    • Fuke
    • Won Buddhism: Korean Reformed Buddhism
• Pure Land (Amidism)
  • Jōdo-shū
  • Jōdo Shinshū
• Tiantai (Lotus Sutra School)
  • Cheontae
  • Tendai (also contains Vajrayana elements)
• Nichiren
  • Nichiren Shū
  • Nichiren Shōshū
  • Nipponzan Myōhōji
  • Sōka Gakkai

Tantric schools[link]

Subcategorised according to predecessors

• Nyingma
  • New Bön (synthesis of Yungdrung Bön and Nyingmapa)
  • Kadam
  • Sakya
    • Ngor-pa
    • Tsar-pa
  • Jonang
  • Gelug
  • Kagyu:
    • Shangpa Kagyu
    • Marpa Kagyu:
      • Rechung Kagyu
      • Dagpo Kagyu:
        • Karma Kagyu (or Kamtshang Kagyu)
        • Tsalpa Kagyu
        • Baram Kagyu
        • Pagtru Kagyu (or Phagmo Drugpa Kagyu):
          • Taklung Kagyu
          • Trophu Kagyu
          • Drukpa Kagyu
          • Martsang Kagyu
          • Yerpa Kagyu
          • Yazang Kagyu
          • Shugseb Kagyu
          • Drikung Kagyu
  • Rime movement (ecumenical movement)
• Newar Buddhism
• Japanese Mikkyo
  • Shingon
  • Tendai (derived from Tiantai but added tantric practices)
  • Shinnyo-en

New Buddhist movements[link]

• Aum Shinrikyo (now known as Aleph)
• Diamond Way
• Triratna Buddhist Community
• New Kadampa Tradition
• Share International
• True Buddha School
• Vipassana movement
• Shambhala Buddhism

See also[link]

• Navayana
• Early Buddhist Schools
• Gandhāran Buddhist Texts
• Humanistic Buddhism
• Northern and Southern Buddhism
• Perfection of Wisdom School

References[link]

• Coleman, Graham, ed. (1993). A Handbook of Tibetan Culture. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc.. ISBN 1-57062-002-4.
• Warder, A.K. (1970). Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

External links[link]

• Mahayana vs. Theravada: a Multiform Comparison
• The Sects of the Buddhists by T.W. Rhys Davids, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1891. pp. 409–422
• Sects & Sectarianism – The origins of Buddhist Schools
• Schools of Buddhism – The Origin of Early Buddhist Schools in Ancient India

Lama Ole Nydahl (born March 19, 1941) is a Danish Lama in the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism under guidance of Trinley Thaye Dorje. Since the early 1970s, Nydahl has toured the world giving lectures and meditation courses. With his wife, Hannah Nydahl, he founded Diamond Way Buddhism, a worldwide lay organization of Karma Kagyu Buddhism.

Nydahl is the author of nine books in English, including The Way Things Are, Entering the Diamond Way, and Riding the Tiger.

Early life and education[link]

Ole Nydahl was born in Copenhagen and grew up in Denmark. In the early 1960s, he served briefly in the Danish Army,^[1] then studied philosophy, English, and German at the University of Copenhagen, where he completed the examen philosophicum with the best possible grade.^[1] He began but did not finish a doctoral thesis on Aldous Huxley’s Doors of Perception.^[2] As a young man, Nydahl was involved in boxing, race car driving and also travelled overland from Denmark to Nepal several times. As described in his book "Entering the Diamond Way", his travels were financed through smuggling, for which he was once arrested and detained in Denmark.

Involvement with Buddhism[link]

Buddhist Education[link]

In 1968, Nydahl and his wife Hannah travelled to Nepal on their honeymoon. Ole and Hannah Nydahl's first Buddhist teacher was the Drukpa Kagyu master Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche.^[1] In December 1969, the Nydahls met Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, the 16th Karmapa.^[3] They were among the first Western students of the Karmapa and grew close to him.^[4] The Nydahls also became students of Mipham Chokyi Lodro, the fourteenth Shamarpa. From the Karmapa, the Nydahls learned about Vajrayana Buddhism and mahamudra. From the Shamarpa, they took the Bodhisattva vows and learned about Gampopa's Jewel Ornament of Liberation. They have received teachings and empowerments from various Tibetan lamas, including the Dalai Lama.^[5]

In 1972, Ole Nydahl was appointed a Buddhist teacher by the Karmapa and was sent back to Europe in order to promote Buddhism in the West. In 1983, the Shamarpa named Nydahl a Buddhist master. In 1995, Khenpo Chödrak Thenpel Rinpoche named Nydahl a lama on behalf of the Buddhist Institutes of the Gyalwa Karmapa.^[2][3][6]

Nydahl has been criticised for never going on a three-year retreat, which is a prerequisite for use of the title 'lama' in some traditions of Buddhism.^[2][7] However, the use of the word 'Lama' as a term of address (vs. as a title) is a more individual matter, like the term of address 'Rinpoche'. Many of the early Buddhist teachers in the Karma Kagyu tradition used the word 'Lama' as a term of address, including Marpa and Milarepa, in their songs to their teachers, who had not gone on three year retreats^{[8] [9]} . The Sixteenth Karmapa also stated that, "if someone has a greater wisdom and capacity for penetrating the teaching, then even without doing a three-year retreat, it is possible for one to experience definite understanding and realization."^[10]

Teaching[link]

Ole Nydahl, London, August 2007.

Upon returning to Europe, Hannah and Ole Nydahl began to teach Buddhism and organize meditation centers, first in their native Denmark, then in Germany and other countries. The centers belong to the Karma Kagyu lineage and operate under Ole Nydahl's practical guidance. In the early 90s, Diamond Way Buddhism was founded as a way to protect established centers during the Karmapa controversy.^[4]

As of February 2012^[update], there were 629 Diamond Way centers throughout the world.^[11] Most are in Europe, Russia, or the United States.

Ole Nydahl regularly travels between them during the year giving lectures and meditation courses. His courses cover topics such as mahamudra and phowa. He has traveled almost constantly for the last 40 years, teaching in a new city nearly every day.^[5]

Together with his students, Nydahl has created Buddhist centers that provide access to Vajrayana meditation methods without requiring an understanding of Tibetan language or culture. In the Diamond Way centers, the meditations and names of the various Buddha forms have been translated into Western languages. Ole Nydahl believes^{[citation needed]} it essential for people to understand and read the meditations in their own language in order for Buddhism to become truly rooted in the West.

Diamond Way centers are run entirely by volunteers; the organization does not maintain any paid staff. The organizational structure is intended to be democratic and to function on the basis of idealism and friendship.^[12] According to Buddhism Today, the Diamond Way Buddhist magazine, "hierarchical systems will not sell with independent people in the West. Nobody wants a distant teacher on a pedestal or a big organization standing on their shoulders and telling them what to think."^[13]

Students in Diamond Way Centers practice the ngöndro given by Wangchuk Dorje, 9th Karmapa Lama ^[14], which are a set of four foundational practices that are intended to prepare the mind for enlightenment, a meditation on the Buddha Loving Eyes (Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, Chenrezig in Tibetan) and several forms of guru yoga or meditation on the lama (as given by the 16th Karmapa).^[15] In a newsletter dated July 9, 2010, Nydahl responded to questions about the types of practices taught in Diamond Way Centers by stating "I never taught anything I was not asked to pass on by the great Sixteenth Karmapa and that its basis was always the Guru Yogas of the Karmapas. Nothing else is practiced in our now 650 Diamond Way centers world-wide where my students meditate side by side."^[16]

Jørn Borup, a professor of religion at Aarhus University, says that Ole Nydahl is "the most lasting influence on the Buddhist practice scene in Denmark" and "has in many ways been the icon of living Buddhism in Denmark".^[7] The total number of Nydahl's adherents is unknown, but can be estimated conservatively to include 15,000 to 70,000 students and casual sympathizers world wide.^[2] In Germany alone, the German Buddhist Union, (Deutsche Buddhistische Union) estimates that about 20,000 persons regularly visit the Diamond Way centers and groups.^[2]

Role in the Karmapa controversy[link]

When a great Tibetan lama dies, it is tradition in Tibetan Buddhism to find the next reincarnation to continue the work. When the Sixteenth Karmapa died in 1981, two potential successors were found, Trinley Thaye Dorje and Ogyen Trinley Dorje, causing a major split in the Karma Kagyu. Nydahl, along with the Fourteenth Shamarpa, who was one of only four lineage-holders appointed to recognize the incarnation of the Karmapa at that time, supported Trinley Thaye Dorje. It was largely because of the work of Hannah and Ole Nydahl that most European Karma Kagyu centers chose to support Trinley Thaye Dorje.^[4][7] As a result, 629 of the centers supporting Trinley Thaye Dorje are affiliated with Diamond Way Buddhism.^[17]

The other candidate, Ogyen Trinley Dorje, was recognized by Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama confirmed Ogyen Trinley Dorje as the Karmapa after he had been requested to do so by two of the other lineage-holders, Tai Situ Rinpoche and Gyaltsap Rinpoche,^[18] but the supporters of Trinley Thaye Dorje say that the Dalai Lama is not entitled to do so, and has never done so before.^[4]

The argument that Ogyen Trinley Dorje is the Karmapa is based in part on a letter presented by Pema Tönyö Nyinje, 12th Tai Situpa. The supporters of Ogyen Trinley claim it was written by the Sixteenth Karmapa in order to predict the identity of his future rebirth.^[4][19] Nydahl, the Shamarpa, and Topgala requested that the letter's authenticity be tested.^[19] They believe that the letter was written not by the Sixteenth Karmapa but by the Situpa himself. They have requested that the letter be verified by independent experts including forensic document examiners. Tai Situ has thus far refused to allow this claiming it would be a violation of a sacred object.

Due to his role in the Karmapa controversy, Nydahl has been heavily criticized by the supporters of Ogyen Trinley Dorje, such as the authors Mick Brown and Lea Terhune, a student of Tai Situpa.^[19] In connection to this, some blame Nydahl for causing the 1992 split of the Karma Kagyu, although there is no evidence of this, and accuse him of breaking the samayas to his teachers, which is deprecated in Vajrayana.^[4][19]

Dispute with German Buddhist Union[link]

There is a greater concentration of Diamond Way centers in Germany compared to elsewhere in Europe. Between late 1999 and April 2000 there was a public dispute between the German Buddhist Union and the German branch of Diamond Way, which is a member organisation of the Union. Due to of Nydahl's attitude towards Islam, his political statements, his manner of expressing and presenting himself, and his relationships with women, there were calls for the expulsion of Nydahl's organisation from the Union.^[20] The dispute was resolved at a meeting between the two organizations on 4 October 2000; although differences were clear, they agreed to learn from the past and cooperate in the future. The conversation was described as "a first step" that "should eliminate misunderstandings, and lead to clarity and cooperation."^[21] The German branch of Diamond Way (Buddhistischer Dachverband Diamantweg) remains a member of the German Buddhist Union.^[22]

Academic reception[link]

Burkhard Scherer, a pupil of both Nydahl and Thaye Dorje,^[23] takes a historical-critical approach of Tibetan Buddhist Studies. He writes that:

Lay practitioners, both patrons and tantric adepts, played a decisive role in the process of assimilation that formed Tibetan Buddhism(s). In the same way, lay people are now playing a key role during the westernization of Tibetan Buddhism(s). The Mahāsiddha / crazy yogi heritage and the medieval Tibetan doctrinal debate about teaching the Great Seal outside of the Tantra prove to be highly relevant historical precedents in the interpretation of unconventional modern/contemporary yogic/lay teachers such as the late Chogyam Trungpa and Ole Nydahl.^[2]

He regrets that Nydahl continues to be ignored by Tibet scholars and argues that prevailing negative criticism from a position of suspicion by sociologists and students of New Religious Movements should be counter-balanced by positive criticism from a position of trust by Tibet scholars.

... the little recent academic attention Nydahl has drawn so far come, interestingly, from European sociologists of religions who specialize in New Religious Movements and Contemporary Religions/Buddhism(s).The neglect of Modern Tibetan Buddhist movements by classically trained Tibetologists is deplorable; the historical-critical methodology of Tibetan Studies can complement sociology and anthropology and add greatly to the discourses about authenticity and legitimization of movements such as Nydahl's Diamond Way.^[2]

Martin Baumann, a professor of religion at the University of Lucerne,^[24] remarked in a newspaper interview "when I listen to his [Nydahl's] alarmingly superficial formulations in his talks I can understand his critics who say that he is presenting a watered-down 'instant Buddhism', a sort of 'Buddhism light' for the West."^[25]

Opinions of Islam[link]

Nydahl has a critical view of Islam. He has called Allah a "terrible god",^[26] and characterized Muslim beliefs as antithetical to freedom of speech and women's rights:

I seriously hope, you know, that we're not losing the freedom of expression right now, that we're not losing the ability to say what we think even if we step on the toes of some gentlemen from the Near East … who like to beat their wives or stone them or whatever else they do, right?^[27]

Nydahl says that he does not make political comments in his capacity as a lama, but as a "responsible, thinking human being", and that no one can make such statements from a Buddhist perspective because Buddha Shakyamuni did not comment on religious ideas founded centuries after his death.^[28] He also distinguishes the "mainstream Muslims" that he disapproves of from Sufis and Bahá'ís.^[26]

An online interview with Nydahl also featured the following statement: "Judaism and Christianity are fine. Islam, I warn against. I know the Koran, I know the life story of Mohammad and I think we cannot use that in our society today."^[26]

Personal life[link]

Nydahl is not a monk and so has not taken vows of celibacy. Jørn Borup, Associate Professor of Religion at Aarhus University, notes that Nydahl "certainly isn't afraid to say that he likes the ladies, primarily his wife, who is now deceased, but also other women. This brings him into conflict with not just Islam but also, sometimes, with old-fashioned Buddhism..."^[29] Yet several well-known Vajrayana Buddhist lamas were married: Marpa the translator is said to have had nine wives;^[30] others had romantic relationships, including the 6th Dalai Lama, and the teacher who brought Buddhism to Tibet, Padmasambhava, who had five Tantric consorts who were also his students.^[31]

When asked about it, Nydahl has said: "There’s no teacher-student relationship involved in that, [...] They’re Diamond Way Buddhists, but they’re not my students in that moment. They’re equal partners."^[32]

Bibliography[link]

Ole Nydahl has written several books in English, German and Danish, which have been translated into several other European languages.

Most popular English titles:

• Ngondro: The Four Foundational Practices of Tibetan Buddhism. Blue Dolphin Publishing (1990). ISBN 978-0-931892-23-3
• Riding the Tiger: Twenty Years on the Road - Risks and Joys of Bringing Tibetan Buddhism to the West. Blue Dolphin Publishing (1992). ISBN 978-0-931892-67-7
• Entering the Diamond Way: Tibetan Buddhism meets the West. Blue Dolphin Publishing (1999). ISBN 978-0-931892-03-5
• The Great Seal: Limitless Space and Joy - The Mahamudra View of Diamond Way Buddhism. Fire Wheel Publishing (2004). ISBN 0-9752954-0-3
• The Way Things Are: A living Approach to Buddhism for today's world." O Books (2008). ISBN 978-1-84694-042-2
• "Buddha and Love: Timeless Wisdom for Modern Relationships." Brio Books (2012). ISBN-13: 978-1937061845

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Media related to Ole Nydahl at Wikimedia Commons