Look up -ge, GE, Ge, gE, or ge in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Ge or GE may refer to:

Countries and regions[link]

• Canton of Geneva, a western canton of Switzerland
• Equatorial Guinea, abbreviation in French and Spanish
• Georgia (country), ISO country code
  • .ge, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Georgia
• Germany, obsolete NATO country code
• Gilbert and Ellice Islands, former ISO country code
• Province of Genoa, ISO 3166-2:IT code, a province of Italy
• German Empire 1871-1918

Language and culture[link]

• Ghe (Cyrillic) (Г, г), a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet (it is just named Ghe or Ge in most languages, but He in Ukrainian)
• Ghe with upturn (Ґ, ґ), a letter of the Ukrainian alphabet (where it is just named Ghe or Ge)
• ġē, a plural Old English pronoun
• Gē, an ancient Chinese dagger-axe
• Gê or Gaia (mythology), a Greek goddess personifying the Earth
• Gê languages, spoken by the Gê, a group of indigenous people in Brazil
• Gê people, indigenous people in Brazil
• Ge(葛), a Chinese family name

Companies[link]

• General Electric, a multinational American technology and services conglomerate
  • GE Building, a 1933 Art Deco skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan
• TransAsia Airways (IATA airline designator), an airline based in Taipei, Taiwan

Science and technology[link]

• Ganglionic eminence, a transitory structure in the developing brain
• Gate equivalent, stands for a manufacturing-technology-independent complexity measure in integrated circuit design (electronics)
• Ge (butterfly), a genus of butterflies in the grass skipper family
• Genetic engineering, the direct manipulation of an organism's genes
• Genome equivalents
• Gastroenteritis, a condition that causes irritation and inflammation of the stomach and intestines (the gastrointestinal tract).
• Germanium (Ge), a chemical element
• Giant elliptical galaxy, a specific type of elliptical galaxy
• Gigabit Ethernet, a networking technology
• Google Earth, computer software to view satellite images of Earth
• Granado Espada, a massively multiplayer online game from Korea
• "Greater than or equal to", an inequality operator used in some programming languages
• Grid Engine, an open source batch-queuing system for High-Performance Computing clusters
• GE, an old scale for measuring film speed used with exposure meters manufactured by General Electric, superseded by the similar American Standards Association (ASA) system, which is now incorporated into the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) system

People[link]

• Ge You (born 1957), Chinese film actor
• Nikolai Ge (1831–1894), Russian painter

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Johannes Brahms around 1866

A German Requiem, To Words of the Holy Scriptures, Op. 45 (German: Ein deutsches Requiem, nach Worten der heiligen Schrift) by Johannes Brahms, is a large-scale work for chorus, orchestra, and a soprano and a baritone soloist, composed between 1865 and 1868. It comprises seven movements, which together last 65 to 80 minutes, making this work Brahms's longest composition. A German Requiem is sacred but non-liturgical, and unlike a long tradition of the Latin Requiem, A German Requiem, as its title states, is a Requiem in the German language.

History[link]

Brahms's mother died in February 1865, a loss that caused him much grief and may well have inspired Ein deutsches Requiem. Brahms's lingering feelings over Robert Schumann's death in July 1856 may also have been a motivation, though his reticence about such matters makes this uncertain.^[1]

His original conception was for a work of six movements; according to their eventual places in the final version, these were movements 1–4 and 6–7.^[2] By the end of April 1865, Brahms had completed the first, second, and fourth movements. The second movement used some previously abandoned musical material written in 1854, the year of Schumann's mental collapse and attempted suicide, and of Brahms's move to Düsseldorf to assist Clara Schumann and her young children.^[1]

Brahms completed all but what is now the fifth movement by August 1866.^[3] Johann Herbeck conducted the first three movements in Vienna on 1 December 1867. This partial premiere went poorly due to a misunderstanding in the timpanist's score. Sections marked as pf were played as f or ff, essentially drowning out the rest of the ensemble in the fugal section of the third movement.^[4] The first performance of the six movements premiered in the Bremen Cathedral six months later on Good Friday, 10 April 1868, with Brahms conducting and Julius Stockhausen as the baritone soloist.^[3] The performance was a great success and marked a turning point in his career.^[1]

In May 1868 Brahms composed an additional movement, which became the fifth movement within the final work. The new movement, which was scored for soprano soloist and choir, was first sung in Zürich on 12 September 1868 by Ida Suter-Weber, with Friedrich Hegar conducting the Tonhalle Orchester Zürich. The final, seven-movement version of A German Requiem was premiered in Leipzig on 18 February 1869 with Carl Reinecke conducting the Gewandhaus Orchestra and Chorus, and soloists Emilie Bellingrath-Wagner and Franz Krükl.^[3]

Text[link]

Brahms assembled the libretto himself. In contrast to the traditional Roman Catholic Requiem Mass, which employs a standardized text in Latin, the text is derived from the German Luther Bible.

Brahms's first known use of the title Ein deutsches Requiem was in an 1865 letter to Clara Schumann in which he wrote that he intended the piece to be "eine Art deutsches Requiem" (a sort of German Requiem). Brahms was quite moved when he found out years later that Robert Schumann had planned a work of the same name.^[1] German refers primarily to the language rather than the intended audience. Brahms told Carl Martin Reinthaler, director of music at the Bremen Cathedral, that he would have gladly called the work "Ein menschliches Requiem" (A human Requiem).^[5]

Although the Requiem Mass in the Roman Catholic liturgy begins with prayers for the dead ("Grant them eternal rest, O Lord"), A German Requiem focuses on the living, beginning with the text "Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted." from the Beatitudes. This theme—transition from anxiety to comfort—recurs in all the following movements except movements 4 and 7, the central one and the final one. Although the idea of the Lord is the source of the comfort, the sympathetic humanism persists through the work.^[5]

Brahms purposely omitted Christian dogma.^[6] In his correspondence with Carl Reinthaler, when Reinthaler expressed concern over this, Brahms refused to add references to "the redeeming death of the Lord", as Reinthaler described it, such as John 3:16. In the Bremen performance of the piece, Reinthaler took the liberty of inserting the aria "I know that my Redeemer liveth" from Handel's Messiah to satisfy the clergy.^[7]

Instrumentation[link]

In addition to soprano and baritone soloists and mixed chorus, A German Requiem is scored for:

• woodwind: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons and contrabassoon (contrabassoon ad libitum)
• brass: 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba
• percussion: timpani
• strings and harp (one part, preferably doubled)
• organ (ad libitum)

Structure[link]

Since Brahms inserted movement 5, the work shows symmetry around movement 4, which describes the "lovely dwellings" of the Lord. Movement 1 and 7 begin "Selig sind" (Blessed are), taken from the Beatitudes of the Sermon on the Mount in 1, from Revelation in 7. These two slow movements also share musical elements, especially in their ending. Movements 2 and 6 are both dramatic, 2 dealing with the transient nature of life, 6 with the resurrection of the dead, told as a secret about a change. Movements 3 and 5 are begun by a solo voice. In the third movement, the baritone requests "Herr, lehre doch mich" (Lord, teach me); the choir repeats his words several times, making the personal prayer more general. In the fifth movement, the soprano and chorus sing different text, corresponding to each other. As opposed to Baroque oratorios, the soloists do not sing any arias, but are part of the structure of the movements. Almost all movements, with the exception of 4 and 7, connect different Bible verses, which lead from suffering and mourning to consolation. The very last word of the work is the same as the first: "selig" (blessed).

Table of movements[link]

This section includes inline links to audio files. If you have trouble playing the files, see Wikipedia Media help.

The following table is organized first by movement, then within a movement by Bible quotation (where appropriate), which generally also causes a change in mood, expressed by tempo, key and orchestration. The choir is in four parts, with the exception of a few chords. The choir is not especially mentioned in the table because it is present throughout the work. The translation is close to the original. The links to the King James version of the Bible are supplied. Brahms marked some sections in German for tempo and character, trying to be more precise than the common Italian tempo markings.

Title	Solo	Key	Tempo	Time	Source	Translation
I
Selig sind, die da Leid tragen		F major	Ziemlich langsam und mit Ausdruck (Rather slow and with expression)		Matthew 5:4	Blessed are they who bear suffering
Die mit Tränen säen, werden mit Freuden ernten		D-flat major			Psalm 126:5–6	They that sow in tears shall reap in joy
Selig sind, die da Leid tragen		F major				Blessed are they who bear suffering
II
Denn alles Fleisch, es ist wie Gras		B-flat minor	Langsam, marschmäßig (Slow, like a march)	3/4	1 Peter 1:24	For all flesh, it is as grass
So seid nun geduldig		G-flat major	Etwas bewegter (A bit more moving)		James 5:7	So be patient
Denn alles Fleisch, es ist wie Gras		B-flat minor	Tempo I			For all flesh, it is as grass
Aber des Herrn Wort bleibet in Ewigkeit		B-flat major	Un poco sostenuto		1 Peter 1:25	But the Lord's word remains forever
Die Erlöseten des Herrn werden wiederkommen			Allegro non troppo		Isaiah 35:10	The ransomed of the Lord shall return
ewige Freude			Tranquillo			eternal joy
III
Herr, lehre doch mich	Bar	D minor	Andante moderato		Psalm 39:4	Lord, teach me
Ach, wie gar nichts	Bar			3/2	Psalm 39:5–6	Ah, how in vain
Ich hoffe auf dich		D major			Psalm 39:7	My hope is in you
Der Gerechten Seelen sind in Gottes Hand				4/2	Wis 3:1	The souls of the righteous are in the hand of God
IV
Wie lieblich sind deine Wohnungen		E-flat major	Mäßig bewegt (Moderately moving)	3/4	Psalm 84:1,2,4	How lovely are thy dwellings
V
Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit	Sop	G major	Langsam (Slow)		John 16:22	You now have sadness
Ich will euch trösten					Isaiah 66:13	I will comfort you
Sehet mich an	Sop	B-flat major			Sirach 51:27	Look at me
Ich will euch trösten						I will comfort you
Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit	Sop					You now have sadness
Ich will euch trösten		G major				I will comfort you
VI
Denn wir haben hie keine bleibende Statt		C minor	Andante		Hebrews 13:14	For here we have no lasting place
Siehe, ich sage euch ein Geheimnis	Bar	F-sharp minor			1 Cor 15:51–52	Behold, I tell you a mystery
Denn es wird die Posaune schallen		C minor	Vivace	3/4	1 Cor 15:52	For the trumpet (lit. trombone) will sound
Dann wird erfüllet werden	Bar				1 Cor 15:54	Then shall be fulfilled
Der Tod ist verschlungen in den Sieg					1 Cor 15:54–55	Death is swallowed up in victory
Herr, du bist würdig		C major	Allegro	4/2	Rev 4:11	Lord, you are worthy
VII
Selig sind die Toten		F major	Feierlich (Solemn)		Rev 14:13	Blessed are the dead
Ja, der Geist spricht, daß sie ruhen		A major				Yea, the Spirit speaks that they rest
Selig sind die Toten		F major				Blessed are the dead

Composition[link]

Notable orchestration devices include the first movement's lack of violins, the use of a piccolo, clarinets, one pair of horns, trumpets, a tuba, and timpani throughout the work, as well as the use of harps at the close of both the first and seventh movements, most striking in the latter because at that point they have not played since the middle of the second movement.

A German Requiem is unified compositionally by a three-note motif of a leap of a major third, usually followed by a half-step in the same direction. The first exposed choral entry presents the motif in the soprano voice (F–A–B♭). This motif pervades every movement and much of the thematic material in the piece.^[8]

Critical reception[link]

Most critics have commented on the high level of craftsmanship displayed in the work, and have appreciated its quasi-classical structures (e.g. the third and sixth movements have fugues at their climax). But not all critics responded favourably to the work. George Bernard Shaw, an avowed Wagnerite, wrote that "it could only have come from the establishment of a first-class undertaker." Some commentators have also been puzzled by its lack of overt Christian content, though it seems clear that for Brahms this was a humanist rather than a Christian work.^[4]

Versions and arrangements[link]

An alternative version of the work was prepared by Brahms to be performed as a piano duet with four hands on one piano. This version also incorporates the vocal parts, suggesting that it was intended as a self-contained version probably for at-home use. However, the vocal parts can also be omitted, making the duet version an acceptable substitute accompaniment for choir and soloists in circumstances where a full orchestra is unavailable.

The piano duet accompaniment was based on an 1866 arrangement for piano of the six-movement version of the Requiem, which Brahms revealed to Clara Schumann at Christmas of that year.^[9] The alternative version was used, sung in English, for the first complete British performance of the Requiem (complete except for the fifth movement, which in 1866 had not yet been written). This took place on 10 July 1871 in London, at the home of Sir Henry Thompson and his wife, the pianist Kate Loder (Lady Thompson). The pianists were Kate Loder and Cipriani Potter.^[10] This version of the Requiem became known as the "London Version" (German: Londoner Fassung).^[11]

Notable recordings[link]

Appearances in culture[link]

A German Requiem inspired the titles of Jorge Luis Borges' 1949 short story "Deutsches Requiem" and Philip Kerr's 1991 novel A German Requiem.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Geiringer, Karl; Irene Geiringer (1947). Brahms, his life and work. Da Capo Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-306-80223-2. 
• McGrade, Michael (2007). "'Blessed Are They That Mourn', Notes on Brahms' German Requiem", "State of the Arts" (pdf). http://www.brandeis.edu/arts/office/state/archives/spring2007.pdf. , vol. 3, no. 2, Winter/Spring 2007, p. 7.
• Musgrave, Michael (1996). Brahms, A German Requiem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40995-7. 
• Musgrave, Michael; Bernard D. Sherman (2003). Performing Brahms: early evidence of performance style. Cambridge University Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-521-65273-5. 
• Steinberg, Michael (2005). "Johannes Brahms: A German Requiem ..., Op. 45." Choral Masterworks: A Listener's Guide. [1] Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512644-0
• Thuleen, Nancy (1998). "Ein deutsches Requiem: (Mis)conceptions of the Mass." Website Article. 2 April 1998.
• Van Camp, Leonard (2002). A Practical Guide for Performing, Teaching, and Singing the Brahms Requiem. Alfred Music Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7579-9859-1. 
• Zebrowski, Armin (2002). "Brahms' German Requiem" Sunrise magazine, August/September 2002, Theosophical University Press.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ein deutsches Requiem

German Wikisource has original text related to this article: Ein deutsches Requiem

• Ein deutsches Requiem: Free scores at the International Music Score Library Project
• Free scores of this work in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
• Detailed Listening Guide using the recording by Carlo Maria Giulini.
• The ghost of the Free Music project has a recording available under a Creative Commons license.
• Brahms's German Requiem: Promise Fulfilled. Emmeline Rushton's analysis, with discussion of the Schumann connection.
• Brahms's German Requiem, analysis by Armin Zebrowski.

Colin Powell KCB MSC
65th United States Secretary of State
In office January 20, 2001 – January 26, 2005
President	George W. Bush
Deputy	Richard Armitage
Preceded by	Madeleine Albright
Succeeded by	Condoleezza Rice
12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
In office October 1, 1989 – September 30, 1993
President	George H. W. Bush Bill Clinton
Deputy	Robert Herres David Jeremiah
Preceded by	William Crowe
Succeeded by	David Jeremiah
16th National Security Advisor
In office November 23, 1987 – January 20, 1989
President	Ronald Reagan
Deputy	John Negroponte
Preceded by	Frank Carlucci
Succeeded by	Brent Scowcroft
Personal details
Born	(1937-04-05) April 5, 1937 (age 75) New York City
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	Alma Johnson
Alma mater	City College of New York, CUNY George Washington University
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	United States
Service/branch	United States Army
Years of service	1958–1993
Rank	General
Unit	3rd Armored Division 23rd Infantry Division
Commands	V Corps Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Army Forces Command
Battles/wars	Vietnam War Invasion of Panama Gulf War
Awards	Defense Distinguished Service Medal (4) Army Distinguished Service Medal (2) Defense Superior Service Medal Legion of Merit (2) Soldier's Medal Bronze Star Purple Heart

Colin Luther Powell ( /ˈkoʊlɨn/; born April 5, 1937) is an American statesman and a retired four-star general in the United States Army.^[1] He was the 65th United States Secretary of State, serving under President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African American to serve in that position.^[2][3][4][5] During his military career, Powell also served as National Security Advisor (1987–1989), as Commander of the U.S. Army Forces Command (1989) and as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–1993), holding the latter position during the Gulf War. He was the first, and so far the only, African American to serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Early life[link]

Colin Luther Powell was born on April 5, 1937^[6] in Harlem, a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, to Jamaican immigrant parents Maud Arial (née McKoy) and Luther Theophilus Powell. He also has Scottish ancestry.^[7][8] Powell was raised in the South Bronx and attended Morris High School, a former public school in the Bronx, from which he graduated in 1954. While at school, he worked at a local baby furniture store where he picked up Yiddish from the shopkeepers and some of the customers.^[9] He received his Bachelor of Science degree in geology from the City College of New York in 1958 and was a self-admitted C average student. He was later able to earn a Master of Business Administration degree from the George Washington University in 1971, after his second tour in Vietnam.

Despite his parents' pronunciation of his name as /ˈkɒlɨn/, Powell has pronounced his name /ˈkoʊlɨn/ since childhood, after the heroic World War II flyer Colin P. Kelly Jr.^[10] Public officials and radio and television reporters have used Powell's preferred pronunciation.

Military career[link]

Powell described joining the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) during college as one of the happiest experiences of his life; discovering something he loved and could do well, he felt he had "found himself." According to Powell:

“It was only once I was in college, about six months into college when I found something that I liked, and that was ROTC, Reserve Officer Training Corps in the military. And I not only liked it, but I was pretty good at it. That's what you really have to look for in life, something that you like, and something that you think you're pretty good at. And if you can put those two things together, then you're on the right track, and just drive on.”^[11]

Cadet Powell joined the Pershing Rifles, the ROTC fraternal organization and drill team begun by General John Pershing. Even after he had become a general, Powell kept on his desk a pen set he had won for a drill team competition.

Upon graduation, he received a commission as an Army second lieutenant.^[12] He was a professional soldier for 35 years, holding a variety of command and staff positions and rising to the rank of General.^[13] Powell was a captain during the Vietnam War, serving as a South Vietnamese Army adviser from 1962 to 1963. While on patrol in a Viet Cong-held area, he was wounded by stepping on a punji stake.^[14] He returned to Vietnam as a major in 1968, serving in the Americal Division (23rd Infantry Division), then as assistant chief of staff of operations for the Americal Division. He was charged with investigating a detailed letter by Tom Glen (a soldier from the 11th Light Infantry Brigade), which backed up rumored allegations of the My Lai Massacre. Powell wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent." Later, Powell's assessment would be described as whitewashing the news of the massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. In May 2004 Powell said to Larry King, "I mean, I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored."^[15]

Powell as Commanding General, FORSCOM

Powell served a White House fellowship, a highly selective and prestigious position, under President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1973.

In his autobiography, My American Journey, Powell named several officers he served under who inspired and mentored him. As a lieutenant colonel serving in South Korea, Powell was very close to General Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson. Powell said he regarded Emerson as one of the most caring officers he ever met. Emerson insisted his troops train at night to fight a possible North Korean attack, and made them repeatedly watch the television film Brian's Song to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed that what set Emerson apart, was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare.

In the early 1980s, Powell served at Fort Carson, Colorado. After he left Fort Carson, Powell became senior military assistant to Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, whom he assisted during the 1983 invasion of Grenada and the 1986 airstrike on Libya.

In 1986, he took over the command of V Corps in Frankfurt, Germany, from Robert Lewis "Sam" Wetzel. Following the Iran Contra scandal, Powell became Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor, serving from 1987 to 1989. In April 1989, Powell was promoted to General and briefly served as the Commander in Chief, Forces Command, headquartered at Fort McPherson, Georgia. Later that year, President George H.W. Bush selected him as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.^[16]

Dates of ranks[link]

Promotions

Rank	Date
General	April 4, 1989
Lieutenant General	March 26, 1986
Major General	August 1, 1983
Brigadier General	June 1, 1979
Colonel	February 1, 1976
Lieutenant Colonel	July 9, 1970
Major	May 24, 1966
Captain	June 2, 1962
6px First Lieutenant	December 30, 1959
Second Lieutenant	June 9, 1958

Awards and decorations[link]

Badges[link]

• Combat Infantryman Badge
• Expert Infantryman Badge
• Ranger Tab
• Parachutist Badge
• Pathfinder Badge
• Air Assault Badge
• Presidential Service Badge
• Secretary of Defense Identification Badge
• Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge
• Army Staff Identification Badge

Medals and ribbons[link]

	Defense Distinguished Service Medal (with 3 Oak Leaf Clusters)
	Distinguished Service Medal, Army (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
	Defense Superior Service Medal
	Legion of Merit (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
	Soldier's Medal
	Bronze Star
	Purple Heart
	Air Medal
	Joint Service Commendation Medal
	Army Commendation Medal (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
	Presidential Medal of Freedom
	Presidential Citizens Medal
	National Defense Service Medal (with 1 Bronze Service Star)
	Vietnam Service Medal (with 1 Silver Service Star)
	Army Service Ribbon
	Army Overseas Service Ribbon (with award numeral 4)

Foreign decorations[link]

• Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation
• Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
• Skanderbeg's Order (Albania)
• Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) (United Kingdom)
• Légion d'honneur (France)
• Meritorious Service Cross (M.S.C.) (Canada)
• Order of Stara Planina in the First Order (Bulgaria)^[17][18]

National Security Advisor[link]

President Ronald Reagan and National Security Advisor Powell in 1988

At the age of 49, Powell became Ronald Reagan's National Security Advisor, serving from 1987 to 1989 while retaining his Army commission as a lieutenant general. After his tenure with the National Security Council, Powell was promoted to a full general under President George H.W. Bush and briefly served as Commander-in-Chief (CINC) of Forces Command (FORSCOM), overseeing all Army, Army Reserve, and National Guard units in the Continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff[link]

Official Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff portrait

His last military assignment, from October 1, 1989 to September 30, 1993, was as the 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest military position in the Department of Defense. At age 52, he became the youngest officer, and first Afro-Caribbean American, to serve in this position. In 1989, he joined Dwight D. Eisenhower and Alexander Haig as the third general since World War II to reach four-star rank without ever being a divisional commander.^[19]

During his chairmanship of the JCS, there was discussion of awarding Powell a fifth star, granting him the rank of General of the Army. But even in the wake of public and Congressional pressure^[20][21] to do so, Clinton-Gore presidential transition team staffers decided against it.^[22][23][24]

During this time, he oversaw 28 crises, including the invasion of Panama in 1989 to remove General Manuel Noriega from power and Operation Desert Storm in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. During these events, Powell earned his nickname, "the reluctant warrior." He rarely advocated military intervention as the first solution to an international crisis, and instead usually prescribed diplomacy and containment.

In his autobiography, Powell said he is haunted by the nightmare of the Vietnam War and felt that the leadership was very ineffective. Powell served a tour in Vietnam as a military adviser, and was mildly injured when he stepped on a bamboo "punji stick". The large infection made it difficult for him to walk, and caused his foot to swell for a short time, shortening his first tour. It was also during his Vietnam service, his second tour, that Powell was decorated for bravery. He single-handedly rescued several men from a burning helicopter, one of them being Maj. Gen. Charles Gettys, the commander of the Americal Division.

General Colin Powell, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, waves from his motorcade during the Persian Gulf War Welcome Home Parade in New York City.

Additionally, Powell has been critical of other instances of U.S. foreign policy in the past, such as its support for the 1973 Chilean coup d'état. From two separate interviews in 2003, Powell stated in one about the 1973 event "I can't justify or explain the actions and decisions that were made at that time. It was a different time. There was a great deal of concern about communism in this part of the world. Communism was a threat to the democracies in this part of the world. It was a threat to the United States."^[25] In another interview, however, he also simply stated "With respect to your earlier comment about Chile in the 1970s and what happened with Mr. Allende, it is not a part of American history that we're proud of."^[26]

As a military strategist, Powell has advocated an approach to military conflicts that maximizes the potential for success and minimizes casualties. A component of this approach is the use of overwhelming force, which he applied to Operation Desert Storm in 1991. His approach has been dubbed the "Powell Doctrine". Powell continued as chairman of the JCS into the Clinton presidency but as a dedicated "realist" he considered himself a bad fit for an administration largely made up of liberal internationalists.^[27] He clashed with then-US ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright over the Bosnian crisis, as he opposed any military interventions that didn't involve US interests.^[28]

Potential candidate[link]

Powell's experience in military matters made him a very popular figure with both American political parties. Many Democrats admired his moderate stance on military matters, while many Republicans saw him as a great asset associated with the successes of past Republican administrations. Put forth as a potential Democratic Vice Presidential nominee in the 1992 U.S. Presidential Election^[29] or even potentially replacing Vice President Dan Quayle as the Republican Vice Presidential nominee,^[30] Powell eventually declared himself a Republican and began to campaign for Republican candidates in 1995.^[31] He was touted as a possible opponent of Bill Clinton in the 1996 U.S. Presidential Election, possibly capitalizing on a split conservative vote in Iowa^[32] and even leading New Hampshire polls for the GOP nomination,^[33] but Powell declined, citing a lack of passion for politics.^[34] Powell defeated Clinton 50-38 in a hypothetical match-up proposed to voters in the exit polls conducted on Election Day.^[35] Despite not standing in the race, Powell won the New Hampshire Vice-Presidential primary on write-in votes.^[36]

In 1997 Powell founded America's Promise with the objective of helping children from all socioeconomic sectors.

In the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election Powell campaigned for Senator John McCain and later Texas Governor George W. Bush after the latter secured the Republican nomination.^{[citation needed]} Bush eventually won, and Powell was appointed Secretary of State.

During the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election, Powell endorsed Barack Obama for President.^[37]

Secretary of State[link]

Portrait as Secretary of State

Powell, National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld listen to President George W. Bush speak.

As Secretary of State in the Bush administration, Powell was perceived as moderate. Powell was unanimously voted in by the United States Senate. Over the course of his tenure he traveled less than any other U.S. Secretary of State in 30 years. ^[38]

On September 11, 2001, Powell was in Lima, Peru, meeting with President Alejandro Toledo and US Ambassador John Hamilton, and attending the special session of the OAS General Assembly that subsequently adopted the Inter-American Democratic Charter. After the September 11 attacks, Powell's job became of critical importance in managing America's relationships with foreign countries in order to secure a stable coalition in the War on Terrorism.

Powell came under fire for his role in building the case for the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. In a press statement on February 24, 2001 he had said that sanctions against Iraq had prevented the development of any weapons of mass destruction by Saddam Hussein. As was the case in the days leading up to the Persian Gulf War, Powell was initially opposed to a forcible overthrow of Saddam, preferring to continue a policy of containment. However, Powell eventually agreed to go along with the Bush administration's determination to remove Saddam. He had often clashed with others in the administration, who were reportedly planning an Iraq invasion even before the September 11 attacks, an insight supported by testimony by former terrorism czar Richard Clarke in front of the 9/11 Commission. The main concession Powell wanted before he would offer his full support for the Iraq War was the involvement of the international community in the invasion, as opposed to a unilateral approach. He was also successful in persuading Bush to take the case of Iraq to the United Nations, and in moderating other initiatives. Powell was placed at the forefront of this diplomatic campaign.

Computer-generated image of an alleged mobile production facility for biological weapons, presented by Powell at the UN Security Council. On May 27, 2003, US and UK experts examined the trailers and declared they had nothing to do with biological weapons.^[39]

Colin Powell holding a model vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the United Nations Security Council

Powell's chief role was to garner international support for a multi-national coalition to mount the invasion. To this end, Powell addressed a plenary session of the United Nations Security Council on February 5, 2003 to argue in favor of military action. Citing numerous anonymous Iraqi defectors, Powell asserted that "there can be no doubt that Saddam Hussein has biological weapons and the capability to rapidly produce more, many more."^[40] Powell also stated that there was "no doubt in my mind" that Saddam was working to obtain key components to produce nuclear weapons.^[40]

Most observers praised Powell's oratorical skills. However, Britain's Channel 4 News reported soon afterwards that a UK intelligence dossier that Powell had referred to as a "fine paper" during his presentation had been based on old material and plagiarized an essay by American graduate student Ibrahim al-Marashi.^[41][42] A 2004 report by the Iraq Survey Group concluded that the evidence that Powell offered to support the allegation that the Iraqi government possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) was inaccurate.

A Senate report on intelligence failures would later detail the intense debate that went on behind the scenes on what to include in Powell's speech. State Department analysts had found dozens of factual problems in drafts of the speech. Some of the claims were taken out, but others were left in, such as claims based on the yellowcake forgery.^[43] The administration came under fire for having acted on faulty intelligence, particularly what was single-sourced to the informant known as Curveball. Powell later recounted how Vice President Dick Cheney had joked with him before he gave the speech, telling him, "You've got high poll ratings; you can afford to lose a few points." Powell's longtime aide-de-camp and Chief of Staff from 1989–2003, Colonel Lawrence Wilkerson, later characterized Cheney's view of Powell's mission as to "go up there and sell it, and we'll have moved forward a peg or two. Fall on your damn sword and kill yourself, and I'll be happy, too."^[44]

In September 2005, Powell was asked about the speech during an interview with Barbara Walters and responded that it was a "blot" on his record. He went on to say, "It will always be a part of my record. It was painful. It's painful now."^[45]

Wilkerson said that he inadvertently participated in a hoax on the American people in preparing Powell's erroneous testimony before the United Nations Security Council.^[46]

Because Powell was seen as more moderate than most figures in the administration, he was spared many of the attacks that have been leveled at more controversial advocates of the invasion, such as Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfowitz. At times, infighting among the Powell-led State Department, the Rumsfeld-led Defense Department, and Cheney's office had the effect of polarizing the administration on crucial issues, such as what actions to take regarding Iran and North Korea.

Secretary Powell with NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer

After Saddam Hussein had been deposed, Powell's new role was to once again establish a working international coalition, this time to assist in the rebuilding of post-war Iraq. On September 13, 2004, Powell testified before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee,^[47] acknowledging that the sources who provided much of the information in his February 2003 UN presentation were "wrong" and that it was "unlikely" that any stockpiles of WMDs would be found. Claiming that he was unaware that some intelligence officials questioned the information prior to his presentation, Powell pushed for reform in the intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director who would assure that "what one person knew, everyone else knew."

Powell announced his resignation as Secretary of State on November 15, 2004. According to The Washington Post, he had been asked to resign by the president's chief of staff, Andrew Card.^[44] Powell announced that he would stay on until the end of Bush's first term or until his replacement's confirmation by Congress. The following day, Bush nominated National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice as Powell's successor. News of Powell's leaving the Administration spurred mixed reactions from politicians around the world — some upset at the loss of a statesman seen as a moderating factor within the Bush administration, but others hoping for Powell's successor to wield more influence within the cabinet.

In mid-November, Powell stated that he had seen new evidence suggesting that Iran was adapting missiles for a nuclear delivery system.^[48] The accusation came at the same time as the settlement of an agreement between Iran, the IAEA, and the European Union.

On December 31, 2004, Powell rang in the New Year by pressing a button in Times Square with New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg to initiate the ball drop and 60 second countdown, ushering in the year 2005. He appeared on the networks that were broadcasting New Year's Eve specials and talked about this honor, as well as being a native of New York City.^[49]

Life after diplomatic service[link]

After retiring from the role of Secretary of State, Powell returned to private life. In April 2005, he was privately telephoned by Republican senators Lincoln Chafee and Chuck Hagel,^[50] at which time Powell expressed reservations and mixed reviews about the nomination of John R. Bolton as ambassador to the United Nations, but refrained from advising the senators to oppose Bolton (Powell had clashed with Bolton during Bush's first term).^[51] The decision was viewed as potentially dealing significant damage to Bolton's chances of confirmation. Bolton was put into the position via a recess appointment because of the strong opposition in the Senate.

Powell with United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.

On April 28, 2005, an opinion piece in The Guardian by Sidney Blumenthal (a former top aide to President Bill Clinton) claimed that Powell was in fact "conducting a campaign" against Bolton because of the acrimonious battles they had had while working together, which among other things had resulted in Powell cutting Bolton out of talks with Iran and Libya after complaints about Bolton's involvement from the British. Blumenthal added that "The foreign relations committee has discovered that Bolton made a highly unusual request and gained access to 10 intercepts by the National Security Agency. Staff members on the committee believe that Bolton was probably spying on Powell, his senior advisors and other officials reporting to him on diplomatic initiatives that Bolton opposed."^[52]

In July 2005, Powell joined Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers, a well-known Silicon Valley venture capital firm, with the title of "strategic limited partner."

In September 2005, Powell criticized the response to Hurricane Katrina.^[53] Powell said that thousands of people were not properly protected, but because they were poor rather than because they were black.

Powell walks with newly crowned King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, Vice President Dick Cheney, and former President George H.W. Bush, Saudi Arabia, August, 2005.

On January 5, 2006, he participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials. In September 2006, Powell sided with more moderate Senate Republicans in supporting more rights for detainees and opposing President Bush's terrorism bill. He backed Senators John Warner, John McCain and Lindsey Graham in their statement that U.S. military and intelligence personnel in future wars will suffer for abuses committed in 2006 by the U.S. in the name of fighting terrorism. Powell stated that "The world is beginning to doubt the moral basis of [America's] fight against terrorism."^[54]

Also in 2006, Powell began appearing as a speaker at a series of motivational events called Get Motivated, along with former New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani. In his speeches for the tour, he openly criticized the Bush Administration on a number of issues. Powell has been the recipient of mild criticism for his role with Get Motivated which has been called a "get-rich-quick-without-much-effort, feel-good schemology."^[55]

Most recently he joined the Board of Directors of Steve Case's new company Revolution Health. Powell also serves on the Council on Foreign Relations Board of directors.^[56]

Powell, in honor of Martin Luther King Day, dropped the ceremonial first puck at a New York Islanders hockey game at Nassau Coliseum on January 21, 2008. On November 11, 2008, Powell again dropped the puck in recognition of Military Appreciation Day and Veterans Day.^[57][58]

Recently, Powell has encouraged young people to continue to use new technologies to their advantage in the future. In a speech at the Center for Strategic and International Studies to a room of young professionals, he said, "That's your generation...a generation that is hard-wired digital, a generation that understands the power of the information revolution and how it is transforming the world. A generation that you represent, and you're coming together to share; to debate; to decide; to connect with each other."^[59] At this event, he encouraged the next generation to involve themselves politically on the upcoming Next America Project, which uses online debate to provide policy recommendations for the upcoming administration.

In 2008, Powell served as a spokesperson for National Mentoring Month, a campaign held each January to recruit volunteer mentors for at-risk youth.^[60]

Soon after Barack Obama's 2008 election, Powell began being mentioned as a possible cabinet member.^[61] He was not nominated.

In September 2009, Powell advised President Obama against surging US forces in Afghanistan.^[62] The president announced the surge the following December.

Political views[link]

A moderate Republican, Powell is well known for his willingness to support liberal or centrist causes.^[63] He is pro-choice regarding abortion, and in favor of "reasonable" gun control.^{[63][clarification needed]} He stated in his autobiography that he supports affirmative action that levels the playing field, without giving a leg up to undeserving persons because of racial issues. Powell was also instrumental in the 1993 implementation of the military's don't ask, don't tell policy,^[63] though he later supported its repeal as proposed by Robert Gates and Admiral Mike Mullen in January 2010, saying "circumstances had changed".^[64]

The Vietnam War had a profound effect on Powell's views of the proper use of military force. These views are described in detail in the autobiography My American Journey. The Powell Doctrine, as the views became known, was a central component of US policy in the Gulf War (the first U.S. war in Iraq) and U.S. invasion of Afghanistan (the overthrow of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan following the September 11 attacks). The hallmark of both operations was strong international cooperation, and the use of overwhelming military force.

Powell was the subject of controversy in 2004 when, in a conversation with British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, he reportedly referred to neoconservatives within the Bush administration as "fucking crazies."^[65] In addition to being reported in the press (though generally, the expletive was censored in the U.S. press), the quote was used by James Naughtie in his book, The Accidental American: Tony Blair and the Presidency, and by Chris Patten in his book, Cousins and Strangers: America, Britain, and Europe in a New Century.

In a September 2006 letter to Sen. John McCain, General Powell expressed opposition to President Bush's push for military tribunals of those formerly and currently classified as enemy combatants. Specifically, he objected to the effort in Congress to "redefine Common Article 3 of the Geneva Convention." He also asserted: "The world is beginning to doubt the moral basis of our fight against terrorism."^[66]

View of the U.S. war in Iraq[link]

While Powell was wary of a military solution, he supported the decision to invade Iraq after the administration concluded the diplomatic track had failed. After his departure from the State Department, Powell repeatedly emphasized his continued support for the war.

At the 2007 Aspen Ideas Festival in Colorado,^[67] Powell revealed that he had spent two and a half hours explaining to President Bush "the consequences of going into an Arab country and becoming the occupiers." During this discussion, he insisted that the US appeal to the United Nations first, but if diplomacy failed, he would support the invasion: "I also had to say to him that you are the President, you will have to make the ultimate judgment, and if the judgment is this isn't working and we don't think it is going to solve the problem, then if military action is undertaken I'm with you, I support you."^[68]

In a 2008 interview on CNN, Powell reiterated his support for the 2003 decision to invade Iraq in the context of his endorsement of Barack Obama, stating: "My role has been very, very straightforward. I wanted to avoid a war. The president [Bush] agreed with me. We tried to do that. We couldn't get it through the U.N. and when the president made the decision, I supported that decision. And I've never blinked from that. I've never said I didn't support a decision to go to war."^[69]

Powell's position on the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 has been less clear. In December 2006, he expressed skepticism that the strategy would work and whether the US had enough troops to carry it out successfully. He stated: "I am not persuaded that another surge of troops into Baghdad for the purposes of suppressing this communitarian violence, this civil war, will work."^[70] Following his endorsement of Barack Obama in October 2008, however, Powell praised General David Petraeus and US troops, as well as the Iraqi government, concluding that "it's starting to turn around."^[69] By mid-2009, he had concluded a surge of US forces in Iraq should have come sooner, perhaps in late 2003.^[71] Throughout this period, Powell consistently argued that Iraqi political progress was essential, not just military force.

Role in presidential election of 2008[link]

Powell donated the maximum allowable amount to John McCain's campaign in the summer of 2007^[72] and in early 2008, his name was listed as a possible running mate for Republican nominee McCain's bid during the 2008 U.S. presidential election.^[73] However, on October 19, 2008, Powell announced his endorsement of Barack Obama during a Meet the Press interview, citing "his ability to inspire, because of the inclusive nature of his campaign, because he is reaching out all across America, because of who he is and his rhetorical abilities," in addition to his "style and substance." He additionally referred to Obama as a "transformational figure".^[74][75] Powell further questioned McCain's judgment in appointing Sarah Palin as the vice presidential candidate, stating that despite the fact that she is admired, "now that we have had a chance to watch her for some seven weeks, I don't believe she's ready to be president of the United States, which is the job of the vice president." He said that Obama's choice for vice-president, Joe Biden, was ready to be president. He also added that he was "troubled" by the "false intimations that Obama was Muslim." Powell stated that "[Obama] is a Christian — he's always been a Christian... But the really right answer is, what if he is? Is there something wrong with being a Muslim in this country? The answer's no, that's not America." Powell then referenced Kareem Rashad Sultan Khan, a Muslim American soldier in the U.S. Army who served and died in the Iraq War. He later stated, "Over the last seven weeks, the approach of the Republican Party has become narrower and narrower [...] I look at these kind of approaches to the campaign, and they trouble me."^[74][75] Powell concluded his Sunday morning talk show comments, "It isn't easy for me to disappoint Sen. McCain in the way that I have this morning, and I regret that [...] I think we need a transformational figure. I think we need a president who is a generational change and that's why I'm supporting Barack Obama, not out of any lack of respect or admiration for Sen. John McCain."^[76] Later in a December 12, 2008, CNN interview with Fareed Zakaria, Powell reiterated his belief that during the last few months of the campaign, Palin pushed the Republican party further to the right and had a polarizing impact on it.^[77]

Views on the Obama administration[link]

In a July 2009 CNN interview with John King, Powell expressed concern over President Obama growing the size of the federal government and the size of the federal budget deficit.^[78] In September 2010, he criticized the Obama administration for not focusing "like a razor blade" on the economy and job creation. Powell reiterated that Obama was a "transformational figure."^[79] In a video that aired on CNN.com in November 2011, Colin Powell said in reference to Barack Obama, " . . . many of his decisions have been quite sound. The financial system was put back on a stable basis."^[80]

Views on LGBT issues[link]

In late May 2012 he expressed support for the legalization of same-sex marriage. He had earlier supported the repeal of Don't Ask Don't Tell.^[81]

Personal life[link]

Powell married Alma Johnson on August 25, 1962. Their son, Michael Powell, was the chairman of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) from 2001 to 2005. His daughters are Linda Powell, an actress and Annemarie Powell. As a hobby, Powell restores old Volvo and Saab cars.^[82][83]

Civilian awards and honors[link]

Powell's civilian awards include two Presidential Medals of Freedom, the President's Citizens Medal, the Congressional Gold Medal, the Secretary of State Distinguished Service Medal, the Secretary of Energy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award. Several schools and other institutions have been named in his honor and he holds honorary degrees from universities and colleges across the country.

• In 1988, Powell received the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award.
• In 1991, Powell was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H. W. Bush.
• In 1991, Powell was inducted into the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans,^[84] which "honors the achievements of outstanding individuals in U.S. society who have succeeded in spite of adversity and of encouraging young people to pursue their dreams through higher education."
• On September 30, 1993, Powell was awarded his second Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton.
• On November 9, 1993, Powell was awarded the second Ronald Reagan Freedom Award, by President Ronald Reagan. Powell served as Reagan's National Security Advisor from 1987–1989.^[85]
• On December 15, 1993, Colin Powell was created an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.
• In 1998, he was awarded the prestigious Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy for his commitment to the ideals of "Duty, Honor, Country."
• The 2002 Liberty Medal was awarded to Colin Powell on July 4 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In his acceptance speech, Powell reminded Americans that "It is for America, the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave, to help freedom ring across the globe, unto all the peoples thereof. That is our solemn obligation, and we will not fail."^[86]
• The Coat of Arms of Colin Powell was granted by the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh on February 4, 2004. Technically the grant was to Powell's father (a British subject) to be passed on by descent. Scotland's King of Arms is traditionally responsible for granting arms to Commonwealth citizens of Scottish descent. Blazoned as:

  Azure, two swords in saltire points downwards between four mullets Argent, on a chief of the Second a lion passant Gules. On a wreath of the Liveries is set for Crest the head of an American bald-headed eagle erased Proper. And in an escrol over the same this motto, "DEVOTED TO PUBLIC SERVICE."

  The swords and stars refer to the former general's career, as does the crest, which is the badge of the 101st Airborne (which he served as a brigade commander in the mid-1970s). The lion may be an allusion to Scotland. The shield can be shown surrounded by the insignia of an honorary Knight Commander of the Most Honorable Order of the Bath (KCB), an award the General received after the first Gulf War.
• In 2005 Powell received the Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award for his contributions to Africa.
• AARP honored Powell with the 2006 AARP Andrus Award, the Association's highest honor. This award, named in honor of AARP's founder, Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus, is presented biennially to distinguished individuals who have generated positive social change in the world, and whose work and achievements reflect AARP's vision of bringing lifetimes of experience and leadership to serve all generations.
• In 2005 Colin and Alma Powell were awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution.
• Colin Powell was initiated as an honorary brother in Sigma Phi Epsilon.
• Powell is a recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America.
• A street in Gelnhausen, Germany was named after him: "General-Colin-Powell-Straße".^[87]
• In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Colin Powell on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.^[88]
• In 2009, an elementary school named for Colin Powell opened in El Paso. It is in the El Paso Independent School District, located on Fort Bliss property, and serves a portion of Fort Bliss. There is also a street in El Paso named for Powell, Colin Powell Drive.
• Powell is an Honorary Board Member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope^[89]
• Since 2006, he is the chairman of the Board of Trustees for Eisenhower Fellowships^[90]
• In 2006, The Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem awarded Colin Powell with the Truman Peace Prize for his efforts to conduct the "war against terrorism," through diplomatic as well as military means, and to avert regional and civil conflicts in many parts of the world.^[91]

See also[link]

	Biography portal
	United States Army portal
	Military of the United States portal

• Plame affair
• Pottery Barn rule
• Republican and conservative support for Barack Obama in 2008

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• LaFeber, Walter, "The Rise and Fall of Colin Powell and the Powell Doctrine," Political Science Quarterly, 124 (Spring 2009), 71–93.
• Powell, Colin A. and Joseph Persico, My American Journey, Ballantine Books, 1995. ISBN 0-345-40728-8
  • Excerpts from My American Journey, TIME, September 18, 1995
• DeYoung, Karen, Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell, Alfred A. Knopf, 2006. ISBN 1-4000-4170-8
• "Alex Haley's Other Roots: African-Americans with Irish Ancestors". February 25, 2006. http://web.mac.com/jamesdwithrow/iWeb/Site/Blog/0C7FF890-B6D6-4BB1-82B6-A6273F647B88.html. Retrieved February 22, 2008. 

External links[link]

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