Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy
Coomaraswamy in 1916, photograph by Alvin Langdon Coburn
Born	(1877-08-22)August 22, 1877 Colombo, British Ceylon
Died	September 9, 1947(1947-09-09) (aged 70) Needham, Massachusetts
Known for	metaphysician, philosopher, historian
Religion	Hindu

Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (Tamil: ஆனந்த குமாரசுவாமி, Ānanda Kentiś Kūmaraswāmī) (22 August 1877, Colombo, Ceylon − 9 September 1947, Needham, Massachusetts) was a Ceylonese philosopher and metaphysician, as well as a pioneering historian and philosopher of Indian art, particularly art history and symbolism, and an early interpreter of Indian culture to the West.^[1] In particular, he is described as "the groundbreaking theorist who was largely responsible for introducing ancient Indian art to the West."^[2]

Life[link]

Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy was born in Colombo, Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, to the Ceylonese Tamil legislator and philosopher Sir Muthu Coomaraswamy and his English wife Elizabeth Beeby. His father died when Ananda was 2 years old, and Ananda spent much of his childhood and education abroad.

Coomaraswamy moved to England in 1879 and attended Wycliffe College, a preparatory school in Stroud, Gloucestershire, at the age of 12. In 1900, he graduated from University College, London, with a degree in geology and botany. On June 19, 1902, Coomaraswamy married Ethel Mary Partridge, an English photographer, who then traveled with him to Ceylon. Their marriage lasted until 1913. Coomaraswamy's field work between 1902 and 1906 earned him a doctor of science for his study of Ceylonese mineralogy, and prompted the formation of the Geological Survey of Ceylon which he initially directed.^[3] While in Ceylon, the couple collaborated on Mediaeval Sinhalese Art; Coomaraswamy wrote the text and Ethel provided the photographs. His work in Ceylon fueled Coomaraswamy's anti-Westernization sentiments.^[4] After their divorce, Partridge returned to England, where she later married the writer Philip Mairet.

By 1906, Coomaraswamy had made it his mission to educate the West about Indian art, and was back in London with a large collection of photographs, actively seeking out artists to try to influence. He knew he could not rely on Museum curators or other members of the cultural establishment – in 1908 he wrote “The main difficulty so far seems to have been that Indian art has been studied so far only by archaeologists. It is not archaeologists, but artists … who are the best qualified to judge of the significance of works of art considered as art.” By 1909, he was firmly acquainted with Jacob Epstein and Eric Gill, the city's two most important early Modernists, and soon both of them had begun to incorporate Indian aesthetics into their work. The curiously hybrid sculptures that were produced as a result can be seen to form the very roots of what is now considered British Modernism.^[5][6]

Coomaraswamy then met and married an Englishwoman who performed Indian song under the stage name Ratan Devi. They had two children, a son, Narada, and daughter, Rohini. He moved to the United States in 1917 to serve as the first Keeper of Indian art in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Narada was killed in a plane crash and an already ailing Ratan died shortly thereafter.^[7]

Coomaraswamy married the American artist Stella Bloch, 29 years his junior, in November 1922. Through the 1920s, Coomaraswamy and his wife were part of the bohemian art circles in New York City, Coomaraswamy befriending Alfred Stieglitz and the artists who exhibited at Stieglitz's gallery. At the same time, he was studying Sanskrit and Pali religious literature as well as Western religious works. He wrote catalogues for the Museum of Fine Arts, and published his History of Indian and Indonesian Art in 1927.

After the couple divorced in 1930, they remained friends. Shortly thereafter, on November 18, 1930, Coomaraswamy married Argentine Luisa Runstein, 28 years younger, who was working as a society photographer under the professional name Xlata Llamas. They had a son, Coomaraswamy's third child, Rama Ponnambalam, who became a physician and author of Catholic Traditionalist works.

In 1933 Coomaraswamy's title at the Museum of Fine Arts changed from curator to Fellow for Research in Indian, Persian, and Mohammedan Art.^[4]

He served as curator in the Museum of Fine Arts, and was significant in bringing Eastern art to the West, until his death in Needham, Massachusetts in 1947. In fact, at the Museum of Fine Arts, he built the first large collection of Indian art in the United States.^[8]

He also helped with the collection of Persian Art for the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. and the Museum of Fine Arts.

After Coomaraswamy's death, his widow, Doña Luisa Runstein, acted as a guide and resource for students of his work.

Contributions[link]

Coomaraswamy made important contributions to the philosophy of art, literature, and religion. In Ceylon, he applied the lessons of William Morris to Ceylonese culture^{[citation needed]} and produced, with his wife Ethel, a groundbreaking study of Ceylonese craft and culture. While In India, he was part of the literary circle around Rabindranath Tagore, and contributed to the "Swadeshi" movement, an early phase of the struggle for Indian independence^{[citation needed]}. In the 1920s, he made pioneering discoveries in the history of Indian art, particularly distinctions between Rajput and Moghul painting, and his book Rajput Painting. At the same time he amassed an unmatched collection of Rajput and Moghul paintings, which he took with him to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, when he joined its curatorial staff in 1917. Through 1932, from his base in Boston, he produced two kinds of publications: brilliant scholarship in his curatorial field, but also graceful introductions to Indian and Asian art and culture, typified by The Dance of Shiva, a collection of essays that have lost none of their attractiveness and remain in print to this day. From 1932 until his death in 1947, he was yet another man, another mind. Deeply influenced by René Guénon, he became one of the founders of the Traditionalist School. His books and essays on art and culture, symbolism and metaphysics, scripture, folklore and myth, and still other topics, offer a remarkable education to readers who accept the challenges of his resolutely cross-cultural perspective and insistence on tying every point he makes back to sources in multiple traditions. He once remarked, "I actually think in both Eastern and Christian terms—Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Pali, and to some extent Persian and Chinese." ^[9] Alongside the deep and not infrequently difficult writings of this period, he also delighted in polemical writings created for a larger audience—essays such as "Why exhibit works of art?" (1943).^[10]

In his book The Information Society: An Introduction (Sage, 2003, p. 44), Armand Mattelart credits Coomarswamy for coining the term 'post-industrial' in 1913.

Perennial Philosophy[link]

He was described by Heinrich Zimmer as That noble scholar upon whose shoulders we are still standing.^[11] While serving as a curator to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in the latter part of his life, he devoted his work to the explication of traditional metaphysics and symbolism. His writings of this period are filled with references to Plato, Plotinus, Clement, Philo, Augustine, Aquinas, Shankara, Eckhart, and other Rhinish and Asian mystics. When asked what he was, foremostly Dr. Coomaraswamy referred to himself as a Metaphysician, referring here to the concept of perennial philosophy, or Sophia Perennis.

Along with René Guénon and Frithjof Schuon, Coomaraswamy is regarded as one of the three founders of Perennialism, also called the Traditionalist School. Several articles by Coomaraswamy on the subject of Hinduism and the Perennial Philosophy were published posthumously in the quarterly journal, Studies in Comparative Religion, alongside articles by Schuon and Guénon (among others).

Although he agrees with Guénon on the universal principles, his works are very different in form from Guénon's. By vocation, he was a scholar, who dedicated the last decades of his life to searching the Scriptures. He offers a perspective on the tradition which complements well that of Guénon. He had a very highly active aesthetic perceptiveness and he wrote dozens of articles on traditional arts and mythology. His works are also intellectually finely balanced. Although born in the Hindu tradition, he had a deep knowledge of the Western tradition as well as a great expertise and love for Greek metaphysics, especially that of Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism.

He built a bridge between East and West that was designed to carry a two-way traffic: his metaphysical writings aimed, among other things, at demonstrating the unity of the Vedanta and Platonism. His works also sought to rehabilitate original Buddhism, a tradition that Guénon had for a long time limited to a rebellion of the Kshatriyas against Brahmin authority.

"Alan Antliff documents (...in I Am Not A Man, I Am Dynamite) how the Indian art critic and anti-imperialist Ananda Coomaraswamy combined Nietzsche's individualism and sense of spiritual renewal with both Kropotkin's economics and with Asian idealist religious thought. This combination was offered as a basis for the opposition to British colonization as well as to industrialization."^[12]

Works by Coomaraswamy[link]

• The Dance of Shiva - Fourteen Indian essays.. The Sunwise Turn Inc., New York. 1918. http://www.archive.org/stream/danceofsivafourt00coomiala#page/n7/mode/2up. ; 2003, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7661-2925-2)
• Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought?: The Traditional View of Art, (World Wisdom, 2007, ISBN 978-1-933316-34-5)
• The Essential Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, (2003, World Wisdom, ISBN 978-0-941532-46-4)
• Hinduism and Buddhism (Golden Elixir Press, 2011), ISBN 978-0-9843082-3-1 [New edition containing additions and changes contributed by the Author to the French translation of his work]
• Hinduism And Buddhism, (Kessinger Publishing, 2007) ISBN 978-0-548-12442-0
• Introduction To Indian Art, (Kessinger Publishing, 2007) ISBN 978-1-4325-7763-6
• The Dance Of Siva, (Kessinger Publishing, 2006) ISBN 978-1-4286-8030-2
• Buddhist Art, (Kessinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4254-6406-6
• Guardians of the Sundoor: Late Iconographic Essays, (Fons Vitae, 2004) ISBN 978-1-887752-59-6
• History of Indian and Indonesian Art, (Kessinger Publishing, 2003) ISBN 978-0-7661-5801-6
• Bugbear of Literacy, (Sophia Perennis, 1979) ISBN 978-0-900588-19-8
• Teaching of Drawing in Ceylon (1906, Colombo Apothecaries)
• The village community and modern progress (12 pages) (1908, Colombo Apothecaries)
• The Indian craftsman (1909, Probsthain: London)
• Viśvakarmā ; examples of Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, handicraft (1914, London)
• Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists[1] (with Sister Nivedita) (1914, H. Holt; 2003, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7661-4515-3)
• Vidyāpati: Bangīya padābali; songs of the love of Rādhā and Krishna, (1915, The Old Bourne press: London)
• Buddha and the gospel of Buddhism (1916, G. P. Putnam's sons; 2006, Obscure Press, ISBN 978-1-84664-739-0)
• The mirror of gesture: being the Abhinaya darpaṇa of Nandikeśvara (with Duggirāla Gōpālakr̥ṣṇa) (1917, Harvard University Press; 1997, South Asia Books, ISBN 978-81-215-0021-0)
• Indian music (9 pages) (1917, G. Schirmer; 2006, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4286-8031-9)

• Rajput Painting, (B.R. Publishing Corp., 2003) ISBN 978-81-7646-376-8
• Early Indian Architecture: Cities and City-Gates, (South Asia Books, 2002) ISBN 978-81-215-0518-5
• The Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha, (Fons Vitae, 2001) ISBN 978-1-887752-38-1
• The Origin of the Buddha Image, (Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd, 2001) ISBN 978-81-215-0222-1
• Perception of the Vedas, (Manohar Publishers and Distributors, 2000) ISBN 978-81-7304-254-6
• The Door in the Sky, (Princeton University Press, 1997) ISBN 978-0-691-01747-1
• The Transformation of Nature in Art, (Sterling Pub Private Ltd, 1996) ISBN 978-81-207-1643-8
• Spiritual Authority and Temporal Power in the Indian Theory of Government, (Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 978-0-19-563143-2
• A New Approach to the Vedas: An Essay in Translation and Exegesis, (South Asia Books, 1994) ISBN 978-81-215-0630-4
• What is Civilisation?: and Other Essays. Golgonooza Press, (UK), Cloth.ISBN 0-903880-77-6. Paper.ISBN 0-903880-78-4
• Yaksas, (Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd, 1998) ISBN 978-81-215-0230-6
• Metaphysics, (Princeton University Press, 1987) ISBN 978-0-691-01873-7
• Coomaraswamy: Selected Papers, Traditional Art and Symbolism, (Princeton University Press, 1986) ISBN 978-0-691-01869-0
• Bronzes from Ceylon, chiefly in the Colombo Museum, (Dept. of Govt. Print, 1978)
• Early Indian Architecture: Palaces, (Munshiram Manoharlal, 1975)
• The arts & crafts of India & Ceylon, (Farrar, Straus, 1964)
• Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art, (Dover Publications, 1956) ISBN 978-0-486-20378-2
• Time and eternity, (Artibus Asiae, 1947)
• Am I My Brothers Keeper, (Ayer Co, 1947) ISBN 978-0-8369-0335-5
• Archaic Indian Terracottas, (Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1928)

Works about Coomaraswamy[link]

• Ananda Coomaraswamy: remembering and remembering again and again, by S. Durai Raja Singam. Publisher: Raja Singam, 1974.
• Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, by P. S. Sastri. Arnold-Heinemann Publishers, India, 1974.
• Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy: a handbook, by S. Durai Raja Singam. Publisher s.n., 1979.
• Ananda Coomaraswamy: a study, by Moni Bagchee. Publisher: Bharata Manisha, 1977.
• Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, by Vishwanath S. Naravane. Twayne Publishers, 1977. ISBN 0-8057-7722-9.
• Selected letters of Ananda Coomaraswamy, Edited by Alvin Moore, Jr; and Rama P. Coomaraswamy (1988)

See also[link]

• Ivan Aguéli
• Titus Burckhardt
• Calico Museum of Textiles
• Comparative Religion
• Esoterism
• René Guénon
• Seyyed Hossein Nasr
• Martin Lings
• Whitall Perry
• Huston Smith
• William Stoddart
• Michel Valsan
• Advaita Vedanta

References[link]

Literature[link]

• T.Wignesan, "Ananda K. Coomaraswamy’s Aesthetics" # Tamil studies Now published in the collection: T.Wignesan. Rama and Ravana at the Altar of Hanuman: On Tamils, Tamil Literature & Tamil Culture. Allahabad:Cyberwit.net, 2008, 750p. & at Chennai: Institute of Asian Studies, 2007, 439p.
• "Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy" in One Hundred Tamils of the 20th Century
• "Coomaraswamy, Ananda K.", Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, vol. 1, ed. Amaresh Dutta, Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 768. ISBN 81-260-1803-8
• Mattelart, Armand. The Information Society: An Introduction, Sage: London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, 2003, p. 44.

External links[link]

• Books by Coomaraswamy - Fons Vitae Series
• 1999 Coomaraswamy lecture by Sandrasagra
• Ananda K. Coomaraswamy at WorldCat
• Coomaraswamy bibliography at religioperennis.org
• "Ananda K. Coomaraswamy’s Life and Work" at World Wisdom publishers
• The Colonial Context and Aesthetic Identity Formation: Coomaraswamy, A Case Study by Binda Paranjpe
• Coomaraswamy’s Impetus to Eastern Spirit
• Coomarswamy in Dictionary of Art Historians

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Venerable Ananda
Ananda reciting the Suttapitaka at the First Buddhist Council
Religious career
Teacher	Gautama Buddha

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Ānanda was one of the principal disciples and a devout attendant of the Buddha.^[1] Amongst the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda had the most retentive memory and most of the suttas in the Sutta Pitaka are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during the First Buddhist Council. For that, he was known as the Guardian of the Dharma.

According to the Buddha every Buddha in the past and to come will have two chief disciples and one attendant during his ministry. In the case of Gautama Buddha the pair of disciples were Sariputta and Mahamoggallana and the attendant Ānanda.

The word 'Ānanda' means 'bliss' in Pali, Sanskrit as well as other Indian languages. It is a popular Buddhist and Hindu name, but popular also among Muslims in Indonesia.

In the Kannakatthala Sutta (MN 90), Ananda is identified with the meaning of his name:

Then King Pasenadi Kosala said to the Blessed One, "Lord, what is the name of this monk?"

"His name is Ananda, great king."

"What a joy he is! What a true joy!..."

Ānanda was the first cousin of the Buddha by their fathers, and was devoted to him. In the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry, he became the Buddha's personal attendant, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and taking the part of interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just before the Buddha's Parinibbana (the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16)); it is a panegyric for a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others.

In the long list of the disciples given in the Anguttara Nikaya (i. xiv.) where each of them is declared to be the chief in some quality, Ānanda is mentioned five times (more often than any other). He was named chief in conduct, in service to others, and in power of memory. The Buddha sometimes asked him to substitute for him as teacher and then later stated that he himself would not have presented the teachings in any other way.

The First Council[link]

Because he attended the Buddha personally and often traveled with him, Ānanda overheard and memorized many of the discourses the Buddha delivered to various audiences. Therefore, he is often called the disciple of the Buddha who "heard much". At the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after the Buddha died, Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon.

Despite his long association with and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda was only a stream-winner prior to the Buddha’s death. However, Buddha said that the purity of his heart was so great that, "Should Ananda die without being fully liberated; he would be king of the gods seven times because of the purity of his heart, or be king of the Indian subcontinent seven times. But ... Ananda will experience final liberation in this very life." (AN 3.80)

Prior to the First Buddhist Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an arahant. According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of nibbana and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave.

In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the Pāli Canon, Ananda is presented as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure. He mourns the deaths of both Sariputta, with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the Buddha. A verse of the Theragatha [1] reveals his loneliness and isolation following the parinirvana of the Buddha.

In the Zen tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch. He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside Mahakashyapa, the first Indian patriarch.

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• Ananda: Guardian of the Dhamma by Hellmuth Hecker

External links[link]

• Entry on Ananda in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names
• Biographical account of Ananda
• Ananda with the Buddha and Subhuti
• Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")
• Ananda: Guardian of the Dhamma by Hellmuth Hecker