Arab Spring
Clockwise from top left: Protesters gathering in Tahrir Square in Cairo, Egypt; Demonstrators marching through Habib Bourguib Avenue in Tunis, Tunisia; Political dissidents in Sana'a, Yemen; Protesters gathering in Pearl Roundabout in Manama, Bahrain; Mass demonstration in Douma, Damascus, Syria; Demonstrators in Bayda, Libya.
Date 17 December 2010 (2010-12-17) – present (1 year, 6 months, 1 week and 2 days) Location Arab World (see list of countries) Causes Demographic structural factors Authoritarian states Government corruption Human rights violations Inflation Kleptocracy Sectarianism Unemployment Goals Democracy Human rights Free and fair elections Regime change Characteristics Civil disobedience Civil resistance Defection Demonstrations Online activism Protest camps Rebellion Revolution Riots Self-immolations Strike actions Uprising Urban warfare Status Ongoing Tunisian President Ben Ali ousted, and government overthrown. Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak ousted, and government overthrown. Continued popular protest against military provisional government. Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi killed after a civil war with foreign military intervention, and government overthrown. Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh ousted, and hands power to a national unity government. Sudan President Omar al-Bashir announced not to seek re-election in 2015. Syria experiences civil uprising and armed conflicts between the government and opposition forces. Civil uprising against the government of Bahrain, despite government changes. Kuwait, Lebanon and Oman implementing government changes in response to protests. Morocco, Jordan implementing constitutional reforms in response to protests. Protests ended in many countries. Ongoing protests in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and some other countries.
Casualties
Death(s) 50,000+ (International estimate; see table below)

The Arab Spring (Arabic: الثورات العربية‎ al-Thawrāt al-ʻArabiyyah; literally the Arabic Rebellions or the Arab Revolutions) is a revolutionary wave of demonstrations and protests occurring in the Arab world that began on 18 December 2010. To date, rulers have been forced from power in Tunisia,^[1] Egypt,^[2] Libya,^[3] and Yemen;^[4] civil uprisings have erupted in Bahrain^[5] and Syria;^[6] major protests have broken out in Algeria,^[7] Iraq,^[8] Jordan,^[9] Kuwait,^[10] and Morocco;^[11] and minor protests have occurred in Lebanon,^[12] Mauritania, Oman,^[13] Saudi Arabia,^[14] Sudan,^[15] and Western Sahara,^[16] as well as clashes at the borders of Israel in May 2011^[17] and protests by the Arab minority in Iranian Khuzestan.^[18] Weapons from the Libyan civil war stoked a simmering rebellion in Mali, and the consequent Malian coup d'état has been described as "fallout".^[19] The sectarian clashes in Lebanon were described as a direct result of the Syrian uprising and hence the regional Arab Spring.

The protests have shared techniques of mostly civil resistance in sustained campaigns involving strikes, demonstrations, marches, and rallies, as well as the use of social media to organize, communicate, and raise awareness in the face of state attempts at repression and Internet censorship.^[20][21]

Many demonstrations have met violent responses from authorities,^[22][23][24] as well as from pro-government militias and counter-demonstrators. These attacks have been answered with violence from protestors in some cases.^[25][26][27] A major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world has been Ash-shaʻb yurīd isqāṭ an-niẓām ("the people want to bring down the regime").^[28]

Overview[link]

The series of protests and demonstrations across the Middle East and North Africa has become known as the "Arab Spring",^[29][30][31] and sometimes as the "Arab Spring and Winter",^[32] "Arab Awakening"^[33][34][35] or "Arab Uprisings"^[36][37] even though not all the participants in the protests are Arab. It was sparked by the first protests that occurred in Tunisia on 18 December 2010 in Sidi Bouzid, following Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation in protest of police corruption and ill treatment.^[38][39] With the success of the protests in Tunisia, a wave of unrest sparked by the Tunisian "Burning Man" struck Algeria, Jordan, Egypt, and Yemen,^[40] then spread to other countries. The largest, most organised demonstrations have often occurred on a "day of rage", usually Friday afternoon prayers.^[41][42][43] The protests have also triggered similar unrest outside the region.

As of February 2012^[update], governments have been overthrown in four countries. Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali fled to Saudi Arabia on 14 January 2011 following the Tunisian revolution protests. In Egypt, President Hosni Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 after 18 days of massive protests, ending his 30-year presidency. The Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was overthrown on 23 August 2011, after the National Transitional Council (NTC) took control of Bab al-Azizia. He was killed on 20 October 2011, in his hometown of Sirte after the NTC took control of the city. Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh signed the GCC power-transfer deal in which a presidential election was held, resulting in his successor Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi formally replacing him as the president of Yemen on 27 February 2012, in exchange for immunity from prosecution.

During this period of regional unrest, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at the end of their current terms. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir announced that he would not seek re-election in 2015,^[44] as did Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, whose term ends in 2014,^[45] although there have been increasingly violent demonstrations demanding his immediate resignation.^[46] Protests in Jordan have also caused the sacking of two successive governments^[47][48] by King Abdullah.^[49]

The geopolitical implications of the protests have drawn global attention,^[50] including the suggestion that some protesters may be nominated for the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize.^[51] Tawakel Karman from Yemen was one of the three laureates of the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize as a prominent leader in the Arab Spring. In December 2011, Time magazine named "The Protester" its "Person of the Year".^[52] Another award was noted when the Spanish photographer Samuel Aranda, won the 2011 World Press Photo award for his image of a Yemeni woman holding an injured family member, taken during the civil uprising in Yemen on 15 October 2011.^[53]

Algeria

Libya

Egypt

Sudan

Mauritania

—Tunisia

Morocco

Western
Sahara

Saudi Arabia

Jordan

Lebanon—

Israeli border/

Syria

Iraq

—Kuwait

—Bahrain

Oman

Yemen

      Government overthrown       Sustained civil disorder and governmental changes       Protests and governmental changes
      Major protests       Minor protests

Summary of protests by country[link]

Country	Date started	Status of protests	Outcome	Death toll	Situation
Tunisia	02010-12-1818 December 2010	• Government overthrown on 14 January 2011  • Ended in March 2011	Overthrow of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali; Ben Ali flees into exile in Saudi Arabia Resignation of Prime Minister Ghannouchi Dissolution of the political police[54] Dissolution of the RCD, the former ruling party of Tunisia and liquidation of its assets[55] Release of political prisoners[56] Elections to a Constituent Assembly on 23 October 2011[57]	&10000000000000338000000338[58]	E Government overthrown
Algeria	02010-12-2828 December 2010	Ended in January 2012	Lifting of the 19-year-old state of emergency[59][60]	&100000000000000080000008[61]	B Major protests
Jordan	02011-01-1414 January 2011	Ongoing.	King Abdullah II dismisses Prime Minister Rifai and his cabinet[62] Months later, Abdullah dismisses Prime Minister Bakhit and his cabinet after complaints of slow progress on promised reforms[63]	&100000000000000040000004[64][65]	C Protests and governmental changes
Mauritania	02011-01-1717 January 2011	Ongoing		&100000000000000030000003[66]	A Minor protests
Sudan	02011-01-1717 January 2011	Ended in March 2011	President Bashir announces he will not seek another term in 2015[67]	&100000000000000010000001[68]	A Minor protests
Oman	02011-01-1717 January 2011	Ended in May 2011	Economic concessions by Sultan Qaboos[69][70] Dismissal of ministers[71][72] Granting of lawmaking powers to Oman's elected legislature[73]	&10000000000000004000000 2–6[74][75][76]	C Protests and governmental changes
Saudi Arabia	02011-01-2121 January 2011	Eastern Province protests ongoing, women's rights campaigns ongoing	Economic concessions by King Abdullah[77][78] Male-only municipal elections held 29 September 2011[79][80] King Abdullah announces women's approval to vote and be elected in 2015 municipal elections and to be nominated to the Shura Council[81]	&1000000000000001000000010[82][83][84][85][86]	A Minor protests
Egypt	02011-01-2525 January 2011	• Government overthrown on 11 February 2011  • Protests ongoing	Overthrow of Hosni Mubarak; Mubarak charged for killing protesters Resignation of Prime Minister(s) Nazif and Shafik[87] Assumption of power by the Armed Forces[88] Suspension of the Constitution, dissolution of the Parliament[89] Disbanding of State Security Investigations Service[90] Dissolution of the NDP, the former ruling party of Egypt and transfer of its assets to the state[91] Prosecution of Mubarak, his family and his former ministers[92][93][94] 31-year-old State of Emergency law lifted[95]	&10000000000000841000000841[96]	E Government overthrown
Yemen	02011-01-2727 January 2011	• Government overthrown on 27 February 2012  • Protests ongoing	Overthrow of Ali Abdullah Saleh; Saleh granted immunity from prosecution Resignation of Prime Minister Mujawar Resignation of MPs from the ruling party[97] Approval of President's immunity from prosecution by Yemeni legislators[98] Presidential election held to replace Saleh as the new president of Yemen; Abd Rabbuh Mansur Al-Hadi elected and inaugurated	&100000000000020000000002,000[99]	E Government overthrown
Iraq	02011-02-1010 February 2011	Ended in December 2011	Prime Minister Maliki announces that he will not run for a 3rd term;[100] Resignation of provincial governors and local authorities[101]	&1000000000000003500000035[102]	B Major protests
Bahrain	02011-02-1414 February 2011	Ongoing	Economic concessions by King Hamad[103] Release of political prisoners[104] Negotiations with Shia representatives[105] GCC intervention at the request of the Government of Bahrain Head of the National Security Apparatus removed from post[106] Formation of a committee to implement BICI report recommendations[107]	&1000000000000008600000086[108]	D Sustained civil disorder and government changes
Libya	02011-02-1717 February 2011	• Government overthrown on 23 August 2011  • War ended on 23 October 2011	Overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi; Gaddafi killed by rebel forces UN-mandated military intervention ended with NATO withdrawal[109] Opposition forces takes control of all Libyan cities Assumption of interim control by National Transitional Council International recognition of NTC as the sole governing authority for Libya Beginning of sporadic low-level fighting and clashes[110]	&10000000000032500000000 30,000[111]–35,000[112]	E Government overthrown
Kuwait	02011-02-1818 February 2011	Ended in December 2011	Resignation of Prime Minister Nasser Mohammed Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah[113] Dissolution of the Parliament[114]	&100000000000000000000000[115]	C Protests and governmental changes
Morocco	02011-02-2020 February 2011	Ended in November 2011	Political concessions by King Mohammed VI;[116] Referendum on constitutional reforms; Respect to civil rights and an end to corruption[117]	&100000000000000010000001[118]	C Protests and governmental changes
Western Sahara	02011-02-2626 February 2011	Ended in May 2011		&100000000000000000000000	A Minor protests
Syria	02011-03-1515 March 2011 -	Ongoing	Release of some political prisoners[119][120] End of Emergency Law Dismissal of Provincial Governors[121][122] Military action in Hama, Daraa, Idlib, Homs and other areas[123] Battles between the Syrian government's army and the Free Syrian Army in many governorates such as Homs, Idlib, Daraa and others. Bombings in Damascus and Aleppo. Resignations from Parliament[124] Resignation of the Government[125] Large defections from the Syrian army and clashes between soldiers and defectors[126] Formation of the Free Syrian Army Formation of the Syrian National Council[127] Syria suspended from the Arab League Support by 15 countries for a new Syrian government in exile	&10000000000011241000000 12,340–17,760[128]-[129]	D Sustained civil disorder and government changes
Iranian Khuzestan	02011-04-1515 April 2011	Ended in April 2011		&1000000000000001200000012	B Major protests
Israeli border areas	02011-05-1515 May 2011	Ended on 5 June 2011		&10000000000000035000000 30–40[130][131]	B Major protests
Lebanon	02011-05-1717 May 2011	Ongoing	Syrian uprising causes tensions between Lebanese Sunni and Alawite communities, the tensions escalate to bloody clashes in May 2012. Protests concerning the kidnapping of the 13 Lebanese people in Syria.	&1000000000000002200000022	D Sustained civil disorder

Background[link]

Motivations[link]

A commemorative logo for the Arab Spring which began on 18 December 2010.

Numerous factors have led to the protests, including issues such as dictatorship or absolute monarchy, human rights violations, government corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables),^[132] economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors,^[133] such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth within the population.^[134] Also, some, like Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek attribute the 2009 Iranian protests as one of the reasons behind the Arab Spring.^[135] The catalysts for the revolts in all Northern African and Persian Gulf countries have been the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades, insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the status quo.^[136] Increasing food prices and global famine rates have also been a significant factor,^[137][138] as they involve threats to food security worldwide and prices that approach levels of the 2007–2008 world food price crisis.^[139] Amnesty International singled out Wikileaks' release of US diplomatic cables as a catalyst for the revolts.^[140]

In recent decades rising living standards and literacy rates, as well as the increased availability of higher education, have resulted in an improved human development index in the affected countries. The tension between rising aspirations and a lack of government reform may have been a contributing factor in all of the protests.^{[136][141][142]} Many of the Internet-savvy youth of these countries have, increasingly over the years, been viewing autocrats and absolute monarchies as anachronisms. A university professor of Oman, Al-Najma Zidjaly referred to this upheaval as youthquake.^[136]

Tunisia and Egypt, the first to witness major uprisings, differ from other North African and Middle Eastern nations such as Algeria and Libya in that they lack significant oil revenue, and were thus unable to make concessions to calm the masses.^[136]

The relative success of the democratic Republic of Turkey, with its substantially free and vigorously contested but peaceful elections, fast-growing but liberal economy, secular constitution but (moderate) Islamist government, created a model (the Turkish model) if not a motivation for protestors in neighbouring states.^[143]

Recent history[link]

The current wave of protests is not an entirely new phenomenon, resulting in part from the activities of dissident activists as well as members of a variety of social and union organizations that have been active for years in Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt, and other countries in the area, as well as in the territory of Western Sahara.^[144]

Tunisia experienced a series of conflicts over the past three years, the most notable occurring in the mining area of Gafsa in 2008, where protests continued for many months. These protests included rallies, sit-ins, and strikes, during which there were two fatalities, an unspecified number of wounded, and dozens of arrests.^[144][145] The Egyptian labor movement had been strong for years, with more than 3,000 labor actions since 2004.^[146] One important demonstration was an attempted workers' strike on 6 April 2008 at the state-run textile factories of al-Mahalla al-Kubra, just outside Cairo. The idea for this type of demonstration spread throughout the country, promoted by computer-literate working class youths and their supporters among middle-class college students.^[146] A Facebook page, set up to promote the strike, attracted tens of thousands of followers. The government mobilized to break the strike through infiltration and riot police, and while the regime was somewhat successful in forestalling a strike, dissidents formed the "6 April Committee" of youths and labor activists, which became one of the major forces calling for the anti-Mubarak demonstration on 25 January in Tahrir Square.^[146]

In Algeria, discontent had been building for years over a number of issues. In February 2008, United States Ambassador Robert Ford wrote in a leaked diplomatic cable that Algeria is 'unhappy' with long-standing political alienation; that social discontent persisted throughout the country, with food strikes occurring almost every week; that there were demonstrations every day somewhere in the country; and that the Algerian government was corrupt and fragile.^[147] Some have claimed that during 2010 there were as many as '9,700 riots and unrests' throughout the country.^[148] Many protests focused on issues such as education and health care, while others cited rampant corruption.^[149]

In Western Sahara, the Gdeim Izik protest camp was erected 12 km south-east of El Aaiún by a group of young Sahrawis on 9 October 2010. Their intention was to demonstrate against labor discrimination, unemployment, looting of resources, and human rights abuses.^[150] The camp contained between 12,000 and 20,000 inhabitants, but on 8 November 2010 it was destroyed and its inhabitants evicted by Moroccan security forces. The security forces faced strong opposition from some young Sahrawi civilians, and rioting soon spread to El Aaiún and other towns within the territory, resulting in an unknown number of injuries and deaths. Violence against Sahrawis in the aftermath of the protests was cited as a reason for renewed protests months later, after the start of the Arab Spring.^[151]

The catalyst for the current escalation of protests was the self-immolation of Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi. Unable to find work and selling fruit at a roadside stand, on 17 December, a municipal inspector confiscated his wares. An hour later he doused himself with gasoline and set himself afire. His death on 4 January^[152] brought together various groups dissatisfied with the existing system, including many unemployed, political and human rights activists, labor, trade unionists, students, professors, lawyers, and others to begin the Tunisian Revolution.^[144]

Tunisia[link]

Protesters in downtown Tunis on 14 January 2011

Following the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Sidi Bouzid, a series of increasingly violent street demonstrations through December 2010 ultimately led to the ouster of longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali on 14 January 2011. The demonstrations were preceded by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,^[153] lack of freedom of speech and other forms of political freedom,^[154] and poor living conditions. The protests constituted the most dramatic wave of social and political unrest in Tunisia in three decades,^[155][156] and have resulted in scores of deaths and injuries, most of which were the result of action by police and security forces against demonstrators. Ben Ali fled into exile in Saudi Arabia, ending his 23 years in power.^[157][158]

Following Ben Ali's departure, a state of emergency was declared and a caretaker coalition government was created, which included members of Ben Ali's party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), as well as opposition figures from other ministries. However, the five newly appointed non-RCD ministers resigned almost immediately.^[159][160] As a result of continued daily protests, on 27 January Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi reshuffled the government, removing all former RCD members other than himself, and on 6 February the former ruling party was suspended;^[161] later, on 9 March, it was dissolved.^[162] Following further public protests, Ghannouchi himself resigned on 27 February, and Beji Caid el Sebsi became Prime Minister.

On 23 October 2011, citizens voted in the first post-revolution election to elect representatives to a 217-member constituent assembly that would be responsible for the new constitution.^[163] The leading Islamist party, Ennahda, won over 40% of the vote, and managed to elect 42 women to the Constituent Assembly.^[164]

Despite the advent of democracy, in the six months immediately after Mohamed Bouazizi's death, at least 107 Tunisians self-immolated.

Egypt[link]

Celebrations in Tahrir Square after Omar Suleiman's statement concerning Hosni Mubarak's resignation

Inspired by the uprising in Tunisia and prior to his entry as a central figure in Egyptian politics, potential presidential candidate Mohamed ElBaradei warned of a "Tunisia-style explosion" in Egypt.^[165]

Protests in Egypt began on January 25 and ran for 18 days. Beginning around midnight on January 28, the Egyptian government attempted, somewhat successfully, to eliminate the nation's Internet access^[21], in order to inhibit the protesters' ability to organize through social media.^[166] Later that day, as tens of thousands protested on the streets of Egypt's major cities, President Mubarak dismissed his government, later appointing a new cabinet. Mubarak also appointed the first Vice President in almost 30 years.

On February 10, Mubarak ceded all presidential power to Vice President Omar Suleiman, but soon thereafter announced that he would remain as President until the end of his term.^[167] However, protests continued the next day, and Suleiman quickly announced that Mubarak had resigned from the presidency and transferred power to the Armed Forces of Egypt.^[168] The military immediately dissolved the Egyptian Parliament, suspended the Constitution of Egypt, and promised to lift the nation's thirty-year "emergency laws". A civilian, Essam Sharaf, was appointed as Prime Minister of Egypt on March 4 to widespread approval among Egyptians in Tahrir Square.^[169] Protests continued through the end of 2011, however, in response to Sharaf and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces' perceived sluggishness in instituting reforms.^[170] The current Prime Minister of Egypt is Kamal Ganzouri, who took over for 2nd term.

Libya[link]

Thousands of demonstrators gather in Bayda

After the success of the revolution in Tunisia, a protest on living conditions began on 14 November in Bayda, Libya, where protesters clashed with police and attacked government offices.^[171] Anti-government protests began in Libya on 15 February 2011. By 18 February, the opposition controlled most of Benghazi, the country's second-largest city. The government dispatched elite troops and mercenaries in an attempt to recapture it, but they were repelled. By 20 February, protests had spread to the capital Tripoli, leading to a television address by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, who warned the protestors that their country could descend into civil war. The rising death toll, numbering in the thousands, drew international condemnation and resulted in the resignation of several Libyan diplomats, along with calls for the government's dismantlement.^[172]

On 26 December 2010, amidst ongoing efforts by demonstrators and rebel forces to wrest control of Tripoli from the Jamahiriya, the opposition set up an interim government in Benghazi to oppose Colonel Muammar Gaddafi's rule.^[173][174] However, despite initial opposition success, government forces subsequently took back much of the Mediterranean coast.

On 17 March, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was adopted, authorising a no-fly zone over Libya, and "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Two days later, France, the United States and the United Kingdom intervened in Libya with a bombing campaign against pro-Gaddafi forces. A coalition of 27 states from Europe and the Middle East soon joined the intervention. The forces were driven back from the outskirts of Benghazi, and the rebels mounted an offensive, capturing scores of towns across the coast of Libya. The offensive stalled however, and a counter-offensive by the government retook most of the towns, until a stalemate was formed between Brega and Ajdabiya, the former being held by the government and the latter in the hands of the rebels. Focus then shifted to the west of the country, where bitter fighting continued. After a three-month-long battle, a loyalist siege of rebel-held Misrata, the third largest city in Libya, was broken in large part due to coalition air strikes. The four major fronts of combat were generally considered to be the Nafusa Mountains, the Tripolitanian coast, the Gulf of Sidra,^[175] and the southern Libyan Desert.^[176]

In late August, anti-Gaddafi fighters captured Tripoli, scattering Gaddafi's government and marking the end of his 42 years of power. Many institutions of the government, including Gaddafi and several top government officials, regrouped in Sirte, which Gaddafi declared to be Libya's new capital.^[177] Others fled to Sabha, Bani Walid, and remote reaches of the Libyan Desert, or to surrounding countries.^[178][179] However, Sabha fell in late September,^[180] Bani Walid was captured after a grueling siege weeks later,^[181] and on 20 October, fighters under the aegis of the National Transitional Council seized Sirte, killing Gaddafi in the process.^[182]

Yemen[link]

Protests in Sana'a

Protests occurred in many towns in both the north and south of Yemen starting in mid-January. Demonstrators initially protested against governmental proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen, unemployment and economic conditions,^[183] and corruption,^[184] but their demands soon included a call for the resignation of President Ali Abdullah Saleh,^{[184][185][186]} who had been facing internal opposition from his closest advisors since 2009.^[187]

A major demonstration of over 16,000 protesters took place in Sana'a on 27 January,^[188] and soon thereafter human rights activist and politician Tawakel Karman called for a "Day of Rage" on 3 February.^[189] According to Xinhua News, organizers were calling for a million protesters.^[190] In response to the planned protest, Ali Abdullah Saleh stated that he would not seek another presidential term in 2013.^[191] On 3 February, 20,000 protesters demonstrated against the government in Sana'a,^[192][193] others participated in a "Day of Rage" in Aden^[194] that was called for by Tawakel Karman,^[189] while soldiers, armed members of the General People's Congress, and many protestors held a pro-government rally in Sana'a.^[195] Concurrent with the resignation of Egyptian president Mubarak, Yemenis again took to the streets protesting President Saleh on 11 February, in what has been dubbed a "Friday of Rage".^[196] The protests continued in the days following despite clashes with government advocates.^[197] In a "Friday of Anger" held on 18 February, tens of thousands of Yemenis took part in anti-government demonstrations in the major cities of Sana'a, Taiz, and Aden. Protests continued over the following months, especially in the three major cities, and briefly intensified in late May into urban warfare between Hashid tribesmen and army defectors allied with the opposition on one side and security forces and militias loyal to Saleh on the other.^[198]

After Saleh pretended to accept a Gulf Cooperation Council-brokered plan allowing him to cede power in exchange for immunity only to back away before signing three separate times,^[199][200] an assassination attempt on 3 June left him and several other high-ranking Yemeni officials injured by a blast in the presidential compound's mosque.^[201] Saleh was evacuated to Saudi Arabia for treatment, but he handed over power to Vice President Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi, who has largely continued his policies^[202] and ordered the arrest of several Yemenis in connection with the attack on the presidential compound.^[201] While in Saudi Arabia, Saleh kept hinting that he could return any time and continued to be present in the political sphere through television appearances from Riyadh starting with an address to the Yemeni people on 7 July.^[203] On 12 September, Saleh issued a presidential decree while still receiving treatment in Riyadh authorizing Vice President Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi to negotiate a deal with the opposition and sign the GCC initiative.^[204]

On 23 September 2011, three months since the assassination attempt, Saleh returned to Yemen abruptly, defying all earlier expectations.^[205] Pressure on Saleh to sign the GCC initiative eventually led to his signing of it in Riyadh on 23 November, in which Saleh agreed to step down and set the stage for the transfer of power to his vice-president.^[206] A Presidential election was then held on 21 February 2012, in which Hadi (the only candidate) got 99.8 percent of the vote.^[207] Hadi then took the oath of office in Yemen's parliament on 25 February 2012.^[208] By 27 February 2012, Saleh had resigned from the presidency and transferred power to his successor, marking the end of his 33-year rule.^[209]

During this period of unrest, Tawakul Karman was awarded 2011 Nobel Peace Prize for her role in supporting women rights and involvement in the Arab Spring.

Syria[link]

A demonstration in the city of Idlib

Protests in Syria started on 26 January 2011, when a police officer assaulted a man on public at "Al-Hareeka Street" in old Damascus. The man got arrested right after the assault. As a result, Protesters called for the freedom of the arrested man. Soon a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, but it was uneventful.^[210][211]

On 6 March, the Syrian security forces arrested about 15 children in Daraa in Southern Syria for writing slogans against the government. Children were tortured.^{[citation needed]} Daraa is the first city to protest against the Baathist regime, which has been ruling Syria since 1963.

Thousands of protestors gathered in Damascus, Aleppo, al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and Hama on 15 March,^{[212][213][214]} with recently released politician Suhair Atassi becoming an unofficial spokesperson for the "Syrian revolution".^[215] The next day there were reports of approximately 3000 arrests and a few martyrs, but there are no official figures on the number of deaths.^[216] On 18 April 2011, approximately 100,000 protesters sat in the central Square of Homs calling for the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad. Protests continued through July 2011, the government responding with harsh security clampdowns and military operations in several districts, especially in the north.^[217]

On 31 July, Syrian army tanks stormed several cities, including Hama, Deir Ez-Zour, Al-Bukamal, and Herak in Daraa. At least 136 people were killed in the most violent and bloody day since the uprising started.^[218]

By late November – early December, the Baba Amr district of Homs fell under armed Syrian opposition control. By late December, the battles between the government's security forces and the rebel Free Syrian Army intensified in Idlib Governorate. Cities in Idlib and neighborhoods in Homs and Hama began falling into the control of the opposition, during this time military operations in Homs and Hama ceased and stopped.

By mid-January the FSA gained control over Zabadani and Madaya. By late January, the Free Syrian Army launched a full-scale attack against the government in Rif Dimashq, where they took over Saqba, Hamoreya, Harasta and other cities in Damascus's Eastern suburbs. On 29 January, the fourth regiment of the Syrian Army led by the president's brother Maher al-Assad and the Syrian Army digged in Damascus, and the fighting continued where the FSA was 8 km away from the Republican palace in Damascus. Fighting broke out near Damascus international airport, but by the next day the Syrian government deployed the Republican Guards. The military gained the upper hand and regained all land the opposition gained in Rif Dimashq by early February. On 4 February, the Syrian Army launched a massive bombardment on Homs and committed a huge massacre, killing 500 civilians in one night in Homs. By mid-February, the Syrian army regained control over Zabadani and Madaya. In late February, Army forces entered Baba Amro after a big military operation and heavy fighting. Following this, the opposition forces began losing neighborhoods in Homs to the Syrian Army including al-Insaat, Jobr, Karm el-Zaytoon and only Homs's old neighborhood's, including al-Khalidiya, remained in opposition hands.

By March 2012, the government began military operations against the opposition in Idlib Governorate including the city of Idlib, which fell to the Army by mid-March. Saraqab and Sarmin were also recaptured by the government during the month. Still, at this time, the opposition managed to capture Al Qusayr and Rastan. Heavy fighting also continued in several neighborhoods in Homs and in the city of Hama. The FSA also started to conduct hit-and-run attacks in the pro-Assad Aleppo Governorate, which they were not able to do before. Heavy-to-sporadic fighting was also continuing in the Daraa and Deir ez-Zor Governorates.

By late April 2012, despite a cease-fire being declared in the whole country, sporadic fighting continued, with heavy clashes specifically in Al-Qusayr, where rebel forces controlled the northern part of the city, while the military held the southern part. FSA forces were holding onto Al-Qusayr, due to it being the last major transit point toward the Lebanese border. A rebel commander from the Farouq Brigade in the town reported that 2,000 Farouq fighters had been killed in Homs province since August 2011. At this point, there were talks among the rebels in Al-Qusayr, where many of the retreating rebels from Homs city's Baba Amr district had gone, of Homs being abandoned completely.

Bahrain[link]

More than 17% of Bahraini citizens^[219] taking part in a pro-democracy march on 22 Februaryf 2011.

The protests in Bahrain started on 14 February, and were initially aimed at achieving greater political freedom and respect for human rights; they were not intended to directly threaten the monarchy.^{[5][220](pp162-3)} Lingering frustration among the Shiite majority with being ruled by the Sunni government was a major root cause, but the protests in Tunisia and Egypt are cited as the inspiration for the demonstrations.^{[5][220](p65)} The protests were largely peaceful until a pre-dawn raid by police on 17 February to clear protestors from Pearl Roundabout in Manama, in which police killed four protesters.^{[220](pp73-4)} Following the raid, some protesters began to expand their aims to a call for the end of the monarchy.^[221] On 18 February army forces opened fire on protesters when they tried to reenter the roundabout, fatally wounding one.^{[220](pp77-8)} The following day protesters reoccupied Pearl Roundabout after the government ordered troops and police to withdraw.^{[222][220](p81)} Subsequent days saw large demonstrations; on 21 February a pro-government Gathering of National Unity drew tens of thousands,^{[220](p86)[223]} whilst on 22 February the number of protestors at the Pearl Roundabout peeked at over 150,000 after more than 100,000 protesters marched there.^[220](p88) On 14 March, Saudi-led GCC forces were requested by the government and entered the country,^[220](p132) which the opposition called an "occupation".^[224]

King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March and asked the military to reassert its control as clashes spread across the country.^{[225][220](p139)} On 16 March, armed soldiers and riot police cleared the protesters' camp in the Pearl Roundabout, in which 3 policemen and 3 protesters were reportedly killed.^{[220](pp133-4)[226]} Later, on 18 March, the government tore down Pearl Roundabout monument.^{[227][220](pp150)} After the lifting of emergency law on 1 June,^[228] several large rallies were staged by the opposition parties.^[229] Smaller-scale protests and clashes outside of the capital have continued to occur almost daily.^[230][231] On 9 March 2012 over 100,000 protested in what the opposition called "the biggest march in our history".^[232][233]

The police response has been described as a "brutal" crackdown on peaceful and unarmed protestors, including doctors and bloggers.^{[234][235][236]} The police carried out midnight house raids in Shia neighbourhoods, beatings at checkpoints, and denial of medical care in a "campaign of intimidation".^{[237][238][239][240]} More than 2,929 people have been arrested,^[143][241] and at least five people died due to torture while in police custody.^{[220](p287,288)} On 23 November 2011 the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry released its report on its investigation of the events, finding that the government had systematically tortured prisoners and committed other human rights violations.^{[220](pp415-422)} It also rejected the government's claims that the protests were instigated by Iran.^[242] Although the report found that systematic torture had stopped,^[220](pp417) the Bahraini government has refused entry to several international human rights groups and news organizations, and delayed a visit by a UN inspector.^[243][244]

Concurrent incidents[link]

Concurrent with the events in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Syria and Bahrain, protests flared up in other parts of the region, some becoming violent, some facing strong suppression efforts, and some resulting in political changes.

Algeria[link]

8 January 2011 protests in Algeria.

On 29 December, protests began in Algiers over the lack of housing, quickly escalating to violent confrontations with the police. At least 53 people were reported injured and another 29 arrested.^[245] From 12–19 January, a wave of self-immolation attempts swept the country, beginning with Mohamed Aouichia, who set himself on fire in Bordj Menaiel in protest at his family's housing. On 13 January, Mohsen Bouterfif set himself on fire after a meeting with the mayor of Boukhadra in Tebessa, who had been unable to offer Bouterfif a job and a house. Bouterfif reportedly died a few days later, and about 100 youths protested his death, resulting in the mayor's dismissal by the provincial governor. At least ten other self-immolation attempts were reported that week.^[246] On 22 January, the RCD party organised a demonstration for democracy in Algiers, and though illegal under the State of Emergency enacted in 1992, it was attended by about 300 people. The demonstration was suppressed by police, with 42 reported injuries. On 29 January, at least ten thousand people marched in the northeastern city of Béjaïa.^[247]

In an apparent bid to stave off unrest, President Abdelaziz Bouteflika announced on 3 February that the 19-year state of emergency would be lifted,^[248] a promise fulfilled on 22 February, when Algeria's cabinet adopted an order to lift the state of emergency.^[249][250] Bouteflika said on 15 April that he would seek revisions to the country's constitution as part of a broad push for democratic reforms.^[251]

In January 2012, protests flared up again in the southern city of Laghouat, over housing and treatment of the elderly by police. The police used tear gas to disperse the protesters.^[252][253]

Algeria's major Islamist parties announced a coalition ahead of parliamentary elections. A leader of the Movement of Society for Peace called for more opposition parties to join the alliance "to give the best possible chance for the Arab Spring to happen in Algeria as well".^[254]

Djibouti[link]

On 3 February, demonstrations began when about three hundred people protested peacefully against President Ismail Omar Guelleh in Djibouti City, urging him to not run for another term; the protesters further asked for more liberty as well as for political and social reform.^[255] Protests soon increased, however, as thousands rallied against the president, many vowing to remain at the site until their demands were met. On 18 February, an estimated 30,000 Dijiboutians protested in central Djibouti City against the president, maintaining that the constitutional change of the previous year, which allowed him a third term, was illegal. The demonstration escalated into clashes with the police, and at least two persons were killed and many injured when police used live ammunition and teargas against the protesters.^[256] On 19 and 24 February, protest leaders were arrested and after they failed to turn up on the 24th, opposition leader Bourhan Mohammed Ali stated he feared the protests had lost momentum.^[256] The last protest was planned for 11 March, but security forces stopped the protest and detained 4 opposition leaders. No protests or planned protests have occurred since.

Iraq[link]

In an effort to prevent unrest, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki announced that he would not run for a third term in 2014.^[257] Nevertheless, hundreds of protesters gathered in several major urban areas (notably Baghdad and Karbala) on 20 February, demanding a more effective approach to national security, to the investigation of federal corruption cases, as well as increased government involvement in making public services fair and inaccessible.^{[258][259][260]} In response, the government promised to subsidize electricity costs.^[261]

Israel's Haaretz reported that a 31-year-old man in Mosul died from self-immolation, while protesting high unemployment. Haaretz also reported a planned 'Revolution of Iraqi Rage' to be held on 25 February near the Green Zone.^[262]

On 16 February, up to 2,000 protesters took over a provincial council building in the city of Kut. The protesters demanded that the provincial governor resign because of the lack of basic services such as electricity and water. As many as three people were killed and 30 injured.^{[citation needed]} On 24 February, Hawijah, Mosul, and Baghdad featured violent protests.^{[citation needed]}

Israeli border areas[link]

Free Palestine rally in Cairo

Palestinians used Facebook to call for mass protests throughout the region on 15 May 2011, the 63rd annual commemoration of the Palestinian exodus, locally known as Nakba Day.^[263][264] A page calling for a "Third Palestinian Intifada" to begin on 15 May garnered more than 350,000 "likes" before being taken down by Facebook managers at the end of March after complaints from the Israeli government that the page encouraged violence.^[265] The page called for mass marches to Palestine from Egypt, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan to commemorate the Nakba and demand the right of return for all Palestinian refugees.^[266] Palestinians from Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the Gaza Strip and the West Bank attempted to reach and cross the Israeli border. However, they were all stopped and 12 were killed in clashes with Israeli security forces. Lebanese security forces also made efforts, including the use of live fire according to some reports, to stop protesters from approaching the Israeli border. Almost 300 people were injured, including 13 Israeli soldiers. There were also clashes across East Jerusalem.^[267]

On 5 June, 23 Syrian demonstrators were killed and over a hundred injured by Israeli troops after attempting to enter the Israeli-held part of the Golan Heights.^{[268][269][270]} "Anyone who tries to cross the border will be killed," Israeli soldiers warned through megaphones as people waving Palestinian flags streamed towards the frontier. When protesters tried to cut the razor wire several meters short of the frontier fence, Israeli troops opened fire. Several people were seen being carried away on stretchers.^[271] In the aftermath, thousands began a sit-in near the frontier,^[272] resulting in Syrian security forces creating a security buffer zone to prevent more demonstrators from approaching the border.^[268] Lebanese President Michel Sleiman accused Israel of genocide over the incident,^[273] UN High Commissioner on Human Rights Navanethem Pillay condemned the Israel Defense Forces' use of force against unarmed, civilian protesters,^[274] and the Syrian Social Nationalist Party called for an international response to the incident, calling it a "massacre".^[275] An Israeli military spokeswoman called the violence "an attempt to divert international attention from the bloodbath going on in Syria."^[269] Michael Weiss, a spokesperson for Just Journalism, claimed that he had received leaked Syrian state documents showing that the Syrian government organized the Nakba Day protests to draw attention away from the uprising in Syria proper.^[276] US State Department spokesman Mark Toner said the U.S. believes President Bashar Assad's government was actively supporting the Palestinian protests near the Israeli border.^[277]

Jordan[link]

On 14 January, protests commenced in the capital Amman, as well as at Ma'an, Al Karak, Salt, Irbid, and others. The protests, led by trade unionists and leftist parties, occurred after Friday prayers, and called for the government of Prime Minister Samir Rifai to step down.^[278] The Muslim Brotherhood and 14 trade unions said that they would hold a sit-down protest outside parliament the next day to "denounce government economic policies".^[279] Following the protest, the government reversed a rise in fuel prices,^[280] but 5,000 protested on 21 January in Amman despite this effort to alleviate Jordan's economic misery.^[281]

On 1 February, the Royal Palace announced that King Abdullah had dismissed the government on account of the street protests, and had asked Marouf al-Bakhit, a former army general, to form a new Cabinet.^[282] King Abdullah charged Bakhit to "take quick, concrete and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process". The monarch added that the reforms should put Jordan on the path "to strengthen democracy", and provide Jordanians with the "dignified life they deserve".^[283] This move did not end protests, however, which peaked with a rally of between 6,000 and 10,000 Jordanians on 25 February.^[284] A protest camp led by students calling for democratic reforms was established on 24 March in Gamal Abdel Nasser Circle in downtown Amman,^[285] but at least one person was killed and over 100 injured the next day after pro-government vigilantes clashed with the protesters in the camp, forcing police to intervene.^[286] These clashes and belated police interventions have become a hallmark of the Jordanian protests, with a major rally in central Amman planned for 15 July being derailed by belligerent regime supporters.^[287]

As of November 2011, protests are ongoing. Under pressure from street demonstrations, Parliament called for the ouster of the Bakhit government. King Abdullah duly sacked Bakhit and his cabinet and named Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh to head the new government on 17 October.^[48]

Kuwait[link]

Protests by stateless Bedouins began in January and February, concurrent with many protests in the region.^[288][289] By June, protests grew in size from dozens to hundreds.^[290]

Thousands protested in September,^[291] and in October, oil workers went on strike.^[292] Protests continued into October, with the largest demonstrations since the start of the unrest early in the year.^[293][294] In response, Prime Minister Nasser Mohammed Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah said the protests were "going too far" and threatened a security crackdown.^[295]

Late on 16 November, protesters occupied the National Assembly of Kuwait for several minutes and rallied in nearby Al-Erada Square.^[296] Emir Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah called the brief occupation "an unprecedented step on the path to anarchy and lawlessness".^[297][298]

The largest political protest in Kuwaiti history was scheduled for 28 November to pressure the prime minister to resign, but he and his cabinet submitted their resignation to the emir hours ahead of it. Late November, the emir selected Defense Minister Sheik Jaber Al Hamad Al Sabah as the new prime minister, replacing the long-serving Sheik Nasser Al Mohammad Al Sabah, who had survived several no-confidence votes in parliament and was the target of opposition groups calling for his dismissal.^[299]

Morocco[link]

In early February 2011, protests were held in Rabat, Fez and Tangier in solidarity with the Egyptian revolution. Subsequently, a day of protest in favour of Moroccan constitutional reform and social justice was planned for 20 February and advertised on social networking sites.^[300][301] Among the demands of the organisers was that the constitutional role of the king should be "reduced to its natural size".^[302] The interior minister Taib Cherkaoui affirmed the right of the protests to take place. On 20 February, around 37,000 people participated in demonstrations across Morocco, according to government sources. Some protests were marred by violence and damage to property. In Al Hoceima, five people died after protesters set fire to a bank.^[303] On 26 February, a further protest was held in Casablanca.^[304]

On 9 March, in a live televised address, King Mohammed announced that he would begin a comprehensive constitutional reform aimed at improving democracy and the rule of law. He promised to form a commission to work on constitutional revisions, which would make proposals to him by June, after which a referendum would be held on the draft constitution.^[305]

On 20 March, a further protest was held in Casablanca to mark the end of the first month since the original 20 February demonstrations and to maintain pressure for reform. Protesters, numbering 20,000, demanded the resignation of a number of senior politicians, including the prime minister, Abbas El Fassi, who they regarded as corrupt.^[306] On the same day, around 6,000 people demonstrated in Rabat.^[307]

In June, a referendum was held on changes to the constitution, which became law on 13 September. Some protesters felt that the reforms did not go far enough. On 18 September, 3,000 people demonstrated in Casablanca and 2,000 in Tangier, demanding an end to the king's roles as head of the army and of religious affairs.^[308] In October, around 50 imams protested in Rabat against state control of their activities.^[309]

Elections were held on the basis of the new constitution in November 2011, with electoral lists reserved for young and female candidates and with the post of prime minister, previously an appointment of the king, being decided by the outcome of the vote.^[310]

Oman[link]

Protesters set ablaze Lulu Hypermarket in Sohar, Oman on 28 February 2011

In the Gulf country of Oman, 200 protesters marched on 17 January 2011, demanding salary increases and a lower cost of living. The protest shocked some journalists, who generally view Oman as a 'politically stable and sleepy country'.^[311] Renewed protests occurred on 18 February, with 350 protesters demanding an end to corruption and better distribution of oil revenue.^[312] Some protesters also carried signs with slogans of support for the Sultan.^[313]

On 26 February, protesters in Sohar called for more jobs.^[314] On the following day, tensions escalated with protesters burning shops and cars.^[315] The police responded using tear gas to contain and disperse the crowds of protesters.^[316] Demonstrations also spread to the region of Salalah, where protesters had reportedly been camping outside the provincial governor's house since 25 February.^[316][317] In Sohar, witnesses claimed that two protesters were killed when police fired rubber bullets to disperse the crowds.^{[74][75][76][318]} Witnesses further reported that protesters burnt a police station as well as the Wali's house (where the representative of the Sultan to Sohar stays).^[319] The Omani protesters insisted that they were not challenging the rule of Sultan Qaboos, who has been in power since 1970, but were merely calling for jobs and reform.^[320] The protesters even apologized to the Sultan for allowing violence rattle the city of Sohar on 28 February 2011.^[321]

The Sultan continued with his reform campaign by dissolving the Ministry of National Economy, setting up a state audit committee, granting student and unemployment benefits, dismissing scores of ministers, and reshuffling his cabinet three times.^[322] In addition, nearly 50,000 jobs are being created in the public sector, including 10,000 new jobs in the Royal Oman Police.^[323]) The Omani Ministry of Manpower has furthermore directed various companies (both private and public) to formulate their own employment plans. The Royal Army of Oman has also initiated employment drives by publishing recruitment advertisements in newspapers, etc.^[324] The government's efforts largely placated protesters, and Oman has not seen significant demonstrations since May 2011, when increasingly violent protests in Salalah were subdued.^[325]

Saudi Arabia[link]

Poster for the Saudi Arabia's women to drive movement, artwork by Carlos Latuff.

Protests started with a 65-year-old man's self-immolation in Samtah, Jizan on 21 January^[82] and protests of a few hundred people in late January in Jeddah^[326][327] and several times throughout February and early March in the cities of Qatif, al-Awamiyah, Riyadh, and Hofuf.^[328][329] One of the main online organisers of a planned 11 March "Day of Rage",^{[330][331][332]} Faisal Ahmed Abdul-Ahad^[333] (or Abdul-Ahadwas^[83]), was alleged to have been killed by Saudi security forces on 2 March,^[83][334] by which time one of the Facebook groups discussing the plans had over 26,000 members.^[335]