Vaishnavism (Sanskrit: वैष्णव धर्म, IPA: [ʋəiˈʂɳəʋə ˈd̪ʱərmə]) is one of the major branches of Vedism along with Shaivism, Smartism, and Shaktism. It is focused on the veneration of Vishnu. Vaishnavites, or the followers of the Supreme Lord Vishnu, lead a way of life promoting differentiated monotheism, which gives importance to Lord Vishnu and His ten incarnations.
The oldest religious text in Vedic, Rigveda, describes Lord Vishnu as the Supreme Deity in Vishnu Sooktham (1.22.20):
om tad visnoh paramam padam sada pasyanti surayah
— diviva caksur atatam
"Just as the sun's rays in the sky are extended to the mundane vision, so in the same way the wise and learned devotees always see the abode of Lord Vishnu."
tad vipraso vipanyavo jagrvam sah samindhate
— visnor yat paramam padam
"Because those highly praiseworthy and spiritually awake devotees are able to see the spiritual world, they are also able to reveal that supreme abode of Lord Vishnu."
Rigveda mentions the Supreme Lord 93 times. Other shlokas are devoted to his faithful servants, mentioned in the scriptures as the limbs of Lord Vishnu. These minor deities include Indra, Surya, Rudra, Maruta, Vayu, Agni and Manyu.
In general, the Vaishnava Agamas describe Lord Vishnu as the "supreme being and the foundation of all existence." This is explained in Katha Upanishad 2.2.13: nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam/ eko bahunam yo vidadhati kaman, "the Supreme Being, the Personality of Godhead, is the chief living being amongst all living beings and grants the desires of all other eternal sentient beings"
Its beliefs and practices, especially the concepts of Bhakti and Bhakti Yoga, are based largely on the Upanishads, and associated with the Vedas and Puranic texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, and the Padma, Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas.[1][2][3][4]
The followers of Vaishnavism are referred to as Vaishnava(s) or Vaishnavites. The majority of Vedics are Vaishnavas,[5] with the vast majority living in India. Awareness, recognition, and growth of the belief has significantly increased outside of India in recent years. The Gaudiya Vaishnava branch[6] of the tradition has significantly increased the awareness of Vaishnavism internationally, since the mid-1900s, largely through the activities and geographical expansion of the Hare Krishna movement founded by His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Srila Prabhupada in the early 1970's, and more recently, through several other Vaishnava organizations such as Pure Bhakti Yoga Society of Bhaktivedanta Swami Narayana Maharaj, conducting preaching activities in the West.[7]
Max Muller, the European who translated the Vedas into English clearly mentions that Vaishnavas cannot be considered as mere Hindus. The Term Vaishnavism entered the English Lexicon in the 19th Century.
Bhagavatism, early Ramaism and Krishnaism, merged in historical Vishnuism,[8] a tradition of Historical Vedic religion, distinguished from other traditions by its primary worship of Vishnu.[9] Vaishnavism, is historically the first structured Vaishnava religion as "Vishnuism, in a word, is the only cultivated native sectarian native religion of India."[10] Although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the Avatar, this is only one of the names by which the god of Vaishnavism is known. The other names include Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna; each the name of a divine figure with attributed supremacy, which each associated tradition of Vaishnavism believes to be distinct.[11] For example, in the Krishnaism branch of Vaishnavism,[12] such as the Gaudiya Vaishnava, Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya traditions, devotees worship Krishna as the One Supreme form of God, and source of all avatars, Swayam Bhagavan, in contrast to the belief of the devotees of the Sri Sampradaya.[13]
The principal belief of Vishnu-centered sects is the identification of Vishnu or Narayana as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with the Krishna-centered traditions, such as Vallabha, Nimbaraka and Vallbha, in which Krishna is considered as the Supreme Lord Vishnu. The belief in the supremacy of Vishnu is based upon the many Avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu listed in the Puranic texts, which differs from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha, Surya or Durga. According to many Vaishnavites, the latter are instead classified as demi-gods or devas. Vaishnavites consider Shiva, one of the Hindu Trimurti (Trinity) as subservient to Vishnu,[14] and a Vaishnava himself.[15] Lord Swaminarayan, founder of the Swaminarayan faith, differs with this view and holds that Vishnu and Shiva are different aspects of the same God.[16]
Vaishnava theology[17] includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism, reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performing deity worship (puja). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra and various Samhitas. Central to vaishnavism is the value it gives to worshiping God's closest devotees, such as the ancestral acharya, or spiritual learned religious figurehead for a family, more than God itself. [18]
Within their worship Vaishnava devotees consider that Vishnu is within them, as the Antaryami or the God within and as the foundation of their being; which is a part of the definition of the name Narayana. The difference between Vaishnavism and schools of Hinduism whose goal is liberation (moksha), or union with the Supreme Brahman, is that the ultimate goal of Vaishnava practice is an eternal life of bliss (ananda) in service to Vishnu, or one of his many avatars, in the spiritual realm of 'Vaikuntha', which lies beyond the temporary world of illusion (maya). The three features of the Supreme as described in the Bhagavata Purana--Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan.
Vaishnavas although follow a process of initiation (diksha), given by a guru, under whom they are trained to understand Vaishnava practices gives more importance to the acceptance of the Supremacy of Lord Vishnu by men and women. At the time of initiation, the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra, which the disciple will repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa. The system of receiving initiation and training from a guru is based on injunctions throughout the scriptures held as sacred within the Vaishnava traditions but is not mandatory:
- "Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render service unto him. The self-realized souls can impart knowledge unto you because they have seen the truth."(Bhagavad Gita)[19]
- "One who is initiated into the Vaishnava mantra and who is devoted to worshiping Lord Vishnu is a Vaishnava. One who is devoid of these practices is not a Vaishnava."(Padma Purana) [20]
The scriptures specific to the Gaudiya Vaishnava group also state that one who performs an act of worship as simple as chanting the name of Vishnu or Krishna can be considered a Vaishnava by practice:
- "Who chants the holy name of Krishna just once may be considered a Vaishnava. Such a person is worship-able and is the topmost human being."(Chaitanya Charitamrita) [21]
Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous acharyas in their respective lineage or sampradya (see below) as authoritative interpretations of scripture.[14] While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage interpretation of scriptures philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally,[citation needed] Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations."[14][22]
Vaishnavite Brahmin students at a theological seminary in
Tanjore. Source:
The National Geographic Magazine, Nov 1909
Within Vaishnavism there are four main disciplic lineages (sampradayas),[23] each exemplified by a specific Vedic personality. The four sampradayas follow subtly different philosophical systems regarding the relationship between the soul (jiva) and God (Vishnu or Krishna), although the majority of other core beliefs are identical.[1][7][14][24]
- Lakshmi-sampradaya
- Philosophy: Vishishtadvaita ("special-dualism"), espoused by Ramanujacharya
- See Sri Vaishnavism, Vaikhanasa, Ramanandi Sect, Swaminarayan .
- Brahma sampradaya
- Philosophies: Dvaita ("dualism"), espoused by Madhvacharya, and Achintya Bheda Abheda (literally "inconceivable difference and non-difference").
- Rudra sampradaya
- Philosophy: Shuddhadvaita ("pure nondualism"), espoused by Vishnuswami and Vallabhacharya.
- Kumara-sampradaya
- Philosophy: Dvaitadvaita ("duality in unity"), espoused by Nimbarka.[25]
Broadly, Vaishnavas in South India can be classified as Brahmins and non-Brahmins.
Among the Brahmins the main groups are:
- The Iyengars, who follow the Sri Vaishnava Vishistadvaita philosophy of Asuri Ramanujacharya. The Iyengars are further divided into the Vadakalai-ie the northern school, and Thenkalai or southern school .Both these sects adhere to the Pañcaratra agama, in temples.
These two sects evolved about 200 years after Ramanuja and differ on 18 points of doctrine . The founder of the Vadagalai sect is Swami Vedanta Desika , and the Tengalai sect is Swami Pillai Lokacharya . But both schools have a common Guru Parampara prior to the division .The Sri Vaishnavas use both the sanskrit veda as well as the tamil divyaprabandham in temple worship.
- The Madhvas, who follow the Sadvaishnava Dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya.
- The Vaikhanasas, who are primarily an ancient community of temple priests, who use the Vaikhanasa Agama in temple worship. They use sanskrit exclusively in temple worship.
Among the non-Brahmins, sections of various communities like the Kammavar (Kamma),Chettiars and Mudaliars (Thuluva Vellalars)in Tamil Nadu and Kamma (Kammavar) in Andhra Pradesh,Kaarnataka and sections of the Settys, Reddys, Rajus and Haridasu's in Andhra Pradesh and so on in other states are known as Vaishnavites. Some groups tend to be vegetarians like the Brahmins.
In temple worship, a Vaikhanasa temple (like Tirumala), a Madhva temple (like Udupi), a Tengalai Iyengar temple (like Melukote) and a Vadagalai Iyengar temple (like Ahobilam) all have distinctly different rituals and customs with priests of that particular denomination who perform the worship. However all temples are popularly visited by all Vaishnavas as lay worshippers, as also members of various other denominations.
In Kerala, some communities call themselves Vaishnavas, especially the pisharodies and Gauda Saraswatha brahmins and Embranthiries who settled in Kerala at a later phase of Brahmin Settlement. The Sagara Brahmins in and around Thiruvalla Sree Vallabha Vishnu Temple are also referred to as Vaisnavas accpeting the Supremacy of Lord Vishnu.
Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with tilaka, either as a daily ritual, or on special occasions. The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive style of tilaka, which depicts the siddhanta of their particular lineage. The general tilaka pattern is of a parabolic shape resembling the letter U or two or more connected vertical lines on and another optional line on the nose resembling the letter Y, which usually represents the foot of Vishnu and the lotus flower.[26]
The worship of Vishnu was already well developed in the period of the Itihasas.[27] Hopkins says "Vishnuism, in a word, is the only cultivated native sectarian native religion of India."[10] Vaishnavism is expounded in a part of the Mahabharata known as the Bhagavad Gita, which contains a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna. In this dialogue, Krishna plays the role of Arjuna's charioteer.
Many of the ancient kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375-413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas, or Bhagavata Vaishnavas.[28]
Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly Shaivite South India during the seventh to tenth centuries CE, and is still commonplace, especially in Tamil Nadu, as a result of the twelve Alvars, saints who spread the sect to the common people with their devotional hymns. The temples which the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu and Krishna in Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira (Divya Prabandha).[29][30]
In later years Vaishnava practices increased in popularity due to the influence of sages like Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya, Nimbarkacharya, Vallabhacharya, Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tyagaraja, and many others.[31][32][33][34]
In his The Religions of India, Edward Washburn Hopkins presents an accepted distinction as to the assumption that Vishnuism is associated with Vedic brahmanism, and was part of brahmanism. Krishnaism was adopted much later, and it is for this reason, amongst others, that despite its modern iniquities Shiva has appealed more to the brahmans than Krishna. It's only later that Vishnuism merged with Krishnaism.[35]
Large Vaishnava communities now exist throughout India, and particularly in Western Indian states, such as western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Important sites of pilgrimage for Vaishnavs include: Guruvayur Temple, Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Mathura, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Puri, Mayapur, Nathdwara and Dwarka.[36]
Since the 1900s Vaishnavism has spread from within India and is now practiced in many places around the globe, including America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. This is largely due to the growth of the ISKCON movement, founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966.[38][39][40]
Two great Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, are an important part of Vaishnava philosophy, theology, and culture.
The Ramayana describes the story of Rama, an avatara of Vishnu, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', based on the principles of dharma, morality and ethics. Rama's wife Sita, his brother Lakshman and his devotee/follower Hanuman all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. Ravana, the evil king and villain of the epic, plays the opposite role of how not to behave.
The Mahabharata is centered around Krishna and details the story of a dynastic war between two families of cousins, with Krishna and the Pandavas, five brothers, playing pivotal roles in the drama. The philosophical highlight of the work is the chapter covering a conversation between Arjuna and Krishna prior to the final battle, individually known as the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, though influential in most philosophies of Hinduism, is of particular importance to Vaishnavas because it is believed to be an accurate record of the very words spoken by Krishna himself. Both works are often re-enacted in part as dramas by followers of Vaishnavism, especially on festival days concerning each of the specific avatars. The Bhagavad Gita is widely studied as a theological textbook and is rendered in numerous English translations and world languages.
Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study and debate for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been pursued in a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College and by Syanandura Vaishnava Sabha, a moderate and progressive Vaishnava body headed by Gautham Padmanabhan in Trivandrum which intends to bring about a single and precise book called Hari-grantha including all Vaishnva philosophies.
- ^ a b Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities". History of Religions 26 (3): 333–335. DOI:10.1086/463085. JSTOR 1062381.
- ^ Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
- ^ Heart of Hinduism - Vaishnavism
- ^ Explanation of different scriptural texts within Hinduism
- ^ Major Branches - Hinduism from adherents.com
- ^ Dimock Jr, E.C. (1963). "Doctrine and Practice among the Vaishnavas of Bengal". History of Religions 3 (1): 106–127. DOI:10.1086/462474. JSTOR 1062079.
- ^ a b Contemporary Theological Trends in the Hare Krishna Movement "Until the last fifteen years or so, there had been a lack of scholarship in the West on Vaishnavism, and this was seen by Hare Krishna devotees as a situation which must be changed."
- ^ Gonda, J. (1993). Aspects of Early Visnuism. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p. 163. ISBN 978-81-208-1087-7. http://books.google.com/?id=b8urRsuUJ9oC&dq=Visnuism&printsec=frontcover.
- ^ Goswami, B.K. (1965). The Bhakti Cult in Ancient India. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office.
- ^ a b Hopkins,The Religions of India, p.690
- ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Lord Krishna and Lord Vishnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge. p. 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p. 4
- ^ Review: by Kenneth Scott Latourette India and Christendom: The Historical Connections between Their Religions. by Richard Garbe; Lydia Gillingham Robinson Pacific Affairs, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Autumn, 1961), pp. 317-318.
- ^ Page 1–Ramanuja and Sri Vaisnavism "In general, the Vaishnava Agamas describe Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the foundation of all existence."
- ^ a b c d Gupta, Ravi M.; Edited by Gavin Flood, University of Stirling (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami: When knowledge meets devotion. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-40548-3.
- ^ Brahma-Samhita 5.45 "The supremacy of Sambhu [Shiva] is subservient to that of Govinda [Vishnu]; hence they are not really different from each other... He is the lord of jiva but yet partakes of the nature of a separated portion of Govinda."
- ^ According to this site, [1], verses 47, 84, of their scripture, Shikshapatri, states, "And the oneness of Narayana and Shiva should be understood, as the Vedas have described both to be brahmaroopa, or form of Brahman, i.e., Saguna Brahman, indicating that Vishnu and Shiva are different forms of the one and same God.
- ^ Ignatius Hirudayam, "Canonical Books of Saivism and Vaishnavism in Tamil and Sanskrit" in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.16 ff.
- ^ Tantric Literature And Gaudiya Vaishnavism
- ^ Bhag Gita 4:34
- ^ Caitanya Caritamrta: Madhya-lila, 15.106, 16.72, 16.74
- ^ Chaitanya Charitamrita: Madhya-lila, 15.106
- ^ Jiva Goswami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27
- ^ The Sampradaya of Sri Caitanya, by Steven Rosen and William Deadwyler III "the word sampradaya literally means 'a community'. A text from the Padma Purana quoted widely in Vaisnava writings speaks directly about these authorised communities. It says that 'Those mantras which are not received within a sampradaya are fruitless; they have no potency'. The text then specifically names the sampradayas. 'In the Kali-yuga, there will be four sampradayas.' ― we are talking about Vaisnava sampradayas ― 'They are the Brahma Sampradaya, originating with Brahma; Sri Sampradaya, starting with Laksmi; Rudra Sampradaya, starting with Siva; there's another one starting from Sanaka and the others, the Kumaras'. Those are the four recognised Vaisnava sampradayas."
- ^ Guy L. Beck (2005). "Krishna as Loving Husband of God". Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity. ISBN 978-0-7914-6415-1. http://books.google.com/?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA65&dq=Four+sampradayas+Vaisnava. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
- ^ Klostermaier, K.K. (1998). A concise encyclopedia of Hinduism. Oneworld.
- ^ britannica.com Vaishnavism
- ^ britannica.com
- ^ Kalyan Kumar Ganguli: (1988). Sraddh njali, Studies in Ancient Indian History: D.C. Sircar Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna. Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 81-85067-10-4. p.36
- ^ Annangaracariyar, P.B. (1971). Nalayira tivviyap pirapantam. Kanci: VN Tevanatan.
- ^ Seth, K.P. (1962). "Bhakti in Alvar Saints". The University Journal of Philosophy.
- ^ Jackson, W.J. (1992). "A Life Becomes a Legend: Sri Tyagaraja as Exemplar". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 60 (4): 717–736. JSTOR 1465591.
- ^ Jackson, W.J. (1991). Tyagaraja: Life and Lyrics. Oxford University Press, USA.
- ^ Ayyappapanicker, K.; Akademi, S. (2000). Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi.
- ^ Roy Chaudhury, H.C.; Prajnananda, S. (2002). "Further Reading". Encyclopedia of Modern Asia.
- ^ Hopkins,The Religions of India, p.530 "When, however, pantheism, nay, even Vishnuism, or still more, Krishnaism, was an accepted fact upon what, then, was the wisdom of the priest expended?"
- ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2000). Hinduism: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-213-9.
- ^ Valpey, K.R. (2004). The Grammar and Poetics of Murti-Seva: Caitanya Vaisnava Image Worship as Discourse, Ritual, and Narrative. University of Oxford.
- ^ Selengut, Charles (1996). "Charisma and Religious Innovation:Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON". ISKCON Communications Journal 4 (2). http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html. [dead link]
- ^ Herzig, T.; Valpey, K. (2004). "Re—visioning Iskcon". The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. ISBN 978-0-231-12256-6. http://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA416&dq=meanings+name+Krishna+Gopala. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
- ^ Prabhupada - He Built a House, Satsvarupa dasa Goswami, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1983, ISBN 0-89213-133-0 p. xv
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