cellphone.]]

Wapedia is a mobile version of Wikipedia. It was started in August 2004 by Florian Amrhein and is currently operated by Taptu. Wapedia was originally a WAP site for use on mobile phones of the very early 2000's. The URL for Wapedia is http://wapedia.mobi (which was one of the early examples of a .mobi website).

Over time HTML interfaces were added with the site generating pages optimised for a variety of mobile devices such as smart phones, PDAs, and tablets.

In 2009 dedicated applications for iPhone/iPad/iPod , Android and WebOS were launched.

Wapedia offers the most recent version of every article, which is done by using a combination of a proxy-like behavior and a local article database. This combination provides both high speed and up-to-date articles and low load and traffic for the Wikipedia servers. The copying of data is one way, from Wikipedia to Wapedia, and so Wapedia does not offer the ability to edit pages. Edits must be made to the original page on the Wikipedia site, which propagate through to Wapedia over time. For many Wapedia users on low-powered mobile devices, this is not an issue since their devices are unsuited to editing significant quanties of text.

Standard Wikipedia pages are typically too long for display on these devices, so long pages are divided into smaller chunks to fit into the small displays and the standard side navigation is removed. To reduce the bandwidth requirements, images are scaled down to the resolution of the mobile device. In addition, Wapedia includes a search engine that is independent from Wikipedia servers. Wapedia supports WML and modern XHTML Mobile formats, with an autodetection of the best format for each device. Articles are served from an independent article database.

Unlike many other , Wapedia injects adverts into the Wikipedia articles, either in the HTML or in the applications.

See also

Wikipedia

References

External links

Wapedia.mobi

Wikipedia's official mobile access site

Category:Websites which mirror Wikipedia Category:Android software Category:IOS software

Coordinates	30°19′10″N81°39′36″N
Name	Richard M. Nixon
Caption	Richard Nixon in 1973.
Order	37th President of the United States
Term start	January 20, 1969
Term end	August 9, 1974
Predecessor	Lyndon B. Johnson
Successor	Gerald Ford
Birth date	January 09, 1913
Birth place	Yorba Linda, California
Death date	April 22, 1994
Death place	New York City, New York
Restingplace	Nixon Presidential LibraryYorba Linda, California
Religion	Quaker
Signature	Richard Nixon Signature.svg
Signature alt	Cursive signature in ink
Spouse	Thelma Catherine "Pat" Ryan (m. 1940–1993)
Children	Tricia Nixon CoxJulie Nixon Eisenhower
Relations	Francis A. Nixon (father)Hannah Milhous Nixon (mother)
Occupation	Lawyer
Alma mater	Whittier College (B.A.)Duke University (LL.B.)
Party	Republican
Vicepresident	Spiro AgnewGerald Ford
Order3	36th Vice President of the United States
Term start3	January 20, 1953
Term end3	January 20, 1961
Predecessor3	Alben W. Barkley
Successor3	Lyndon B. Johnson
President3	Dwight D. Eisenhower
Order4	United States Senator from California
Term start4	December 4, 1950
Term end4	January 1, 1953
Predecessor4	Sheridan Downey
Successor4	Thomas Kuchel
Order5	Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 12th District
Term start5	January 3, 1947
Term end5	December 1, 1950
Predecessor5	Jerry Voorhis
Successor5	Patrick J. Hillings
Branch	United States Navy
Serviceyears	1942–46
Rank	Lieutenant commander
Awards	American Campaign MedalAsiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (with two service stars)World War II Victory Medal
Battles	World War II (Pacific Theater)

Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, in office from 1969 to 1974. He served as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961, the only person to be elected twice to both the Presidency and the Vice Presidency. A member of the Republican Party, he was the only President to resign from office.

Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law in Whittier and La Habra. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, he joined the United States Navy, serving in the Pacific theater, and rose to the rank of Lieutenant Commander during World War II. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 representing California's 12th congressional district. In 1950 he was elected to the United States Senate as the Junior Senator from California. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party nominee, in the 1952 Presidential election, becoming one of the youngest Vice Presidents in history. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and an unsuccessful campaign for Governor of California in 1962; following these losses, Nixon announced his withdrawal from political life. In 1968, however, he ran again for President of the United States and was elected.

The most immediate task facing President Nixon was a resolution of the Vietnam War. He initially escalated the conflict, overseeing incursions into neighboring countries, though American military personnel were gradually withdrawn and he successfully negotiated a ceasefire with North Vietnam in 1973, effectively ending American involvement in the war. His foreign policy initiatives were largely successful: his groundbreaking visit to the People's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he initiated détente and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. On the domestic front, he implemented the concept of New Federalism, transferring power from the federal government to the states; new economic policies which called for wage and price control and the abolition of the gold standard; sweeping environmental reforms, including the Clean Air Act and creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency; the launch of the War on Cancer and War on Drugs; reforms empowering women, including Title IX; and the desegregation of schools in the deep South. He was reelected by a landslide in 1972. He continued many reforms in his second term, though the nation was afflicted with an energy crisis. In the face of likely impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal, Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974. He was later controversially pardoned by his successor, Gerald Ford, for any federal crimes he may have committed while in office.

In his retirement, Nixon became a prolific author and undertook many foreign trips. His work as an elder statesman helped to rehabilitate his public image. He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and died four days later at the age of 81.

Early life

Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in a house his father had built in Yorba Linda, California. Nixon had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and Ed (born 1930). Four of the five Nixon boys were named after early English kings; Richard was named after Richard the Lionheart.

Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he would later quote a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was, we didn't know it." The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family then moved to Whittier, California, in an area with many Quakers, where his father opened a grocery store and gas station. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness, At the age of twelve, Richard was found to have a spot on his lung, and with a family history of tuberculosis—his older brother, Arthur, died of the illness in 1933—Richard was then forbidden to play sports. Eventually, the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia.

Frank and Hannah Nixon believed that attendance at Whittier High School had caused Harold, who lived a vivacious lifestyle before his illness, to display poor behavior, and instead sent Richard to the larger Fullerton High School in Fullerton. He received strong grades, even though he had to ride a school bus for an hour each way his freshman year—later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week. He played junior varsity football, and rarely missed a practice, even though the coaches rarely used him in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later remembered Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation ... don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them."

In 1928, for Richard's junior year, the Nixons permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School for his junior year, beginning in September 1928. At Whittier High, the young Nixon suffered his first electoral defeat, for student body president. Richard generally rose at 4 a.m., to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market, then drove to the store to wash and display it, to put in a full school day. When Hannah Nixon took Arthur, who had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year, to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health, the demands on Richard increased, causing him to give up football to put in more hours in the store. Despite this, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207 students.

Richard Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University, but Harold's continued illness and the need for Hannah Nixon to care for him meant Richard could be ill-spared. Instead, he stayed in his hometown and attended Whittier College; his expenses there covered by a bequest. Rather than fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies; Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonians. In addition to the society, schoolwork, and work at the store, Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities, becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker. In 1933, Nixon became engaged to Ola Florence Welch; daughter of the Whittier police chief; the two broke up in 1935.

Nixon received a full scholarship to Duke University School of Law. The number of scholarships were greatly reduced for second and third year students, forcing the students into intense competition. Nixon was elected president of the Duke Bar Association and graduated third in his class in June 1937. Nixon later spoke about the influence of his alma mater, saying, "I always remember that whatever I have done in the past or may do in the future, Duke University is responsible in one way or another."

Early career; marriage and war service

Nixon's first choice after graduation from Duke was to get a job with the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Nixon never received a response to his application; he learned years later that his application had been successful, but his appointment was canceled due to budget cuts. Instead, he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937. He began practicing with Wingert and Bewley, In later years, Nixon proudly stated that he was the only modern president to work as a practicing attorney. There was little litigation conducted in the office, and Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking to hear frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California, becoming a full partner in the firm the following year.

In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower. There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan.—for Nixon only, as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; the relationship stretched two years before she agreed to his proposal. They wed at a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons moved began their married life in Whittier.

In January 1942, the Nixons moved to Washington, D.C., where Richard Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration.

Nixon was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he helped responded to correspondence. He did not enjoy being a bureaucrat, and after four months applied to join the United States Navy. As a birthright Quaker, he was entitled to exemption form military service, and deferments were routinely granted for those in government service. Nevertheless, he was inducted into the Navy in August 1942. After completing Officers Candidate School and being commissioned, he was assigned as aide to the commander of the Ottumwa Naval Air Station in Iowa, for seven months. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty. He was subsequently reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command, supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater. After requesting more challenging duties, he was given command of cargo handling units. Nixon returned to the United States with two service stars (although he saw no actual combat) and a citation of commendation, and became the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in California.In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts, and received another letter of commendation for his work there. Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and finally to Baltimore. In October 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander.

Rising politician

Congressional career

In 1945, Republicans in California's 12th congressional district, frustrated by their inability to defeat local Congressman Jerry Voorhis, sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against Voorhis. After the "Committee of 100" failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Whittier Bank of America branch manager Herman Perry suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served, before the war, on the Whittier College Board of Trustees. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore. After a night of excited talk between the Nixons, the naval officer responded to Perry with enthusiasm. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When Nixon was discharged from the Navy at the start of 1946, they returned to Whittier, and Richard Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning. Nixon contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a congressman, and contented that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to communists meant that he had radical views. Nixon won the election by over 15,000 votes.

In Congress, Nixon supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 and served on the Education and Labor Committee. He was part of the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to report on the need for US foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee, and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan.

Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation on the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) broke the impasse of the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers' allegations that Hiss, a former State Department official, was a Soviet spy, Nixon believed the allegations to be true. He discovered that Chambers saved microfilm reproductions of incriminating documents by hiding the film in a pumpkin. Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed, winning both major party primaries. and was comfortably reelected in 1948.

In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey, and entered the race in November 1949. Downey, locked in a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas, announced his retirement in March. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections, and engaged in a contentious campaign with the Korean War raging. Nixon focused attention on Douglas's liberal voting record, distributing a "Pink Sheet" in which the Nixon campaign suggested that as Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio (believed by some to be a communist), their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points.

In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing the spread of global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against "the threat." He also criticized what he perceived to be President Harry S. Truman's mishandling of the Korean War. He voted against price controls and other monetary controls, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power. On the campaign trail, Nixon attacked the Democrats, while the general took the high road in his campaigning. The speech prompted a huge wave of support for Nixon from the public, and he was retained on the ticket, which was victorious in the November election.

Eisenhower had pledged to give Nixon responsibilities which would enable him to be an effective successor as president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings, and chaired them in President Eisenhower's absence. A successful 1953 tour of the Far East was both effective in increasing local goodwill towards the United States, and in causing Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center. He visited both Saigon and Hanoi, then in French Indochina. On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations.

Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who vigorously attacked the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics, once he served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack. His condition was initially believed life-threatening. This did not prove the state, but Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The 25th Amendment had not yet been proposed, and the Vice President had no formal power to act. During this time, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose, Nixon "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power".

With his spirits buoyed by his successful time in Eisenhower's absence, Nixon desired a second term, but now it was Eisenhower's turn to balk. Some of Eisenhower's aides sought to displace the Vice President. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed to Nixon that to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run, that he not run for re-election, but instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration. Nixon believed that such an action would destroy his political career. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the President in the 1956 New Hampshire primary. In late April, President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were comfortably re-elected in the November 1956 election.

In the spring of 1957, Nixon undertook another major foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were decided over whether Eisenhower should sign or veto it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.

On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In Montevideo, Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he took questions from students on US foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima, Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the campus and got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas, both Richard and Pat Nixon were spat on by demonstrators, and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect".

In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for Moscow's opening of the American National Exhibition. On July 24, while touring the exhibits with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange that became known as the "Kitchen Debate" about the merits of capitalism versus communism.

1960 and 1962 elections; wilderness years

In 1960, Nixon launched his campaign for President of the United States. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy, and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower-Nixon administration allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the US in ballistic missiles (the "missile gap").

A new medium was brought to the campaign: televised presidential debates. In the first of four such debates, Nixon was recovering from illness and, wearing little makeup, looked wan and uncomfortable, in contrast to the composed Kennedy. Nixon lost the election narrowly, with Kennedy ahead by only 120,000 votes (0.2%) in the popular vote.

Following the end of his term of office in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises. The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ABC's entitled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon." but caused public sympathy for Nixon. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander. In 1964, he supported Barry Goldwater for the Republican nomination for president; when Goldwater was successful in gaining the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce the candidate to the convention. Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win, Nixon campaigned for him loyalty. The election was a disaster for the Republicans; Goldwater's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.

Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections. He campaigned for many Republicans seeking to regain seats lost to the party in the Johnson landslide. Nixon received credit for helping the Republicans make major gains in the elections.

1968 presidential election

, Pennsylvania in July 1968.]] Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators, and secured the nomination in August. His running mate, Maryland governor Spiro Agnew, became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.

Nixon waged a prominent television campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras and advertising on the television medium. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority. His campaign was aided by turmoil within the Democratic Party: His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.

Presidency (1969–1974)

First term (1969–1973)

Nixon was inaugurated on January 20, 1969. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open to Isaiah 2:4, reading, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker." He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:

Nixon set out to reconstruct the Western Alliance, develop a relationship with China, pursue arms control agreements with the Soviet Union, activate a peace process in the Middle East, restrain inflation, implement anti-crime measures, accelerate desegregation, and reform welfare. The most immediate task, however, was the Vietnam War.

Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in March 1969 (code-named Operation Menu) to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam. The Air Force considered the bombings a success. In June 1969, in a campaign fulfillment, Nixon reduced troop strength in Vietnam by 25,000 soldiers, who returned home to the United States. From 1969 to 1972 troop reduction in Vietnam was estimated to be 405,000 soldiers.

In July 1969, the Nixons visited South Vietnam, where President Nixon met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyen Van Thieu. Amid protests at home, he implemented what became known as the Nixon Doctrine, a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, also called "Vietnamization". In a televised speech on April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the incursion of U.S. troops into Cambodia to disrupt so-called North Vietnamese sanctuaries. This led to protest and student strikes that temporarily closed 536 universities, colleges, and high schools.

Nixon formed the Gates Commission to look into ending the military service draft, implemented under President Johnson. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without conscription. The draft was extended to June 1973, and then ended. Military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the United States Army began for the first time.

In December 1972, though concerned about the level of civilian casualties, Nixon approved Linebacker II, the codename for aerial bombings of military and industrial targets in North Vietnam. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973. The treaty, however, made no provision that 145,000–160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the Central Highlands and other areas of S. Vietnam had to withdraw.

In 1970, the Democratic Congress passed the Economic Stabilization Act, giving Nixon power to set wages and prices; Congress did not believe the president would use the new controls and felt this would make him appear to be indecisive. While opposed to permanent wage and price controls, Nixon imposed the controls on a temporary basis in a 90 day wage and price freeze. The controls (enforced for large corporations, voluntary for others) were the largest since World War II; they were relaxed after the initial 90 days.

A Pay Board set wage controls limiting increases to 5.5% per year, and the Price Commission set a 2.5% annual limit on price increases. The limits did help to control wages, but not inflation. Overall, however, the controls were viewed as successful in the short term and were popular with the public, who felt Nixon was rescuing them from price-gougers and from a foreign-caused exchange crisis.

Nixon was worried about the effects of increasing inflation and accelerating unemployment, so he indexed Social Security for inflation, and created Supplemental Security Income (SSI). In 1969, he had presented the only balanced budget between 1961 and 1998. However, despite speeches declaring an opposition to the idea, he decided to offer Congress a budget with deficit spending to reduce unemployment and declared, "Now I am a Keynesian". The price of gold had been set at $35 an ounce since the days of Franklin Roosevelt's presidency; foreign countries acquired more dollar reserves, outnumbering the entire amount of gold the United States possessed. Nixon completely eradicated the gold standard, preventing other countries from being able to claim gold in exchange for their dollar reserves, but also weakening the exchange rate of the dollar against other currencies and increasing inflation by driving up the cost of imports. Said Nixon in his speech:

"The American dollar must never again be a hostage in the hands of international speculators.... Government... does not hold the key to the success of a people. That key... is in your hands. Every action I have taken tonight is designed to nurture and stimulate that competitive spirit to help us snap out of self-doubt, the self-disparagement that saps our energy and erodes our confidence in ourselves... Whether the nation stays Number One depends on your competitive spirit, your sense of personal destiny, your pride in your country and yourself."

Other parts of the Nixon plan included the reimposition of a 10% investment tax credit, assistance to the automobile industry in the form of removal of excise taxes (provided the savings were passed directly to the consumer), His economic program was determined to be a clear success by December 1971. One of Nixon's economic advisers, Herbert Stein, wrote: "Probably more new regulation was imposed on the economy during the Nixon administration than in any other presidency since the New Deal." Indeed, Nixon believed in using government wisely to benefit all and supported the idea of practical liberalism.

Nixon initiated the Environmental Decade by signing the National Environmental Policy Act, the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972, as well as establishing many government agencies. These included the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), The Clean Air Act was noted as one of the most significant pieces of environmental legislation ever signed. He reorganized the Post Office Department from a cabinet department to a government-owned corporation: the U.S. Postal Service.

On June 17, 1971, Nixon formally declared the U.S. War on Drugs.

On October 30, 1972 Nixon signed into law the Social Security Amendments of 1972 which included the creation of the Supplemental Security Income Program, a Federal Welfare Program still in existence today.

Nixon cut billions of dollars in federal spending and expanded the power of the Office of Management and Budget. He established the Consumer Product Safety Commission in 1972 Strategically, Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist George C. Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern white Democrats. He was determined to implement exactly what the courts had ordered—desegregation—but did not favor busing children, in the words of author Conrad Black, "all over the country to satisfy the capricious meddling of judges." Nixon, a Quaker, felt that racism was the greatest moral failure of the United States

Nixon tied desegregation to improving the quality of education and enforced the law after the Supreme Court, in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (1969), prohibited further delays. By the fall of 1970, two million southern black children had enrolled in newly created unitary fully integrated school districts; only 18% of Southern black children were still attending all-black schools, a decrease from 70% when Nixon came to office. Nixon's Cabinet Committee on Education, under the leadership of Labor Secretary George P. Shultz, quietly set up local biracial committees to assure smooth compliance without violence or political grandstanding. "In this sense, Nixon was the greatest school desegregator in American history," historian Dean Kotlowski concluded. Author Conrad Black concurred: "In his singular, unsung way, Richard Nixon defanged and healed one of the potentially greatest controversies of the time." Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Nixon's presidential counselor, commented in 1970 that “There has been more change in the structure of American public school education in the last month than in the past 100 years.”

In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan, the first significant federal affirmative action program in 1970. Nixon also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification as a Constitutional amendment. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election, which led to a much stronger women's rights agenda. Nixon increased the number of female appointees to administration positions. Nixon signed the landmark laws Title IX in 1972, prohibiting gender discrimination in all federally funded schools and the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. In 1970 Nixon had vetoed the Comprehensive Child Development Act, denouncing the universal child-care bill, but signed into law Title X, which was a step forward for family planning and contraceptives.

It was during the Nixon Presidency that the Supreme Court issued its Roe v. Wade ruling, legalizing abortion. First Lady Pat Nixon had been outspoken about her support for legalized abortion, a goal for many feminists (though there was a significant pro-life minority faction of the Women's Liberation Movement as well). Nixon himself did not speak out publicly on the abortion issue, but was personally pro-choice, and believed that, in certain cases such as rape, abortion was an option.

U.S. space program

astronauts in quarantine aboard USS Hornet.]]

In 1969, Nixon's first year in office, the United States sent three manned missions to the moon, becoming the only nation in the world to do so. On July 20, Nixon addressed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, two of the astronauts, live over radio during their historic Apollo 11 moonwalk. Nixon also placed a telephone call to Armstrong on the moon, the longest distance phone call ever, and called it "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House." He observed their landing in the ocean from the deck of the aircraft carrier USS ''Hornet.

On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program, a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration, however, NASA's budget declined. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine was drawing up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected this proposal.

On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program, culminating in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a joint-mission of an American Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1975.

Indo-Pakistani War

A conflict broke out in Pakistan in 1971 following independence demonstrations in East Pakistan; President Yahya Khan instructed the Pakistani Army to quell the riots, resulting in widespread human rights abuses. President Nixon liked Yahya personally, and credited him for helping to open a channel to China; accordingly, he felt obligated to support him in the struggle. There were limits to how far the U.S. could associate itself with Pakistan, however. and the emigration of over 10 million people into India. His objective was to prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests, though he feared an Indian invasion of West Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the sub-continent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union, which had recently signed a cooperation treaty with India. Nixon felt that the Soviet Union was inciting the country. Having previously met her in 1969, he did not trust her and once referred to her as an "old witch". On December 3, Yahya attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan. Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, reimbursing those countries despite Congressional objections. A cease fire was reached on December 16 and Bangladesh was created.

China

upon arriving in Beijing]]

Relations between the Western powers and Eastern Bloc changed dramatically in the early 1970s. In 1960, the People's Republic of China publicly split from its main ally, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. As tension along the border between the two communist nations reached its peak in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War.

Nixon had begun entreating China a mere month into office by sending covert messages of rapprochement through Nicolae Ceausescu of Romania and Yahya Khan of Pakistan in December 1970. He reduced many trade restrictions between the two countries, and silenced anti-China voices within the White House.

In April 1971, the Chinese table tennis team invited the American table tennis team to attend a demonstration competition for a week in China. The invitation came upon the order of Mao Zedong himself, who had taken note of Nixon's "subtle overtures" to improve U.S.-Chinese relations, including the conflict in Pakistan. (the term "ping pong diplomacy" arose from this encounter).

Chinese Premier Chou En-lai, through Pakistani intermediaries, had relayed a message to Nixon reading: "The Chinese government reaffirms its willingness to receive publicly in Peking a special envoy of the president of the United States, or the U.S. secretary of state, or even the president himself." Nixon sent then-National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to China in July 1971, to arrange a visit by the president and first lady.

Mao Zedong (left) in a historic visit to the People's Republic of China, 1972.]] In February 1972, President and Mrs. Nixon traveled to China, where the president was to engage in direct talks with Mao and Chou. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over forty hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chou. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose:

"[Nixon] knew that when his old friend John Foster Dulles had refused to shake the hand of Chou En-lai in Geneva in 1954, Chou had felt insulted. He knew too that American television cameras would be at the Beijing airport to film his arrival. A dozen times on the way to Peking, Nixon told Kissinger and Secretary of State William Rogers that they were to stay on the plane until he had descended the gangway and shaken Zhou Enlai's hand. As added insurance, a Secret Service agent blocked the aisle of Air Force One to make sure the president emerged alone."

Over one hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as it would capture the trip's visuals much better while snubbing the print journalists Nixon despised. Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon, who was forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets. When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City, Ming Tombs, and the Great Wall.

Soviet Union

Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following his successful visit to China, the Nixon administration drew up plans for the president to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers Alexei Kosygin and Nikolai Podgorny, the Soviet head of state among other leading Soviet officials.

Nixon met with Soviet leader Brezhnev, and engaged in intense negotiations regarding international issues To win American friendship, both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms. Nixon laid out his strategy:

"I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept."

Having made great progress over the last two years in U.S.-Soviet relations, Nixon planned a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening. Largely assured the Republican nomination, but Senator Edmund Muskie instead became the front runner, with Senator George McGovern in a close second place. Alabama Governor George Wallace entered the race as an Independent; popular in Florida, he would create havoc among the Democrats and boost Nixon's campaign.

Prominent issues of the early campaign included school busing and heated relations between the three branches of the government. Nixon addressed the nation on March 16 about the school busing issue, reiterating that it was wrong to force a child onto a school bus and that busing lowered the quality of education. the bill later passed. Vietnam was still ongoing, though Nixon had reduced troop levels dramatically.

On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination. The following month, Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive. Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972 in one of the largest landslide election victories in U.S. political history. He defeated McGovern with over 60% of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.

Nixon's victory made him the first former Vice President since Thomas Jefferson to win two terms as President. Nixon and Franklin Roosevelt are the only candidates in U.S. history to appear on five presidential tickets for a major party.

Second term (1973–1974)

On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned, amid charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering from his tenure as Maryland's governor. Nixon chose Representative Gerald Ford, Republican Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew.

Continuation of economic changes

After he won reelection, Nixon found that inflation was increasing, and the legislation authorizing price controls expired April 30, 1973. The Senate Democratic Caucus recommended a 90-day freeze on all profits, interest rates, and prices.

In his 1974 State of the Union address, Nixon called for comprehensive health insurance. On February 6, 1974, he introduced the Comprehensive Health Insurance Act. Nixon's plan would have mandated employers to purchase health insurance for their employees, and in addition provided a federal health plan, similar to Medicaid, that any American could join by paying on a sliding scale based on income. The New York Daily News writes that Ted Kennedy rejected the universal health coverage plan offered by Nixon because it was not everything he wanted it to be. Kennedy later realized it was a missed opportunity to make major progress toward his goal.

Yom Kippur War and 1973 oil crisis

The Nixon administration supported Israel, a powerful American ally in the Middle East, during the Yom Kippur War. When an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria attacked in October 1973, Israel suffered initial losses and pressed European powers for help, but (with the exception of the Netherlands) the Europeans responded with inaction. Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. By the time the U.S. and the Soviet Union negotiated a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. A long-term effect was the movement of Egypt away from the Soviets toward the U.S. But Israel's victory came at the cost to the U.S. of the 1973 oil crisis; the members of OPEC decided to raise oil prices in response to the American support of Israel.

After Nixon chose to go off the gold standard, foreign countries increased their currency reserves in anticipation of currency fluctuation, which caused deflation of the dollar and other world currencies. Since oil was paid for in dollars, OPEC was receiving less value for their product. They cut production and announced price hikes as well as an embargo targeted against the United States and the Netherlands, specifically blaming U.S. support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War for the actions.

On January 2, 1974, Nixon signed a bill that lowered the maximum U.S. speed limit to 55 miles per hour (88.5 km/h) to conserve gasoline during the crisis. This law was repealed in 1995, though states had been allowed to raise the limit to 65 miles per hour in rural areas since 1987.

Watergate

The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of illegal and secret activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. The activities became known in the aftermath of five men being caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story, while reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an FBI informant known as "Deep Throat" to link the men to the Nixon White House. This became one of a series of scandalous acts involving the Committee to Re-Elect the President. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, and his White House denounced the story as biased and misleading. As the FBI eventually confirmed that Nixon aides had attempted to sabotage the Democrats, many began resigning and senior aides faced prosecution.

Nixon's alleged role in ordering a cover-up came to light after the testimony of John Dean. In July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. Unlike the tape recordings by earlier Presidents, Nixon's were subpoenaed. The White House refused to release them, citing executive privilege. A tentative deal was reached in which the White House would provide written summaries of the tapes, but this was rejected by Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox, a former member of the Kennedy administration. Cox was fired at the White House's request and was replaced by Leon Jaworski, a former member of the Johnson administration. Jaworski revealed an audio tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, which featured an unexplained 18½ minute gap. The first deleted section of about five minutes has been attributed to human error by Rose Mary Woods, the President's personal secretary, who admitted accidentally wiping the section while transcribing the tape. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrong-doing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's claim that he was unaware of the cover-up.

as he departs the White House for the final time.]] Though Nixon lost much popular support, including from some in his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office. On November 17, 1973, during a televised question and answer session with the press,}}

In April 1974, Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides. Despite this, the House Judiciary Committee, controlled by Democrats, opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974. These hearings resulted in bi-partisan votes for Articles of Impeachment, the first vote being 27–11 in favor on July 27, 1974 on obstruction of justice. On May 28, 2009, speaking to Republicans in Litchfield Beach, South Carolina, Ed Nixon said that his brother did not resign "in disgrace" but "resigned in honor. It was a disappointment to him because his missions were cut short." He also said that his brother "held the office of president in high regard."

Judicial appointments

Nixon appointed the following justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice in 1969, Harry Andrew Blackmun in 1970, Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. in 1972, and William Rehnquist later that year. Along with his four Supreme Court appointments, Nixon appointed 46 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 181 judges to the United States district courts. Nixon formally nominated one person, Charles A. Bane, for a federal appellate judgeship, who was never confirmed.

Pardons

Nixon issued 926 pardons or commutations. Among notable cases were labor leader Jimmy Hoffa (sentence commuted on condition) and mobster Angelo DeCarlo (convicted of extortion; served one and a half years; pardoned because of poor health). DeCarlo's pardon was later investigated, but no evidence was found of corruption.

During his presidency, Nixon decided to grant clemency in over 20% of requests.

Later life

Pardon and illness

Following his resignation, the Nixons returned to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California. Nixon was said to be in seclusion for a number of days in his home, first experiencing shock and later persistent sadness. On September 8, 1974, Ford granted him a "full, free, and absolute pardon". This ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:

Within one month, Ford's approval rating dropped from 71% to 49%. Nixon later told a former aide that he felt he was chased out of office by "the establishment" in Washington and leftist elements in the media, as they considered him a mortal threat to their domination of national affairs.

As a result of Watergate, Nixon was disbarred by the state of New York. He had attempted to resign his license, but the state refused to let him do so unless he admitted wrongdoing in Watergate. He later resigned his other law licenses, including one in California.

The evening of the pardon, Nixon experienced great pain in his lower left abdomen and his left leg had swollen to three times its normal size. It was determined that phlebitis, a condition which had afflicted Nixon the previous June, had recurred. Told that he would surely die if he did not go to a hospital, Nixon was taken to Long Beach Memorial Hospital.

While Nixon was hospitalized, Watergate special prosecutor Leon Jaworski subpoenaed him to testify before a trial regarding Watergate. Nixon's doctor, John Lungren, said that Nixon could not sustain a flight to Washington because of his condition, because he needed to avoid being seated for prolonged periods. Nixon was released from the hospital on October 4 and soon filed a motion requesting the judge to revoke the subpoena which was rejected. Dr Lungren filed an affidavit, arguing that the well-being of the former president might be compromised by forcing him to appear at the trial.

On October 23, Nixon was taken back to the hospital after a recurrence of swelling. Doctors found serious vascular blockages and a danger of gangrene; it was feared that blood clots might break loose and travel to his heart or brain with lethal consequences. An eighteen-inch blood clot was found in a vein leading to Nixon's heart. Surgery was deemed necessary for his survival; he underwent a ninety-minute operation on October 29. While recuperating, Nixon fainted, fell out of bed, and fell into a coma. He underwent four blood transfusions in three hours and suffered severe internal bleeding, along with hypotension. His family stayed by his side, while he was visited by Ford and telephoned by Mao Zedong. He returned home on November 14. Three leading doctors sent by the judge in the Watergate trial evaluated Nixon's condition, and concluded that he was not able to testify. The judge ruled that his testimony would not be necessary.

, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter at the White House, 1981]] By early 1975, Nixon's mental and physical health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home, first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs. Nixon traveled extensively, both domestically and internationally. He was a frequent CB Radio user, which Nixon was not allowed to use while in the White House for security reasons. He took trips to Europe, the Middle East, the Soviet Union, Africa, and Asia. He would visit China four more times.

Rehabilitation

By 1977, Nixon began forming a public-relations comeback effort. In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost, who paid him $600,000 for a series of sit-down interviews. They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted that he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing." He was criticized at the time by some who opined that he should not be giving information to Frost that he had declined to give to federal courts. Nonetheless, the interviews became well known and were viewed widely across the world, garnering between 45 and 50 million viewers and making them the most watched interviews in the history of television. The encounters were the subject of the 2006 play Frost/Nixon, which became a 2008 film.

He soon published his memoirs, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon and a second book, The Real War. These were the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement, He supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making numerous television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Steven Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray." He wrote guest articles for numerous publications and participated in many television interviews. After 18 months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved to Saddle River, New Jersey in 1981. He later embarked on journeys to Japan, China, and the Soviet Union. Author Elizabeth Drew wrote that "even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times." ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back."

On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California opened as a private institution, with Nixon and Pat in attendance. They were joined by a throng of people, including Gerald Ford, Reagan, and George H. W. Bush, and their spouses Betty, Nancy, and Barbara, respectively. The property was owned and operated by the Richard Nixon Foundation and was not part of the National Archives' presidential libraries system until July 11, 2007, when the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum was officially welcomed into the federal presidential library system. In January 1991, the former president founded the Nixon Center, a policy think tank and conference center.

Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993 of health problems, including emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace during the week leading up to her burial on June 26. Richard Nixon was deeply distraught, and broke down in convulsive sobs for the only time in his adult life. Inside the building, he delivered a tribute to her. Some commented that without Pat, Nixon would not "last a year." It was determined that a blood clot resulting from his heart condition had formed in his upper heart, then broken off and traveled to his brain. He was taken to New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan, initially alert, but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg. Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush and their respective first ladies. Nixon was buried beside Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, Tricia and Julie, and four grandchildren. Despite heavy rain, police estimated that roughly 50,000 people waited in lines up to 18 hours to file past the casket and pay their respects.

Legacy

No other American has held office in the executive branch of the federal government as long as Richard Nixon did. He is the only person in American history to appear on the Republican Party's presidential ticket five times, to secure the Republican nomination for president three times, and to have been elected twice to both the vice presidency and the presidency. With Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush, Richard Nixon was the chief builder of the modern Republican party. From 1952 to 1992, at least one of these three men appeared on the Republican ticket for nine of the eleven presidential elections. Throughout his career, he was instrumental in moving the party away from the control of isolationists and as a Congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet Communism.

Though often referred to as a conservative in politics because of his "Southern strategy" and his victory in numerous southern states in 1968, Nixon had a considerable share of detractors on the right of the political spectrum. Columnist George Will questioned Nixon's conservatism, citing the wage-and-price controls as "the largest peacetime intrusion of government in the economy in American history, surpassing even the dreams of the New Dealers".

Personality and public image

in December 1970 "The President & The King."]] Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona, and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated Nixon's appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.

Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, always wearing a coat and tie even when home alone. He advised people not to care about what others thought of them. Some experts have described him as having a narcissistic and paranoid personality. Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways." According to Black, Nixon "thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of Job, but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence he would ultimately prevail." Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents." In his account of the Nixon presidency, author Richard Reeves described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts". Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues: "He assumed the worst in people, and he brought out the worst in them. [...] He clung to the idea of being 'tough'. He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness".

After the presidency, Nixon often traveled around the country meeting local officials and giving speeches to groups large and small.

Nixon frequently brandished the two-finger V sign (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands, an act that became one of his best-known trademarks.

James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic President, so brilliant and so morally lacking?" George McGovern, Nixon's former opponent, commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II... I think, with the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history."

Former president Harry Truman had a low regard for Nixon, stating in 1961: "Nixon is a shifty-eyed goddamn liar, and the people know it." In 1968, he added "He's one of the few in the history of this country to run for high office talking out of both sides of his mouth at the same time and lying out of both sides." Martha Mitchell, the outspoken wife of Nixon's Attorney-General John Mitchell, said of Nixon in 1973, "He bleeds people. He draws every drop of blood and then drops them from a cliff. He'll blame any person he can put his foot on."

In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes were released which contained multiple statements made by then-President Nixon to his staff and advisors which have been deemed by some authors to be derogatory towards Jews. In one conversation with H.R. Haldeman, Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal," making exceptions for some of his top aides. He then added,"But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?" Nixon also drew connections between Jews and the Communist conspiracy, declaring "the only two non-Jews in the Communist conspiracy were [Whitaker] Chambers and [Alger] Hiss... The only two non-Jews. Every other one was a Jew. And it raised hell with us."

Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings Nixon denies being anti-Semitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be anti-Semitic, I did... And I'm not, you know what I mean?" plays, audio recordings. In 1987 an opera, Nixon In China, by composer John Adams with a libretto by Alice Goodman premiered at the Houston Grand Opera featuring baritone James Maddalena in the title role and tenor John Duykers as Mao Tse-tung In Oliver Stone's 1995 biopic Nixon he was played by Anthony Hopkins The film was denounced by Richard Nixon's daughters.

In the 1999 movie comedy Dick, the Nixon character is played by Dan Hedaya. One memorable scene has the Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev characters bonding while eating homemade cookies that are, unknown to Nixon and Brezhnev, laced with marijuana.

In the 2006 London and 2007 Broadway premieres of the play Frost/Nixon he was played by Frank Langella, who also played him in the play's 2008 movie adaptation In the film Secret Honor directed by Robert Altman he was played by Philip Baker Hall

Portrayed favourably in the song "The Love of Richard Nixon" by Manic Street Preachers—a Welsh rock trio whose members were all age five at the time of Nixon's resignation.

Nixon's head is a recurring character in Futurama, an animated TV series set on Earth in the 31st century. In the show's universe, the heads of numerous celebrities and political leaders, including all U.S. Presidents, are kept alive in jars. Nixon made his first appearance in the pilot episode, "Space Pilot 3000", and was elected President of Earth in the second-season episode "A Head in the Polls".

Stuart Milligan portrayed Nixon in the 2011 Doctor Who episodes The Impossible Astronaut and Day of the Moon, which took place in 1969, in the months leading to the Apollo 11 launch.

His likeness appears in the video game during the "Zombie Mode 'Five'", a single-player or cooperative mode where four players incarnate Nixon, Kennedy, Fidel Castro or Robert McNamara. He is voiced by Dave Mallow.

He is portrayed in DC Comics' Watchmen, and .

See also

Samuel Byck, assassination planner

Bibliography

Notes

References

Information on SS Amendments of 1970 and 1972

External links

Richard Nixon Foundation

The Nixon Center, Washington, D.C.

Richard Nixon Presidential Library

White House biography

Richard Nixon: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress

The Watergate Tapes

Nixon's will

The Nixon-Presley Meeting at The National Security Archive

Category:1913 births Category:1994 deaths Category:American anti-communists Category:American lawyers Category:American military personnel of World War II Category:American people of the Vietnam War Category:American Quakers Category:California Republicans Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in New York Category:Deaths from stroke Category:Disbarred lawyers Category:Duke University School of Law alumni Category:Eisenhower Administration personnel Category:History of the United States (1964–1980) Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from California Category:Nixon administration personnel Category:People from Orange County, California Category:People from San Clemente, California Category:Presidents of the United States Category:Recipients of American presidential pardons Category:Republican Party Presidents of the United States Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees Category:Republican Party United States Senators Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees Category:Republican Party Vice Presidents of the United States Category:United States Navy officers Category:United States presidential candidates, 1960 Category:United States presidential candidates, 1968 Category:United States presidential candidates, 1972 Category:United States Senators from California Category:United States vice-presidential candidates, 1952 Category:United States vice-presidential candidates, 1956 Category:U.S. Presidents surviving assassination attempts Category:Vice Presidents of the United States Category:Watergate figures Category:Whittier College alumni Category:Writers from California Category:Writers from New York