Republic of Slovenia Republika Slovenija
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: 7th stanza of Zdravljica, melody by Stanko Premrl1
Location of  Slovenia  (dark green) – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Ljubljana 46°03′N 14°30′E / 46.05°N 14.5°E / 46.05; 14.5
Official language(s)		Slovene2
Ethnic groups (2002)		83.1% Slovenes, 2.0% Serbs, 1.8% Croats, 1.1% Bosniaks, 12.0% others and unspecified[1]
Demonym		Slovenian, Slovene
Government		Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic
-	President	Danilo Türk
-	Prime Minister	Janez Janša
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper house	National Council
-	Lower house	National Assembly
Establishment
-	Independence of SHS from Austria–Hungary	29 October 1918
-	Co-founded Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia)	4 December 1918
-	Yugoslavia becomes Republic	29 November 1943
-	Independence from Yugoslavia	25 June 1991[2]
Area
-	Total	20,273 km2 (153rd) 7,827 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.7[3]
Population
-	2011 estimate	2,050,189[4] (145th)
-	2002 census	1,964,036
-	Density	101[5]/km2 (106th) 262/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$57.892 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$28,641[6]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$49.588 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$24,533[6]
Gini (2007)		28.4 (low)
HDI (2011)		0.884 [7] (very high) (21st)
Currency		Euro (€)3 (EUR)
Time zone		CET (UTC+1)
-	Summer (DST)	CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		SI
Internet TLD		.si4
Calling code		386
1As defined by the Act Regulating the Coat-of-Arms, Flag and Anthem of the Republic of Slovenia and the Flag of the Slovene Nation ("Zakon o grbu, zastavi in himni Republike Slovenije ter o slovenski narodni zastavi") from 1994 and published on the web page of the National Assembly of Slovenia.[8][9][10] 2 Italian and Hungarian are recognised as official languages in the residential areas of the Italian or Hungarian national community. 3 Prior to 2007: Slovenian tolar. 4 Also .eu, shared with other European Union member states.

Slovenia (ⁱ/sloʊˈviːniə/ sloh-VEE-nee-ə, Slovene: Slovenija), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija,  [reˈpublika sloˈveːnija]) is a Slavic nation state,^[11] situated in South-Central Europe,^{[11][Note 1]} at the crossroad of main European cultural and trade routes.^[16][17] It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast.^[18] It covers 20,273 square kilometres (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million.^[19] It is a parliamentary republic,^[20] member of the European Union and NATO.^[21] Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, it is a very diverse country distinguished by a transitional character.^[22] It is characterised by a high economic and social level.^[23] Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.^[24]

The territory of Slovenia is mainly hilly or mountainous^[25] and has an exceptionally high landscape^[26] and biological^[27][28] diversity and a mosaic structure, which are a result of natural attributes and the long-lasting presence of humans.^[29] Four major European geographic units interweave here: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Mediterranean, with a small portion of coastline along the Adriatic Sea, and the Pannonian Plain.^[25][26] The climate is temperate and significantly influenced by the variety of territory, with a strong interaction of the continental climate, the sub-Mediterranean climate and Alpine climate across most of the country.^[30] The country is one of the water-richest in Europe,^[31] with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses.^[32] Over half of the territory is covered by forest.^[33]

The settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven.^[34] The Slavic, Germanic, Romance and Uralic linguistic and cultural groups meet here.^[35][36][37] The dominant population is Slovene, although it has almost never been homogenous.^[38] Slovene is the only official language throughout the country, whereas Italian and Hungarian are regional minority languages. Slovenia is a largely secularised country,^[39] but its culture and identity have been significantly influenced by Roman Catholicism as well as Lutheranism.^[40] The economy of Slovenia is small, open, export-oriented^[41] and subsequently, heavily influenced by international circumstances.^[42] It has been severely hurt by the European economic crisis, started in late 2000s.^[43] The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction.^[44] Many Slovenians reach top sport successes, particularly in winter sports, water sports, mountaineering, and endurance sports.^[45]

Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the internationally unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, which merged into Yugoslavia. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Croatia,^[46] only to emerge afterwards as a founding member of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia became an independent country.^[2] In 2004, it entered NATO and the European Union, in 2007 became the first former Communist country to join the Eurozone,^[47] and in 2010 joined the OECD, a global association of high-income developed countries.^[48]

History[link]

The examples and perspective in this section might have an extensive bias or disproportional coverage towards Slovene nation. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

Prehistory to Slavic settlement[link]

Remains of a Stone Age human residence were found in Potok Cave (center-left) on Mount Olševa in the 1920s and the 1930s. This marks the beginning of Paleolithic research in Slovenia.^[49]

Slovene territory was inhabited in prehistoric times and there is evidence of human habitation around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, probably the oldest known musical instrument in the world, has been discovered in Divje Babe cave near Cerkno, dating from the Würm glacial age when the area was inhabited by Neanderthals,^[50] and the oldest needle, pierced bones, bone points and other artifacts in Potok Cave, a high-elevation Aurignacian (36,000 – 25,000 BP BP) site on Mount Olševa,^[51] belonging to the Cro-Magnon (modern human).^[49] In the Ljubljana Marshes, the remains of pile dwellings, which existed in the region for over 4,500 years, from 5000 to 500 BC, now protected as UNESCO World Heritage Site, have been discovered,^[52] as well as the oldest wooden wheel in the world, dated to between 5,100 and 5,350 years ago.^[53] In the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found particularly in southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, the "Town of Situlas".^[54]

In the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC, when the Romans conquered the region establishing the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum. What is now western Slovenia was included directly under Roman Italia as part of the X region Venetia et Histria. The Romans established posts at Emona (Ljubljana), Poetovio (Ptuj) and Celeia (Celje) and constructed trade and military roads that ran across Slovene territory from Italy to Pannonia. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the area was exposed to invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes during their incursions into Italy. After the departure of the last Germanic tribe – the Lombards – to Italy in 568, the Slavs from the East began to dominate the area with aid from Avars. After the successful resistance against the nomadic Asian Avar rule (from 623 to 626), the Slavic people united with King Samo’s tribal confederation. The confederation fell apart in 658 and the Slavic people, located in present-day Carinthia, formed the independent duchy of Carantania.^[55] Other parts of Slovenia were again ruled by Avars before Charlemagne's victory over them in 803.

The Middle Ages to Early Modern Period[link]

The installation of the Dukes in Carinthia, carried out in an ancient ritual in Slovene until 1414.

In the mid-8th century, Carantania became a vassal duchy under the rule of the Bavarians, who began spreading Christianity. Three decades later, the Carantanians were incorporated, together with the Bavarians, into the Carolingian Empire. During the same period Carniola, too, came under the Franks, and was Christianized from Aquileia. Following the anti-Frankish rebellion of Ljudevit Posavski at the beginning of the 9th century, the Franks removed the Carantanian princes, replacing them with their own border dukes. Consequently, the Frankish feudal system reached the Slovene territory.

The Freising Manuscripts, dating from the 10th century, most probably written in upper Carinthia, are the oldest surviving documents in Slovene.

The Magyar invasion of the Pannonian Plain in the late 9th century effectively isolated the Slovene-inhabited territory from western Slavs. Thus, the Slavs of Carantania and of Carniola began developing into an independent Slovene ethnic group. After the victory of Emperor Otto I over the Magyars in 955, Slovene territory was divided into a number of border regions of the Holy Roman Empire. Carantania, being the most important, was elevated into the Duchy of Carinthia in 976. In the late Middle Ages the historic provinces of Carniola, Styria, Carinthia, Gorizia, Trieste and Istria developed from the border regions and incorporated into the medieval German state. The consolidation and formation of these historical lands took place in a long period between the 11th and 14th century being led by a number of important feudal families such as the Dukes of Spannheim, the Counts of Gorizia, the Counts of Celje and finally the House of Habsburg. In a parallel process, an intensive German colonization significantly diminished the extent of Slovene-speaking areas; by the 15th century, the Slovene ethnic territory was reduced to its present size.^[56]

In the 14th century, most of the territory of Slovenia was taken over by the Habsburgs. The counts of Celje, a feudal family from this area who in 1436 acquired the title of state princes, were their powerful competitors for some time. This large dynasty, important at a European political level, had its seat in Slovene territory but died out in 1456. Its numerous large estates subsequently became the property of the Habsburgs, who retained control of the area right up until the beginning of the 20th century.

At the end of the Middle Ages, the Slovene Lands suffered a serious economic and demographic setback because of the Turkish raids. In 1515, a peasant revolt spread across nearly the whole Slovene territory and in 1572-3 the Croatian-Slovenian peasant revolt wrought havoc throughout the wider region. Uprisings, which often met with bloody defeats, continued throughout the 17th century.^[56]

Reformation and emergence of national identity[link]

Protestant preacher Primož Trubar, author of the first book in Slovene

The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century,^[57] when the Protestant Reformation spread throughout the Slovene Lands. During this period, the first books in Slovene were written by the Protestant preacher Primož Trubar and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, including an integral translation of the Bible by Jurij Dalmatin.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism was suppressed by the Habsburg-sponsored Counter Reformation, which introduced the new aesthetics of Baroque culture. The Enlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy brought significant social and cultural progress to the Slovene people. It hastened economic development and facilitated the appearance of a middle class. Under the reign of Maria Theresa and Emperor Joseph II (1765–1790) many reforms were undertaken in the administration and society, including land reforms, the modernization of the Church and compulsory primary education in Slovene (1774). The start of cultural-linguistic activities by Slovene intellectuals of the time brought about a national revival and the birth of the Slovene nation in the modern sense of the word. Before the Napoleonic Wars, some secular literature in Slovene emerged. During the same period, the first history of the Slovene Lands as an ethnic unity was written by Anton Tomaž Linhart, while Jernej Kopitar compiled the first comprehensive grammar of Slovene.^[56]

Peter Kozler's map of the Slovene Lands, designed during the Spring of Nations in 1848, became the symbol of the quest for a United Slovenia.

Between 1809 and 1813, Slovenia was part of the Illyrian Provinces, an autonomous province of the Napoleonic French Empire, with Ljubljana as the capital. Although the French rule was short-lived, it significantly contributed to the raise of national consciousness and political awareness of the Slovenes. After the fall of Napoleon, all Slovene Lands were once again included in the Austrian Empire. Gradually, a distinct Slovene national consciousness developed, and the quest for a political unification of all Slovenes became widespread. In the 1820s and 1840s, the interest in Slovene language and folklore grew enormously, with numerous philologists advancing the first steps towards a standardization of the language. Illyrian movement, Pan-Slavic and Austro-Slavic ideas gained importance. However, the intellectual circle around the philologist Matija Čop and the Romantic poet France Prešeren was influential in affirming the idea of Slovene linguistic and cultural individuality, refusing the idea of merging the Slovenes into a wider Slavic nation.

In 1840s, the Slovene national movement developed far beyond literary expression.^[58] In 1848, the first Slovene national political program, called United Slovenia (Zedinjena Slovenija), was written in the context of the Spring of Nations movement within the Austrian Empire.^[59] It demanded a unification of all Slovene-speaking territories in an autonomous kingdom, named Slovenija,^[59] within the empire and an official status for the Slovene language.^[60] Although the project failed,^[59] it served as an important platform of Slovene political activity in the following decades,^[61] particularly in at the turn of 1860s and 1870s, when mass Slovene rallies, named tabori, were organised.^[62] The conflict between Slovene and German nationalists deepened.^[63] In 1866, some Slovenes were left to Italy,^[63] and in 1867, some remained in the Hungarian part of the Austria-Hungary. This significantly affected the nation and led to further radicalisation of the Slovene national movement.^[64] In 1890s, the first Slovene political parties were established. All of them were loyal to Austria, but they were also espousing a common South Slavic cause.^[63]

After 1848, Slovenes, who were still mostly farmers, enjoyed for the first time personal freedom. This brought economic insecurity, leading many to urban centres.^[63] The construction of railroads began and industry developed considerably.^{[citation needed]} After 1880, due to economic circumstances, hundreds of thousands of Slovenes emigrated to other countries,^[63] mostly to the United States, but also to South America, Germany, Egypt, and to larger cities in the Austria-Hungary, especially Zagreb and Vienna. It has been calculated that around 300,000 Slovenes or one in six emigrated between 1880 and 1910. Despite this, the Slovene population increased significantly^[63] and became as socially differentiated as in other European nations.^{[citation needed]} Literacy was exceptionally high, at 80 to 90 percent.^[63]

World War I[link]

The village of Renče in the lower Vipava Valley, severely damaged during the Battles of the Isonzo

World War I resulted in heavy casualties for Slovenes, particularly on the twelve Battles of the Isonzo, which took place in what is nowadays Slovenia's western border area. Hundreds of thousands of Slovene conscripts were drafted in the Austro-Hungarian Army, and over 30,000 of them lost their lives. Hundreds of thousands of Slovenes from Gorizia and Gradisca were resettled in refugee camps in Italy and Austria. While the refugees in Austria received a decent treatment, the Slovene refugees in Italian camps were treated as state enemies, and several thousands died of malnutrition and diseases between 1915 and 1918.^[65] Entire areas of the Slovenian Littoral were destroyed.

In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia[link]

The proclamation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs at Congress Square in Ljubljana on 20 October 1918

The Slovene People's Party launched a movement for self-determination, demanding the creation of a semi-independent South Slavic state under Habsburg rule. The proposal was picked up by most Slovene parties, and a mass mobilization of Slovene civil society, known as the Declaration Movement, followed.^[66] This proposal was rejected by the Austrian political elites, but following the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire in the aftermath of the First World War, a National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs took power in Zagreb on 6 October 1918. On 29 October independence was declared by a national gathering in Ljubljana, and by the Croatian parliament, declaring the establishment of the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.

On 1 December 1918 the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs merged with Serbia, becoming part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, itself being renamed in 1929 to Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The main territory of Slovenia, being the most industrialized and westernized among other less developed parts of Yugoslavia became the main center of industrial production: in comparison to Serbia, for example, in Slovenia the industrial production was four times greater and even twenty-two times greater than in Yugoslav Macedonia. The interwar period brought a further industrialization in Slovenia, with a rapid economic growth in the 1920s followed by a relatively successful economic adjustment to the 1929 economic crisis.

Following a plebiscite in October 1920, Slovene-speaking southern Carinthia was ceded to Austria. With the Treaty of Trianon, on the other hand, Kingdom of Yugoslavia was awarded the Slovene-inhabited Prekmurje region, formerly part of Austro-Hungary, as well.

Slovenes whose territory fell under the rule of neighboring states Italy, Austria and Hungary, were subjected to policies of forced assimilation, and in case of Fascist Italy, violent Fascist Italianization.

Fascist Italianization of Littoral Slovenes and resistance[link]

The Narodni dom, the Community Hall of ethnic Slovenes in Trieste, burned down by the Fascist squads in June 1920, became the symbol of Fascist Italianization.

The Slovenes living under territories annexed to Italy in 1920 (Slovenian Littoral) lacked any minorirty protection under international or domestic law.^[67] Clashes between the local Slovene population on one side and the Italian authorities and Fascist squads on the other started already in 1920, culminating with the burning of the Narodni dom, the Slovenian National Hall of Trieste. After the Fascist takeover in 1922, a policy of violent Fascist Italianization followed, seeking to eradicate the Slovene middle class and the intelligentsia. Education in Slovene was abolished in 1923, Slovene surnames and personal names were Italianized between 1926 and 1932. By 1927, all Slovene associations were banned and all public use of Slovene was prohibited. Police violence was carried out against opponents of the Fascist regime. By the mid 1930s, around 70.000 Slovenes had fled the region, mostly to Yugoslavia and South America.

After the complete destruction of all Slovene minority organizations in Italy, the militant anti-fascist organizations TIGR was formed in 1927 in order to fight Fascist violence. Acts of anti-Fascist guerrilla continued throughout the late 1920s and 1930s.

World War II and aftermath[link]

The Triglav cap was the most characteristic part of the Slovene Partisans uniform

On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis Powers. Slovenia was divided among the occupying powers: Fascist Italy occupied southern Slovenia and Ljubljana, Nazi Germany got northern and eastern Slovenia, while Horthy's Hungary was awarded the Prekmurje region. Some villages in Lower Carniola were annexed by the Independent State of Croatia.^[46]

The Nazis started a policy of violent Germanisation. During the war, tens of thousands of Slovenes were resettled or chased away, imprisoned, or transported to labor, internment and extermination camps.^[68] Many were sent into exile to Nedić's Serbia and Croatia. The numbers of Slovenes drafted to the German military and paramilitary formations has been estimated at 150,000 men and women,^[69] almost a quarter of them lost their lives on various European battlefields, mostly on the Eastern Front.^{[citation needed]} The Italian occupation authority in the Province of Ljubljana left Slovenes a significant cultural autonomy. The Province was annexed to Italy and the Fascist system was systematically introduced in the region.

In the summer of 1941, a resistance movement led by the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation, emerged in both the Italian and in the German occupation zones.^[70] The resistance, pluralistic at the beginning, was gradually taken over by the Communist Party, as in the rest of occupied Yugoslavia.^[70] Contrary to elsewhere in Yugoslavia, where on the freed territories the political life was organized by the military itself, the Slovene Partisans were subordinated to the civil political authority of the Front.^[71] The guerilla warfare mostly took place in the Italian occupation zone. The Italian Army reacted^{[citation needed]} with brutal repression, which included war crimes against the civilian population, including summary executions of civilians and destruction of whole villages. More than 30,000 Slovenes (around 7,5% of the whole population of the Province) were interned into the Rab and the Gonars concentration camps.^[72][73][74]

German soldiers executing a civilian near Medvode in Upper Carniola, in late August 1941

In the summer of 1942, a civil war between Slovenes broke out. The two fighting factions were the Slovenian Partisans and the Italian-sponsored anti-communist militia, known as the White Guard, later re-organized under Nazi command as the Slovene Home Guard. Small units of Slovenian Chetniks also existed in Lower Carniola and Styria. The Partisans were under the command of the Liberation Front (OF) and Tito's Yugoslav resistance, while the Slovenian Covenant served as the political arm of the anti-Communist militia.^{[citation needed]} The civil war was mostly restricted to the Province of Ljubljana, where more than 80% of the Slovene anti-partisan units were active. Between 1943-1945, smaller anti-Communist militia existed in parts of the Slovenian Littoral and in Upper Carniola, while they were virtually non-existent in the rest of the country. By 1945, the total number of Slovene anti-Communist militamen reached 17,500.^[75]

Immediately after the war, some 12,000 members of the Slovene Home Guard were killed in the Kočevski Rog massacres, while thousands of anti-communist civilians were killed in the first year after the war.^[76] In addition, hundreds of ethnic Italians from the Julian March were killed by the Yugoslav Army and partisan forces in the Foibe massacres; some 27,000 Istrian Italians fled Slovenian Istria from Communist persecution in the so-called Istrian exodus. Members of the ethnic German minority either fled or were expelled from Slovenia.

The overall number of World War II casualties in Slovenia is estimated at 89,000 (including between 20,000 and 25,000 Slovene civilians killed by the occupation forces, and the tiny Jewish community, which was nearly annihilated in the Holocaust),^[77] while 14,000 people were killed immediately after the end of the war.^[76] In addition, tens of thousands of Slovenes left their homeland soon after the end of the war. Most of them settled in Argentina, Canada, Australia and in the USA.

The socialist period[link]

Following the re-establishment of Yugoslavia during World War II, Slovenia became part of Federal Yugoslavia. A socialist state was established, but because of the Tito-Stalin split in 1948, economic and personal freedoms were broader than in the Eastern Bloc. In 1947, Italy ceded most of the Julian March to Yugoslavia, and Slovenia thus regained the Slovenian Littoral. From the 1950s, Slovenia enjoyed a relatively wide autonomy.

Between 1945 and 1948, a wave of political repressions took place in Slovenia and in Yugoslavia. By 1947, all private property had been nationalised. Between 1949 and 1953, a forced collectivisation was attempted. After its failure, a policy of gradual liberalisation followed. A new economic policy, known as workers self-management started to be implemented under the advice and supervision of the main theorist of the Yugoslav Communist Party, the Slovene Edvard Kardelj. In 1956, Josip Broz Tito, together with other leaders, founded the Non-Aligned Movement.

Slovenia's economy developed rapidly, particularly in the 1950s when the country was strongly industrialised. Despite restrictive economic and social legislation within Yugoslavia, Slovenia managed to preserve a high level of economic development with a skilled workforce, working discipline and organisation.^{[citation needed]} After the economic reform and further economic decentralisation of Yugoslavia in 1965 and 1966 Slovenia was approaching a market economy. Its domestic product was 2.5 times the average, which strengthened national confidence among the Slovenes. After the death of Tito in 1980, the economic and political situation in Yugoslavia became very strained.^[56] Political disputes around economic measures were echoed in the public sentiment, as many Slovenians felt they were being economically exploited, having to sustain an expensive and inefficient federal administration.^{[citation needed]}

Democracy and independence[link]

The first clear demand for Slovene independence was made in 1987 by a group of intellectuals in the 57th edition of the magazine Nova revija. Demands for democratisation and increase of Slovenian independence were sparked off. A mass democratic movement, coordinated by the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights, pushed the Communists in the direction of democratic reforms. These revolutionary events in Slovenia pre-dated by almost one year the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, but went largely unnoticed by international observers. In September 1989, numerous constitutional amendments were passed, which introduced parliamentary democracy to Slovenia.^[78][79] On 7 March 1990, the Slovenian Assembly changed the official name of the state to the Republic of Slovenia.^[80][81] In April 1990, the first democratic election in Slovenia took place and the united opposition movement DEMOS led by Jože Pučnik emerged victorious.

On 23 December 1990, more than 88% of the electorate voted for a sovereign and independent Slovenia.^[82][83] On 25 June, Slovenia became independent^[2] through the passage of appropriate legal documents.^[84] On 27 June in the early morning, the Yugoslav People's Army dispatched its forces to prevent further measures for the establishment of a new country, which led to the Ten-Day War.^[85][86] On 7 July, the Brijuni Agreement was signed, implementing a truce and a three-month halt of the enforcement of Slovenia's independence.^[87] In the end of month, the last soldiers of the Yugoslav Army left Slovenia. In December 1991, a new constitution was adopted,^[84] followed in 1992 by the laws on denationalisation and privatization.^[88] The members of the European Union recognised Slovenia as an independent state on 15 January 1992, and the United Nations accepted it as a member on 22 May 1992.^[89]

Slovenia joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Slovenia has one Commissioner in the European Commission, and seven Slovene parliamentarians were elected to the European Parliament at elections on 13 June 2004. In 2004 Slovenia also joined NATO. Slovenia subsequently succeeded in meeting the Maastricht criteria and joined the Eurozone (the first transition country to do so) on 1 January 2007. It was the first post-Communist country to hold the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, for the first six months of 2008. On 21 July 2010, it became member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Politics[link]

Danilo Türk, the President of Slovenia since 2007, speaking at a ceremony on the 65th anniversary of the end of World War II and the liberation of Ljubljana from Nazi German occupation, in May 2010

The Government and Presidential Palace in Ljubljana

Slovenia is a parliamentary democracy republic with a multi-party system. The head of state is the president, who is elected by popular vote and thus has an important integrative role.^[90] He is elected for five years and at maximum for two consecutive terms. He has mainly a representative role and is the commander-in-chief of the Slovenian military forces.^[91] The executive and administrative authority in Slovenia is held by the Government of Slovenia (Vlada Republike Slovenije),^[92] headed by the Prime Minister and the council of ministers or cabinet, who are elected by the National Assembly (Državni zbor Republike Slovenije). The legislative authority is held by the bicameral Parliament of Slovenia, characterised by an asymmetric duality.^[93] The bulk of power is concentrated in the National Assembly, which consists of ninety members. Of those, 88 are elected by all the citizens in a system of proportional representation, whereas two are elected by the registered members of the autochthonous Hungarian and Italian minorities. Election takes place every four years. The National Council (Državni svet Republike Slovenije), consisting of forty members, appointed to represent social, economic, professional and local interest groups, has a limited advisory and control power.^[93] Consensus is the core value of Slovenia's political system.^[90]

Between 1992 and 2004, the Slovenian political scene was characterized by the rule of the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia, which carried out much of the economic and political transformation of the country.^{[citation needed]} The party's president Janez Drnovšek, who served as Prime Minister between 1992 and 2002, was one of the most influential Slovenian politicians of the 1990s,^[94] alongside the Slovenian President Milan Kučan (served between 1990 and 2002),^[95] who has been credited for the initiation of the transition from communism to multiparty democracy.^[96] The 2004 election brought to power the right wing coalition, led by Janez Janša of the Slovenian Democratic Party.^[97] The Liberal Democracy quickly lost much of its influence. After the left-wing coalition headed by the Social Democrat Borut Pahor won the election by a narrow margin in 2008,^[98] Slovenia entered a spiral of spending and overborrowing,^[99] a string of affairs,^[100] and was unable to implement reforms that would help towards economic recovery.^[101] In September 2011, Pahor's government was ousted with a vote of no confidence, and was replaced in February 2012 by a right-leaning government led by Janša.^[99][101]

Judiciary[link]

Judicial powers in Slovenia are executed by judges, who are elected by the National Assembly. Judicial power in Slovenia is implemented by courts with general responsibilities and specialised courts that deal with matters relating to specific legal areas. The State Prosecutor is an independent state authority responsible for prosecuting cases brought against those suspected of committing criminal offences. The Constitutional Court, composed of nine judges elected for nine year terms, decides on the conformity of laws with the Constitution; all laws and regulations must conform with the general principles of international law and with ratified international agreements.^[56]

Military[link]

The Slovenian Armed Forces provide military defence independently or within an alliance, in accordance with international agreements. Since conscription was abolished in 2003, it is organized as a fully professional standing army.^[102] The Commander-in-Chief is the President of the Republic of Slovenia, while operational command is in the domain of the Chief of the General Staff of the Slovenian Armed Forces. In 2008, military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP.^[103] Since joining NATO, the Slovenian Armed Forces have taken an even more active part in supporting international peace. Their activities comprise the participation of Slovenian Armed Forces members in peace support operations and humanitarian activities. Among others, Slovenian soldiers are a part of international forces serving in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Afghanistan.^[104]

Administrative divisions[link]

Officially, Slovenia is subdivided into 211 municipalities (eleven of which have the status of urban municipalities). The municipalities are the only body of local autonomy in Slovenia. Besides, there also exist 62 administrative districts, officially called "Administrative Units" (upravne enote), which are not a body of local self-government, but territorial sub-units of government administration. The Administrative Units are named after their capital, and are headed by a Head of the Unit (načelnik upravne enote), appointed by the Minister of Public Administration. Each municipality is headed by a Mayor (župan), elected every 4 years by popular vote, and a Municipal Council (občinski svet). In the majority of the municipalities, the municipal council is elected through the system of proportional representation; only few smaller municipalities use the plurality voting system. In the urban municipalities, the municipal councils are called Town (or City) Councils.^[105] Every municipality also has a Head of the Municipal Administration (načelnik občinske uprave), appointed by the Mayor, who is responsible for the functioning of the local administration.^[105]

Despite the lack of any intermediate unit between the municipalities and the State, regional identity is strong in Slovenia. The traditional regions of Slovenia, based on the former four Habsburg crown lands (Carniola, Carinthia, Styria, and the Littoral), are the following:

Ljubljana was historically the administrative center of Carniola. However, from the mid-19th century onward, it has not been considered part of any of the three subdivisions of Carniola (Upper, Lower and Inner Carniola).^{[citation needed]} Nowadays, it is not considered part of any of the traditional historical regions of Slovenia.^{[citation needed]}

For statistical reasons, Slovenia is also subdivided into 12 statistical regions, which have no administrative function. These are further subdivided into two macroregions for the purpose of the Regional policy of the European Union.^[106] These two macroregions are:

• East Slovenia (Vzhodna Slovenija – SI01), which groups the regions of Pomurska, Podravska, Koroška, Savinjska, Zasavska, Spodnjeposavska, Jugovzhodna Slovenija and Notranjsko-kraška.

• West Slovenia (Zahodna Slovenija – SI02), which groups the regions of Osrednjeslovenska, Gorenjska, Goriška and Obalno-kraška.

Geography[link]

Topographic map of Slovenia

Slovenia is situated in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. It lies between latitudes 45° and 47° N, and longitudes 13° and 17° E. The 15th meridian east almost corresponds to the middle line of the country in the direction west-east.^[107] The Geometrical Centre of the Republic of Slovenia is located at coordinates 46°07'11.8" N and 14°48'55.2" E.^[108] It lies in Slivna in the Municipality of Litija.^[109] Slovenia's highest peak is Triglav (2,864 m/9,396 ft); the country's average height above sea level is 557 m (1,827 ft).

Four major European geographic regions meet in Slovenia: the Alps, the Dinarides, the Pannonian Plain, and the Mediterranean. Although on the shore of the Adriatic Sea, near the Mediterranean, most of Slovenia is in the Black Sea drainage basin. The Alps—including the Julian Alps, the Kamnik-Savinja Alps and the Karavanke chain, as well as the Pohorje massif—dominate Northern Slovenia along its long border with Austria. Slovenia's Adriatic coastline stretches approximately 47 km (29 mi)^[110] from Italy to Croatia. The term "Karst topography" refers to that of southwestern Slovenia's Kras Plateau, a limestone region of underground rivers, gorges, and caves, between Ljubljana and the Mediterranean. On the Pannonian plain to the East and Northeast, toward the Croatian and Hungarian borders, the landscape is essentially flat. However, the majority of Slovenian terrain is hilly or mountainous, with around 90% of the surface 200 m (656 ft) or more above sea level.

Over half of the country (10,124 km²/3,909 sq mi) is covered by forests. This makes Slovenia the third most forested country in Europe, after Finland and Sweden. The areas are covered mostly by beech, fir-beech and beech-oak forests and have a relatively high production capacity.^[111] Remnants of primeval forests are still to be found, the largest in the Kočevje area. Grassland covers 5,593 km² (2,159 sq mi) and fields and gardens (954 km²/368 sq mi). There are 363 km² (140 sq mi) of orchards and 216 km² (83 sq mi) of vineyards.

Geology[link]

This section requires expansion.

Slovenia is in a rather active seismic zone because of its position to the south of the Eurasian Plate.^[112] Thus the country is at the junction of three important tectonic zones: the Alps to the north, the Dinaric Alps to the south and the Pannonian Basin to the east.^[112] Scientists have been able to identify 60 destructive earthquakes in the past. Additionally, a network of seismic stations is active throughout the country.^[112] Many parts of Slovenia have a carbonate ground, and an extensive subterranean system has developed.

Natural regions[link]

Landscape types in Slovenia

  Alpine landscape

  Panonnian landscape

  Dinaric landscape

  Mediterranean landscape

The first regionalisations of Slovenia were made by geographers Anton Melik (1935–1936) and Svetozar Ilešič (1968). The newer regionalisation by Ivan Gams divides Slovenia in the following macroregions:

• the Alps (visokogorske Alpe)
• the Prealpine Hills (predalpsko hribovje)
• the Ljubljana Basin (Ljubljanska kotlina)
• Submediterranean (Littoral) Slovenia (submediteranska – primorska Slovenija)
• the Dinaric Karst of inner Slovenia (dinarski kras notranje Slovenije)
• Subpannonian Slovenia (subpanonska Slovenija)

According to a newer natural geographic regionalisation, the country consists of four macroregions. These are the Alpine, the Mediterranean, the Dinaric, and the Pannonian landscapes. Macroregions are defined according to major relief units (the Alps, the Pannonian plain, the Dinaric mountains) and climate types (submediterranean, temperate continental, mountain climate).^[113] These are often quite interwoven.

Protected areas of Slovenia include national parks, regional parks, and nature parks, the largest of which is Triglav National Park. There are 286 Natura 2000 designated protected areas, which comprise 36% of the country's land area, the largest percentage among European Union states.^[114]

Alpine landscape: Krnica Valley near Kranjska Gora   Pre-Alpine landscape: the village of Labinje near Cerkno   Ljubljana Marshes, southernmost part of the Ljubljana Basin   Submediterranean Slovenia: the Brda Hills   Dinaric Slovenia: Cerknica Polje   Pannonian Slovenia: the village of Noršinci in Prekmurje

Climate[link]

Different types of clouds in the Julian Alps (northwestern Slovenia), as seen from the top of Mangart in September 2007

Slovenia is located in temperate latitudes. The climate is also influenced by the variety of relief, and the influence of the Alps and the Adriatic Sea. In the Northeast, the continental climate type with greatest difference between winter and summer temperatures prevails. In the coastal region, there is sub-Mediterranean climate. The effect of the sea on the temperature rates is visible also up the Soča valley, while a severe Alpine climate is present in the high mountain regions. There is a strong interaction between these three climatic systems across most of the country.^[115][116]

Precipitation varies across the country as well, with over 3500 mm in some Western regions and dropping down to 800 mm in Prekmurje. Snow is quite frequent in winter and the record snow cover in Ljubljana was recorded in 1952 at 146 cm.

Compared to Western Europe, Slovenia is not very windy, because it lies in the slipstream of the Alps. The average wind speeds are lower than in the plains of the nearby countries. Due to the rugged terrain, local vertical winds with daily periods are present. Besides these, there are three winds of particular regional importance: the bora, the jugo, and the foehn. The jugo and the bora are characteristic of the Littoral. Whereas jugo is humid and warm, bora is usually cold and gusty. The foehn is typical of the Alpine regions in the north of Slovenia. Generally present in Slovenia are the northeast wind, the southeast wind and the north wind.^[117]

Waters[link]

This section requires expansion.

The territory of Slovenia mainly (16,423 square kilometres or 6,341 square miles, i.e. 81%) belongs to the Black Sea basin, and a smaller part (16,423 square kilometres or 6,341 square miles, i.e. 19%) belongs to the Adriatic Sea basin. These two parts are divided into smaller units in regard to their central rivers, the Mura River basin, the Drava River basin, the Sava River basin with Kolpa River basin, and the basin of the Adriatic rivers.^[118]

Biodiversity[link]

Olm can be found in Postojna cave and others caves in country

Slovenia is distinguished by an exceptionally wide variety of habitats,^[28] due to the contact of geological units and biogeographical regions, but also due to human influences. Because of pollution and degradation of environment, the diversity has been in decline.

Slovenia is the third most forested country in Europe, with 58.5% of the territory covered by forests.^[119] The forests are an important natural resource, but logging is kept to a minimum, as Slovenians also value their forests for the preservation of natural diversity, for enriching the soil and cleansing the water and air, for the social and economic benefits of recreation and tourism, and for the natural beauty they give to the Slovenian landscape. In the interior of the country are typical Central European forests, predominantly oak and beech. In the mountains, spruce, fir, and pine are more common. Pine trees also grow on the Kras plateau, although only one third of the region is now covered by pine forest. The lime/linden tree, also common in Slovenian forests, is a national symbol.The tree line is at 1,700 to 1,800 metres (or 5,575 to 5,900 ft).^[120] The fauna includes marmots, Alpine ibex, and chamois. There are numerous deer, roe deer, boar, and hares.^[121] The edible dormouse is often found in the Slovenian beech forests. Trapping these animals is a long tradition and is a part of the Slovenian national identity.^[122] Some important carnivores include the Eurasian lynx (reintroduced to the Kočevje area in 1973), European wild cats, foxes (especially the red fox), and European jackal.^[123] There are also hedgehogs, martens, and snakes such as vipers and grass snakes. According to recent estimates, Slovenia also has up to 50 wolves and about 450 brown bears.^[124][125]

Carniolan honey bee is native to Slovenia and is a subspecies of the Western honey bee.

In the Alps, flowers such as Daphne blagayana, various gentians (Gentiana clusii, Gentiana froelichi), Primula auricula, edelweiss (the symbol of Slovene mountaineering), Cypripedium calceolus, Fritillaria meleagris (snake's head fritillary), and Pulsatilla grandis are found.^{[citation needed]}

Slovenia is home to an exceptionally diverse number of cave species, with a few tens of endemic species.^[28] Among the cave vertebrates, the only known is the olm, living in Karst and White Carniola.^{[citation needed]}

A modern Lipizzan

The only regular species of cetaceans found in the northern Adriatic sea is the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).^[126]

There is a wide variety of birds, such as the Tawny Owl, the Long-eared Owl, the Eagle Owl, hawks, and Short-toed Eagles. Various other birds of prey have been recorded, as well as a growing number of ravens, crows and magpies migrating into Ljubljana and Maribor where they thrive.^[127] Other birds include (both Black and Green) Woodpeckers and the White Stork, which nests mainly in Prekmurje.^{[citation needed]}

There are thirteen domestic animals native to Slovenia,^[128] of eight species (hen, pig, dog, horse, sheep, goat, honey bee, and cattle).^[129] Among these are the Karst Shepherd,^[130] the Carniolan honeybee, and the Lipizzan horse.^[129] They have been preserved ex situ and in situ.^[131] The marble trout or marmorata (Salmo marmoratus) is an indigenous Slovenian fish.^[132] Extensive breeding programmes have been introduced to repopulate the marble trout into lakes and streams invaded by non-indigenous species of trout.