Calvinism
John Calvin
Background Christianity St. Augustine The Reformation John Calvin Five Solas Synod of Dort
Theology Five Points (TULIP) Covenant Theology Regulative principle
Documents Calvin's Institutes Confessions of faith Geneva Bible
Influences Theodore Beza John Knox Huldrych Zwingli Jonathan Edwards Princeton theologians
Churches Reformed Presbyterian Congregationalist Reformed Baptist Low church Anglican
Peoples Afrikaners Huguenots Pilgrims Puritans Scots
Calvinism portal	v t e

Part of a series on
Christianity
Christians hold Jesus to be Christ
Jesus · Christ Virgin birth Crucifixion Resurrection Easter Jesus in Christianity
Bible / Foundations Old Testament New Testament Gospel Books Canon (Christian canons) Apocrypha Apostles Church Creeds Kingdom New Covenant
Theology Apologetics Baptism Christology Father Son Holy Spirit History of theology Salvation Trinity Ten Commandments
History and traditions Timeline Mary Peter Paul Fathers Early Constantine the Great Ecumenical councils Missions East–West Schism Crusades Protestant Reformation
General topics Art Criticism Ecumenism Liturgical year Liturgy Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism
Denominations Western Christianity Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinism Evangelicalism Holiness Independent Catholic Lutheran Methodist Old Catholic Protestant Pentecostal Roman Catholic Eastern Christianity Eastern Orthodox Eastern Catholic Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) Assyrian Nontrinitarianism Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Unitarian Christadelphian Oneness Pentecostal
Christianity portal
v t e

Calvinism (also called Reformed tradition, or the Reformed faith, and sometimes Reformed theology) is a type of Protestant theological system and an alternative approach to the Christian life.^[1] This Reformed tradition was developed by several theologians such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli. This branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin (also known as Jean Cauvin in Middle French), because of his noticeable influence and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates that happened throughout the 16th century. Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices from the Reformed churches, where Calvin was an early leader. Although not often, it may refer to the individual, biblical teachings that Calvin made himself.^[2] The system is often summarized in the Five Points of Calvinism and is best known for its doctrines of predestination and total depravity, stressing the total contingency of man's salvation upon the absolute sovereignty of God.

Historical background[link]

John Calvin

John Calvin's international influence on the eventual development of the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation began in 1534 when Calvin was 25. That marks his start on the first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion (published in 1536). He revised this work several times, and produced a French vernacular translation. The Institutes, together with Calvin's polemical and pastoral works, his contributions to confessional documents for use in churches, and his massive outpouring of commentary on the Bible, meant that Calvin had a direct personal influence on Protestantism. Along with Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, Calvin influenced the doctrines of the Reformed churches. He eventually became the most prominent of those reformers.^{[citation needed]}

The rising importance of the Reformed churches and of Calvin belongs to the second phase of the Protestant Reformation. Evangelical churches began to form after Martin Luther was excommunicated from the Catholic Church. Calvin was a French exile in Geneva. He had signed the Lutheran Augsburg Confession as it was revised by Melancthon in 1540. However, his influence was first felt in the Swiss Reformation whose leader was Huldrych Zwingli. It soon became evident that doctrine in the Reformed churches was developing in a direction independent of Martin Luther's, under the influence of numerous writers and reformers among whom Calvin eventually became preeminent. Much later, when his fame was attached to the Reformed churches, their whole body of doctrine came to be called "Calvinism".^{[citation needed]}

Spread[link]

Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a "correctly" reformed church to many parts of Europe. Calvinism became the theological system of the majority in Scotland (see John Knox), the Netherlands, with men such as William Ames, T J Frelinghuysen and Wilhelmus à Brakel and parts of Germany (especially those adjacent to the Netherlands) with the likes of Olevianus and his colleague Zacharias Ursinus. It was influential in France, Hungary, then-independent Transylvania, Lithuania and Poland. Calvinism gained some popularity in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the synod of Uppsala in 1593.^[3]

Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and New England were Calvinists, including the English Puritans, the French Huguenot and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York), and the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of the Appalachian back country. Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners.

Sierra Leone was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia, who were largely Black Loyalists, blacks who had fought for the British during the American War of Independence. John Marrant had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the Huntingdon Connection. Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th and 20th century missionaries. Especially large are those in Indonesia, Korea and Nigeria.^{[citation needed]}

Today, the World Alliance of Reformed Churches has 75 million believers.^[4]

Theology[link]

The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the five points of Calvinism, though these points identify the Calvinist view on soteriology rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things – in salvation but also in all of life.

Sovereign grace[link]

Calvinism focuses on total depravity or, the total inability of a humanity's ethical nature contrary to a backdrop of the sovereign grace of God in his salvation. It states that fallen people are morally and spiritually incapable of following God or to discharge their condemnation before him.^[5] They see it as the work of God, or divine intervention. In divine intervention, God changes their unwilling hearts from rebellion to eager obedience.

With this view, all the people of the world are at the complete and total mercy of God, who would be just in condemning all people for their sins, but God has chosen to show mercy to some, though not all. Consequently, this means that one person is saved while another person is condemned, not because of a predicted inclination, faith, or any other virtue that is in the first person, but because God sovereignly chose to have mercy on him (Romans 9:16-17) according to his own purpose which is unknown (Romans 8:28).^[6] The person must believe the gospel and repent to be saved, this compliance of faith is a gift from God, and thus God completely and sovereignly achieves the salvation of sinners. Views range from predestination to damnation also known as the doctrine of reprobation. They are less uniform than the view of predestination to salvation (the doctrine of election) that are among self-described Calvinists (see Supralapsarianism and Infralapsarianism).

During practice, Calvinists teach sovereign grace mostly for encouragement of the church because Calvinists believe the doctrine validates the extent of God's love for saving those who were not able or chose not to follow him, as well as defeating pride and self-reliance and stressing the Christian's total need on the grace of God. In a similar way, sanctification in the Calvinist view involves a frequent dependence on God to eliminate the Christian's immoral heart and their sinful nature, and from the power of sin and to extend the Christian's joy in their new nature.^[7]

Five points of Calvinism[link]

The Five Points of Calvinism
Total depravity
Unconditional election
Limited atonement
Irresistible grace
Perseverance of the saints
v t e

Calvinist theology is sometimes identified with the five points of Calvinism, also called the doctrines of grace, which are a point-by-point response to the five points of the Arminian Remonstrance (see History of Calvinist-Arminian debate) and which serve as a summation of the judgments rendered by the Synod of Dort in 1619.^[8] Calvin himself never used such a model and never combated Arminianism directly. In fact, Calvin died in 1564 and Jacob Arminias was born in 1560, and so the men were not contemporaries. The Articles of Remonstrance were authored by opponents of reformed doctrine and Biblical Monergism. They were rejected in 1619 at the Synod of Dort, more than 50 years after the death of Calvin.

The five points therefore function as a summary of the differences between Calvinism and Arminianism, but not as a complete summation of Calvin's writings or of the theology of the Reformed churches in general. In English, they are sometimes referred to by the acronym TULIP^[9] (see below), though this puts them in a different order than the Canons of Dort.

The central assertion of these canons is that God is able to save every person upon whom he has mercy, and that his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or inability of humans.

• "Total depravity": This doctrine, also called "total inability", asserts that as a consequence of the fall of man into sin, every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of sin. People are not by nature inclined to love God with their whole heart, mind, or strength, but rather all are inclined to serve their own interests over those of their neighbor and to reject the rule of God. Thus, all people by their own faculties are morally unable to choose to follow God and be saved because they are unwilling to do so out of the necessity of their own natures. (The term "total" in this context refers to sin affecting every part of a person, not that every person is as evil as possible.)^[10] This doctrine is derived from Augustine's explanation of Original Sin.
• "Unconditional election": This doctrine asserts that God has chosen from eternity those whom he will bring to himself not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people; rather, it is unconditionally grounded in God's mercy alone. God has chosen from eternity to extend mercy to those He has chosen and to withhold mercy from those not chosen. Those chosen receive salvation through Christ alone. Those not chosen receive the just wrath that is warranted for their sins against God^[11]
• "Limited atonement": Also called "particular redemption" or "definite atonement", this doctrine asserts that Jesus's substitutionary atonement was definite and certain in its purpose and in what it accomplished. This implies that only the sins of the elect were atoned for by Jesus's death. Calvinists do not believe, however, that the atonement is limited in its value or power, but rather that the atonement is limited in the sense that it is designed for some and not all. Hence, Calvinists hold that the atonement is sufficient for all and efficient for the elect.^[12] The doctrine is driven by the Calvinistic concept of the sovereignty of God in salvation and their understanding of the nature of the atonement.
• "Irresistible grace": This doctrine, also called "efficacious grace", asserts that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and, in God's timing, overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith. This means that when God sovereignly purposes to save someone, that individual certainly will be saved. The doctrine holds that this purposeful influence of God's Holy Spirit cannot be resisted, but that the Holy Spirit, "graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate, to believe, to repent, to come freely and willingly to Christ."^[13]
• "Perseverance of the saints": Perseverance (or preservation) of the saints (the word "saints" is used to refer to all who are set apart by God, and not of those who are exceptionally holy, canonized, or in heaven). The doctrine asserts that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end. Those who apparently fall away either never had true faith to begin with or will return.^[14]

Nature of the atonement[link]

An additional point of disagreement with Arminianism implicit in the five points is the Calvinist understanding of the doctrine of Jesus's substitutionary atonement as a punishment for the sins of the elect, which was developed by St. Augustine and especially St. Anselm and Calvin himself. Calvinists argue that if Christ takes the punishment in the place of a particular sinner, that person must be saved since it would be unjust for him then to be condemned for the same sins.^[15] The definitive and binding nature of this satisfaction model has strong implications for each of the five TULIP points, and it has led some Arminians to subscribe instead to the governmental theory of atonement. Under that theory, no particular sins or sinners are in view, but all of humanity are included in those whose sins have been taken away. The atonement was not the penalty of the law, but a substitute for the penalty, which allows God to remit the penalty by his grace when any sinner repents and believes in Jesus as the Christ.^[16]

Covenant theology[link]

Although the doctrines of grace have generally received the greater focus in contemporary Calvinism, covenant theology is the historic superstructure that unifies the entire system of doctrine.^[17]

Calvinists take God's transcendence to mean that the relationship between God and his creation must be by voluntary condescension on God's part. This relationship he establishes is covenantal: the terms of the relationship are unchangeably decreed by God alone.^[18]

Reformed writings commonly refer to an intra-Trinitarian covenant of redemption. The greater focus is the relationship between God and man, which in historic Calvinism is seen as bi-covenantal, reflecting the early Reformation distinction between Law and Gospel. The covenant of works encompasses the moral and natural law, dictating the terms of creation. By its terms, man would enjoy eternal life and blessedness based on his continued personal and perfect righteousness. With the fall of man, this covenant continues to operate, but only to condemn sinful man.^[19] The covenant of grace is instituted at the fall, and administered through successive historic covenants seen in Scripture for the purpose of redemption. By its terms, salvation comes not by any personal performance, but by promise. Peace with God comes only through a mediator, the fulfillment of which is found in the person and work of Jesus Christ. Christ is seen as the federal head of his elect people, and thus the covenant is the basis of the doctrines of the substitutionary atonement and the imputation of the active obedience of Christ.^[20]

Covenant theology has recently had a resurgence around key participants in the Scripture and Hermeneutics Seminar (SAHS), a project first based in Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Gloucestershire (Cheltenham, England). All through these new developments in covenant theology we see (1) a thematic resurgence of "interpreting the Old Testament through Christ" including the notion of Christ the Creator and now King ; and (2) retaining, stressing, and re-exploring Genesis 1–3 toward a renewed discipline of biblical interpretation in terms of the religious ground motive of Creation, Fall, Redemption, and Communion in the Holy Spirit as the core of the covenant in the OT, biblically speaking, plus (3) the motif of ecumenical dialogue in this task which now includes evangelical Protestants and Catholics as participants, and the scholarly dialogue with the Canon Criticism school.

Worship regulated by God[link]

The regulative principle regarding worship, which distinguishes the Calvinist approach to the public worship of God from other views, is that only those elements that are instituted or appointed by command or example in the New Testament are permissible in worship. In other words, the regulative principle maintains that God institutes in the scriptures what he requires for worship in the church, and everything else is prohibited. As the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical instruments with icons, which he considered violations of the Ten Commandments' prohibition of graven images.^[21]

On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocated exclusive psalmody in worship,^[22] though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as psalms,^[21] and this practice typified presbyterian worship and the worship of other Reformed churches for some time. The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being sung, the Lords prayer being sung, Benedictions. The following are Orders of Service for the Lords Day as designed by John Calvin (Collect is a short prayer; Lection is a Scripture reading; Fraction and Delivery are the breaking of the bread and distribution thereof, respectively):

Liturgy of the Upper Room

Since the 19th century, however, most of the Reformed churches have modified their understanding of the regulative principle and make use of musical instruments, believing that Calvin and his early followers went beyond the biblical requirements^[21] and that such things are circumstances of worship requiring biblically rooted wisdom, rather than an explicit command. Despite the protestations of those few who hold to a strict view of the regulative principle, today hymns and musical instruments are in common use, as are contemporary worship music styles and worship bands.^[23]

Variants[link]

Many efforts have been undertaken to reform or expand on Calvinism, and these variations appear to a greater or lesser degree throughout the history of Calvinism.

Lapsarianism[link]

Within scholastic Calvinist theology, there are two schools of thought over when and whom God predestined: supralapsarianism (from the Latin: supra, "above", here meaning "before" + lapsus, "fall") and infralapsarianism (from the Latin: infra, "beneath", here meaning "after" + lapsus, "fall"). The former view, sometimes called "high Calvinism", argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation. Infralapsarianism, sometimes called "low Calvinism", is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with reference to who would be saved.

Supralapsarians believe that God chose which individuals to save before he decided to allow the race to fall and that the Fall serves as the means of realization of that prior decision to send some individuals to hell and others to heaven (that is, it provides the grounds of condemnation in the reprobate and the need for salvation in the elect). In contrast, infralapsarians hold that God planned the race to fall logically prior to the decision to save or damn any individuals because, it is argued, in order to be "saved", one must first need to be saved from something and therefore the decree of the Fall must precede predestination to salvation or damnation.

These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort (1618), an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around Europe, and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism (Canons of Dort, First Point of Doctrine, Article 7). The influential Westminster Confession of Faith also teaches (in Hodge's words "clearly impl[ies]") the infralapsarian^[24] view, but is sensitive to those holding to supralapsarianism.^[25] The Lapsarian controversy has a few vocal proponents on each side today, but overall it does not receive much attention among modern Calvinists.

Four-point Calvinism[link]

Another revision of Calvinism is called "Amyraldism", "hypothetical universalism", or "four-point Calvinism", also known as Four-point Calvinism, Moderate Calvinism, Modified Calvinism, or Unlimited Limited Atonement. This drops the limited atonement in favor of an unlimited atonement saying that God has provided Christ's atonement for all alike, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then elects those whom he will bring to faith in Christ, thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine of unconditional election.^[26]

This doctrine was most thoroughly systematized by the French Reformed theologian at the Academy of Saumur, Moses Amyraut, for whom it is named. His formulation was an attempt to bring Calvinism more nearly alongside the Lutheran view. In England, hypothetical universalism (which is not entirely consistent with Amyraldianism) was held by the early 17th century theologians John Davenant and John Preston and was propounded at the Westminster Assembly by the English Presbyterian leaders Edmund Calamy the Elder, Lazarus Seaman and Stephen Marshall. In a different, more idiosyncratic form, it was expounded in England by the writings of the Reformed pastor Richard Baxter and gained strong adherence among the Congregationalists and some Presbyterians in the American colonies, during the 17th and 18th centuries.^{[citation needed]}

Amyraldism can be found among various evangelical groups in the United States and within the Anglican Diocese of Sydney. "Four point" Calvinism is prevalent in conservative and moderate groups among Presbyterian churches, Reformed churches, Reformed Baptists and some non-denominational churches, and is not uncommon among evangelical members of the Church of England.^{[citation needed]}

Historically, Amyraldism has been called "moderate Calvinism",^[27] but Norman Geisler uses this term to describe his own views, which James R. White calls "merely a modified form of historic Arminianism."^[28]

R. C. Sproul believes there is confusion about what the doctrine of limited atonement actually teaches. While he considers it possible for a person to believe four points without believing the fifth, he claims that a person who really understands the other four points must believe in limited atonement because of what Martin Luther called a resistless logic.^[26]

Mark Driscoll calls this "Unlimited Limited Atonement", or "Four-and-a-half point Calvinism", whereby Jesus, by dying for everyone, purchased everyone as His possession and He then applies His forgiveness to the elect by grace and applies His wrath to the non-elect. Objectively, Jesus' death was sufficient to save anyone, and, subjectively, only efficient to save those who repent of their sin and trust in Him.^[29]

Hyper-Calvinism[link]

Hyper-Calvinism first referred to an eccentric^{[dubious – discuss]} view that appeared among the early English Particular Baptists in the 18th century. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to "repent and believe" is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation. The term also occasionally appears in both theological and secular controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety of theological determinism, predestination, or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.

Neo-orthodoxy[link]

In the mainline Reformed churches, Calvinism has undergone expansion and revision through the influence of Karl Barth and neo-orthodox theology. Barth was an important Swiss Reformed theologian who began writing early in the 20th century, whose chief accomplishment was to counter-act the influence of the Enlightenment in the churches. The Barmen declaration is an expression of the Barthian reform of Calvinism. Conservative Calvinists (as well as some liberal reformers) regard it as confusing to use the name "Calvinism" to refer to neo-orthodoxy or other liberal revisions stemming from Calvinist churches due to their differing theological views.

Neo-Calvinism[link]

Besides the traditional movements within the conservative Reformed churches, several trends have arisen through the attempt to provide a contemporary, but theologically conservative approach to the world.

A version of Calvinism that has been adopted by both theological conservatives and liberals gained influence in the Dutch Reformed churches, late in the 19th century, dubbed "neo-Calvinism", which developed along lines of the theories of Dutch theologian, statesman and journalist, Abraham Kuyper. More traditional Calvinist critics of the movement characterize it as a revision of Calvinism, although a conservative one in comparison to modernist Christianity or neo-orthodoxy. Neo-Calvinism, "Calvinianism", or the "reformational movement", is a response to the influences of the Enlightenment, but generally speaking it does not touch directly on the articles of salvation. Neo-Calvinists intend their work to be understood as an update of the Calvinist worldview in response to modern circumstances, which is an extension of the Calvinist understanding of religion to scientific, social and political issues. To show their consistency with the historic Reformed movement, supporters may cite Calvin's Institutes, book 1, chapters 1–3, and other works. In the United States, Kuyperian neo-Calvinism is represented among others, by the Center for Public Justice, a faith-based political think-tank headquartered in Washington, D.C.

Neo-Calvinism branched off in more theologically conservative movements in the United States. The first of these to rise to prominence became apparent through the writings of Francis Schaeffer, who had gathered around himself a group of scholars, and propagated their ideas in writing and through L'Abri, a Calvinist study center in Switzerland. This movement generated a reawakened social consciousness among Evangelicals^{[citation needed]}.

Christian Reconstructionism[link]

A neo-Calvinist movement called "Christian Reconstructionism" is much smaller, more radical, and theocratic, but by some believed to be widely influential in American family and political life. Reconstructionism is a distinct revision of Kuyper's approach, which sharply departs from that root influence through the complete rejection of pluralism, and by formulating suggested applications of the sanctions of Biblical Law for modern civil governments. These distinctives are the least influential aspects of the movement. Its intellectual founder, the late Rousas J. Rushdoony, based much of his understanding on the apologetical insights of Cornelius Van Til, father of presuppositionalism and professor at Westminster Theological Seminary (although Van Til himself did not hold to such a view). It has some influence in the conservative Reformed churches in which it was born, and in Calvinistic Baptist and Charismatic churches mostly in the United States, Canada, and to a lesser extent in the UK.

Reconstructionism aims toward the complete rebuilding of the structures of society on Christian and Biblical presuppositions, not, according to its promoters, in terms of "top down" structural changes, but through the steady advance of the Gospel of Christ as men and women are converted, who then live out their obedience to God in the areas for which they are responsible. In keeping with the Theonomic Principle, it seeks to establish laws and structures that will best instantiate the ethical principles of the Bible, including the Old Testament as expounded in the case laws and summarized in the Decalogue. Not a political movement, strictly speaking, Reconstructionism has nonetheless been influential in the development of aspects of the Christian Right that some critics have called "Dominionism". Reconstructionism assumes that God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for the ordering of self and society, extending the regulative principle of worship to all areas of life.

Calvinism Today[link]

Calvinism has undergone a resurgence in North America in recent years.^[30] TIME magazine described the New Calvinism as one of the "10 ideas changing the world" in 2009 and cited its adherents to be largely Reformed Baptist or Presbyterians.^[31] Figures today which are associated with Calvinism include R.C. Sproul, Mark Dever,^[32] Mark Driscoll,^[33] Ligon Duncan,^[34] Tim Keller,^[35] C.J. Mahaney,^[36] Al Mohler,^[37][38] J.I. Packer,^[39] and John Piper.^[40]

Social and religious influences of Calvinism[link]

Usury and capitalism[link]

One school of thought attributes Calvinism with setting the stage for the later development of capitalism in northern Europe. In this view, elements of Calvinism represented a revolt against the medieval condemnation of usury and, implicitly, of profit in general.^{[citation needed]} Such a connection was advanced in influential works by R. H. Tawney (1880–1962) and by Max Weber (1864–1920).

Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of Aristotle) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful.^[41]

He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers.^[42]

Arminianism[link]

A theological and political movement in opposition to Calvinism, now called "Arminianism", was founded by Dutch theologian Jacob Arminius and revised and pursued by the Remonstrants. Arminius rejected several tenets of the Calvinist doctrines of salvation – namely, the latter four of what would later be known as the five points of Calvinism. The term "Arminianism" today often serves as an umbrella term for both Arminius's doctrine and the Remonstrants', but Arminius's followers sometimes distinguish themselves as "Reformed Arminians."^[43]

The Remonstrants' doctrine was condemned at the Synod of Dort held in Dordrecht, Holland, in 1618/1619, and followers of either Arminius or the Remonstrants are not generally considered "Reformed" by most Calvinists. Many Evangelical Christians adopted the position advocated by the Remonstrants, and Arminius's system was revived by evangelist John Wesley and is common today, particularly in Methodism.

Comparison among Protestants[link]

This table summarizes the classical views of three Protestant beliefs about salvation.^[44]

See also[link]

Calvinism portal

• List of Calvinist educational institutions
• Moderate Calvinism
• Synod of Jerusalem (1672)
• Cage Stage Calvinism

History[link]

• Crypto-Calvinism: German Protestants accused of Calvinist leanings within the Lutheran church in the late 16th century
• Jansenism: a radical Augustinian group within the Catholic Church with doctrinal distinctives very similar to Calvinism
• Max Weber: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
• Welsh Methodist revival, 1904-1905 Welsh Revival

Doctrine[link]

• Common grace and free offer of the Gospel
• Moderate Calvinism
• Monergism, as opposed to synergism

People groups[link]

• Category:Calvinists
• Boer Calvinists: Boere-Afrikaners that hold to Reformed Theology.
• Huguenots: followers of Calvinism in France, the 16th and 17th century.
• Pilgrim (Plymouth Colony): Puritan separatists who left Europe for America in search of religious toleration.
• Presbyterians: Calvinists in Scotland
• Puritans: Calvinists in England.
• Reformed churches: denominations that have historically adhered to Calvinist doctrine.
• Waldensians: Calvinists in Italy

References[link]

• 48. Calvins liturgy :William D. Maxwell, An Outline of Christian Worship: Its Development and Forms (London: Oxford University Press, 1936),

Further reading[link]

• David N. Steele, Curtis C. Thomas, and S. Lance Quinn, The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, and Documented (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004).
• Ford Lewis Battles and John Walchenbach, Analysis of the "Institutes of the Christian Religion" of John Calvin (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1980).
• John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeil, trans. Ford L. Battles (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1960).
• John Thomas McNeill, The History and Character of Calvinism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954).
• Philip Benedict, Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).

External links[link]

Look up calvinism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Calvinist websites[link]

• What are the doctrines of grace? – related article from TheologyForums.org.
• Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics – offers many materials from a Calvinist perspective.
• Monergism.com – many Reformed and Calvinist resources
• Calvinism Index by Colin Maxwell
• Calvinist Theological Seminary – Calvinist Education & Resources
• Sola Scriptura – a Reformed theology resource.
• International Center for Reformation of Faith and Life Calvinist resources and reading

Calvinism and other theological systems[link]

• Argument on the Arminian Controversy – Five Points of Gospel Truth Asserted and Defended (1836) by Moses Roney, defending Calvinism against Arminianism.
• Calvinism & Arminianism – a brief comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism from The Five Points of Calvinism – Defined, Defended, Documented by Steele and Thomas
• "Calvinism" from the Catholic Encyclopedia
• The five points of Calvinism

v t e History of Christianity Centuries:1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st Eras: Early Roman Medieval Modern Jesus & Apostolic Age Background Ministry Good News Crucifixion & Resurrection Holy Spirit Gospels Acts The 12 Paul Acts 15 Ante-Nicene Period Judaism split Justin Martyr Ignatius Persecution Fathers Irenaeus Marcionism Canon Tertullian Montanism Origen Christian Empire Constantine the Great Monasticism Councils: Nicaea I Creed Athanasius Arianism Jerome Augustine Councils II III IV Eastern Christianity Orthodoxy Greece Church of the East Oriental Orthodoxy Coptic Nestorianism Syria Armenia Ethiopia Chrysostom Iconoclasm Bulgaria Great Schism Fall Ottoman Russia America 20th century Middle Ages Pelagianism Gregory I Celtic Germanic Scandinavian Kievan Rus' Investiture Anselm Abelard Bernard of Clairvaux Crusades Inquisition Scholasticism Dominic Francis Bonaventure Aquinas Wycliffe Avignon Papal Schism Hus Conciliarism Protestant Reformation Protestantism Erasmus Five solas Eucharist Calvinist v. Arminian Arminianism Dort Wars Lutheranism Martin Luther 95 Theses Diet of Worms Melanchthon Orthodoxy Eucharist Book of Concord Reformed Zwingli Calvin Calvinism history Scotland Knox TULIP Dort Westminster Anglicanism Timeline Henry VIII Cranmer Settlement 39 Articles Common Prayer Puritans Civil War Anabaptism Radical Reformation Grebel Swiss Brethren Müntzer Martyrs' Synod Menno Simons Smyth Catholicism Primacy development Papacy Timeline Lateran IV Trent Counter-Reformation Thomas More Leo X Guadalupe Jesuits Jansenists Xavier Monastery dissolution Wars Teresa Vatican I & II Modernism Modern Christianity and Revivalism English denominations Baptists Congregationalism Great Awakening Methodism Millerism Pietism Neo- & Old Lutherans Restoration Movement Jehovah's Witnesses Mormonism Seventh-day Adventism Industrial Age Camp meeting Holiness movement Independent Catholic Churches Second Great Awakening Third Great Awakening After World War I Azusa Revival Ecumenism Evangelicalism Jesus movement Mainline Protestant Pentecostalism Charismatics Liberation Theology Christian Right Timeline Missions Timeline Martyrs Theology Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Protestantism Catholicism

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2011)

Angus Stewart is an Australian horticulturist, gardening author and TV presenter on Gardening Australia. He is especially interested in Native Plants, and has been heavily involved in breeding of Kangaroo paws.

He has written several books on gardening, including "Gardening on the Wild Side"^[1] and "Lets Propagate!".

References[link]

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

This article about an Australian botanist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Hugh Alan Craig Cairns, OC FRSC (born March 2, 1930) is a Canadian political science professor emeritus.

Born in Galt (now part of Cambridge, Ontario), he received his BA in 1953 and his MA degree in 1957 from the University of Toronto. In 1963, he obtained a D.Phil from St Antony's College, Oxford. He was a member of the Department of Political Science at the University of British Columbia from 1960 until his retirement in 1995 and served as head of the department from 1973 to 1980.

Cairns' most famous piece of writing on Canadian politics is likely his 1971 article "The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and its Critics" which discusses judicial activism in Canada. It is often listed as one of the most-cited academic works concerned with the Canadian political system.

Cairns’ scholarship has explored a multitude of issues within Canadian political science, sparking decades of debate and refinement of his ideas. In reference to Cairn’s intellectual legacy, Gerald Kernerman and Philip Resnick state: “On a remarkably wide range of topics – from the regional impact of Canada’s electoral system, the role of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, and the development of Canadian federalism to the ongoing efforts to constitutionally reshape the federation and the effects on minorities of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms – Cairns has initiated and shaped many of our most pivotal debates.” Cairns’ work focuses extensively on the question of citizenship in the Canadian federation, a theme important to a discussion of Indigenous rights and citizenship. In addressing the situation facing Indigenous communities across Canada, Cairns acknowledges that there is a great challenge in speaking about a group to which one does not belong. He suggests that the present “discontents” between Indigenous peoples and the state are “largely due to the past silencing of Aboriginal voices. The resolution of this set of circumstances can only occur if we talk to each other in a way that both articulates our differences and seeks with empathy to reconcile them in the search for at least a limited version of membership in a common community.”

In his seminal work, Citizens Plus, Cairns draws on H.B. Hawthorne’s idea of the “citizens plus” label as articulated in the Hawthorne Report of the 1960s of which Cairns was a part. As Cairns explains, the Hawthorne Report concluded that, “In addition to the normal rights and duties of citizenship, Indians possess certain additional rights as charter members of the Canadian community.” Cairns calls for an institutional resolution to the “plight” of Indigenous peoples within Canada; however, despite his insistence on a form of citizenship as the answer to the uncertainties and challenges facing their communities, he admits, “Citizenship is a malleable and contested institution that can serve different purposes… In Canada, Aboriginal nationalism leads to the idea of an Aboriginal citizenship in the self-governing Aboriginal nations of the future, the nature of whose reconciliation with Canadian citizenship is unclear.”

Honours[link]

In 1982, he received the Molson Prize. In 1998, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 2003, he was inducted into the City of Cambridge Hall of Fame. He has received honorary degrees from Carleton University (1994), the University of Toronto (1996), the University of British Columbia (1998) and the University of Saskatchewan (2002).

References[link]

• "Alan C. Cairns". City of Cambridge. http://www.city.cambridge.on.ca/cs_pubaccess/hall_of_fame.php?aid=79. Retrieved 7 August 2005. 
• Cairns, Alan C. Citizens Plus: Aboriginal Peoples and the Canadian State. Toronto: UBC Press, 2000.
• Cairns, Alan C., ed. Citizenship, diversity, and pluralism: Canadian and comparative perspectives. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999.
• Cairns, Alan C. First nations and the Canadian State: in search of coexistence. Kingston, Ont.: Institute of Intergovernmental Relations, Queen's University, 2005.
• Kernerman, Gerald and Philip Resnick, eds. Insiders and outsiders: Alan Cairns and the reshaping of Canadian citizenship. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2005.