| Braga |
| — Cidade/City — |
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A view of the city of Braga from the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus |
Coat of arms |
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Location of the city of Braga
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| Coordinates (PT): 41°32′39″N 08°25′19″W / 41.54417°N 8.42194°W / 41.54417; -8.42194Coordinates: 41°32′39″N 08°25′19″W / 41.54417°N 8.42194°W / 41.54417; -8.42194 |
| Country |
Portugal |
| Region |
Norte |
| Subregion |
Cávado |
| District |
Braga |
| Municipality |
Braga |
| Founded |
20 BCE |
| Named for |
Augustus |
| GovernmentThe administration and legal authority is invested in the Câmara Muncipal of the Municipality of Braga |
| • Type |
Câmara Municipal |
| • Presidente |
Francisco Soares Mesquita Machado |
| Area |
| • Land |
183.51 km2 (70.85 sq mi) |
| Population (2011) |
| • Total |
175,063 |
| |
Refers to the urbanized portions of the parishes of Arcos, Cividade, Dume, Espinho, Ferreiros, Fraião, Frossos, Gondizalves, Gualtar, Lamaçães, Lamas, Lomar, Maximinos, Nogueira, Nogueiró, Real, São João do Souto, São José de São Lázaro, São Pedro de Este, São Vicente, São Vítor, Sé, Tenões |
| Demonym |
Bracarense |
| Time zone |
WET (UTC0) |
| • Summer (DST) |
WEST (UTC+1) |
| Postal Zone |
4704-514 Braga |
| Area Code and Prefix |
(+351) 253 XX XX XX |
Braga (Portuguese pronunciation: ['b?a??]), is a city in the municipality of Braga in northwestern Portuguese district of Braga, considered the oldest Christian archdiocese in the country and one of the oldest in the world. Under the Roman Empire, known as Bracara Augusta, the settlement was centre of the province of Gallaecia.
With a total urban population of 175,063 inhabitants, Braga is the third-largest city in Portugal (after Lisbon and Porto), including the city and suburban parishes; the municipality, which includes 62 parishes, has a population in 2011 of approximately 181,819 inhabitants (the seventh largest municipality in Portugal by population). Its agglomerated urban area extends from the Cavado River to the Easte River. Braga is also the seat of the Greater Metropolitan Area of Minho, which includes a population of 826,833 (2007 statistics), considered one of the fastest growing urban areas in the European Union.[citation needed]
In 2012, the city was awarded with the title European Youth Capital 2012.[1]
- For the Ecclesiastical history see Archbishopric of Braga
The region of Braga has been inhabited since the Neolithic, but since Iron Age the Celtic Bracari occupied the territory, building their characteristic fortified villages (or castrum). It was the capital of the Callaici Bracarii, or Bracarenses, a tribe that ranged through what is now Galicia in northern Iberia.
The Romans began their conquest of the region around 136 BC, and during the reign of Emperor Augustus. The civitas of Bracara Augusta was founded in 20 BC; in the context of the administrative reorganization of these Roman acquisitions, Bracara was re-dedicated to the Emperor taking on the name Bracara Augusta. The city of Bracara Augusta developed greatly during the 1st century and reached its maximum extension around the 2nd century. Towards the end of the 3rd century, Emperor Diocletianus promoted the city to the status of capital of the newly-founded province of Gallaecia.
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Official opening of the Bracara Augustus Roman market
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A troop of Romans escorting dignitaries
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Example of Roman-era catapult demonstrated at the market |
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During the Germanic Invasions of the Iberian Peninsula, power was devolved into the hands of the Sueves, a Germanic people from Central Europe. In 410, the Sueves established a Kingdom in northwest Iberia, which they maintained as Gallaecia, retaining Bracara as its capital. But, in about 584, the Visigothic conquerors of Hispania, who renounced the Aryan and Priscillianist hearesies during two synods held here in the 6th century, marked the beginning of a period of ecclesiastical expansion and importance. As a consequence, the archbishops of Braga retain the title of Primates of Portugal, and for a long period, claimed supremacy over the Hispanic church. Yet, their authority was never accepted throughout Hispania.
A 16th-century map of Braga, when the city enclosed by its mediaeval wall. The large building in the centre is the
Cathedral, while the Episcopal Palace and courtyards, can be seen above the cathedral and the ancient
Castle of Braga
A 17th-century engraving of Braga, showing the walls of the city, which were slowly demolished to make way for new constructions
Braga had an important role in the Christianization of the Iberian Peninsula. The first known bishop of Braga, Paternus, lived at the end of the 4th century, although Saint Ovidius (d. 135 AD) is sometimes considered one of the first bishops of this city. In the early 5th century, Paulus Orosius (a friend of Augustine of Hippo) wrote several theological works that expounded the Christian faith, while in the 6th century Bishop Martin of Braga converted the Sueves from Arianism to Catholicism. At the time, Martin also founded an important monastery in Dumio (Dume), and it was in Braga that Archbishopric of Braga held their councils.
The transition from Visigothic reigns to the Muslim conquest of Iberia was very obscure, representing a period of transition and decline for the city. The Moors captured Braga early in the 8th century, but were eventually repelled by Christian forces under Ferdinand I of León and Castile in 1040. As a consequence, the bishopric was restored in 1070: the first new bishop, Pedro, started rebuilding the Cathedral (which was modified many times during the following centuries).
Between 1093 to 1147, Braga became the residencial seat of the Portuguese court. In the early 12th century, Count Henry of Portugal and bishop Gerald of Moissac reclaimed the archbishopric seat for Braga, with power over a large area in Iberia. The medieval city developed around the cathedral, with the maximum authority in the city retained by the archbishop.
In the 16th century, due to its distance from the coast and provincial status, Braga did not profit from the adventures associated with the Age of Portuguese Discoveries (which favoured cities like Lisbon, Évora and Coimbra, seats of the Portuguese court). Yet, Archbishop Diogo de Sousa, who sponsored several urban improvements in the city, including the enlargement of streets, the creation of public squares and the foundation of hospitals and new churches managed to modernize the community. He expanded and remodelled the cathedral by adding a new chapel in the Manueline style, and generally turning the mediaeval town into a Renaissance city.
A similar period of rejuvenation occurred during the 18th century, when the archbishops contracted architects like André Soares and Carlos Amarante, to modernize and rejuvenate the city; they began a series of architectural transformations to churches and civic institutions in the Baroque style, including the municipal hall, public library, the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte and many urban palaces.
With the invasion of French troops, during the Peninsular Wars the city was reglected, once again, to a provincial status. But, by the second half of that century, with influence from Portuguese immigrants living in Brazil, new money and tastes resulted in improvements to architecture and infrastructures.
A view of
Rua Júlio Lima at the beginning of the 20th century
In the 20th century Braga faced similar periods of growth an decline; demographic and urban pressures, from urban-to-rural migration meant that the city's infrastructures had to be improved in order to satisfy greater demands.
Braga has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb) similar to other cities in the northwest Iberian Peninsula except for having significantly hotter summer temperatures due to being some distance from the ocean: the absolute maximum is as much as 6°C (10°F) higher than for A Coruna or Santiago de Compostela.
| Climate data for Braga (1971–2000) |
| Month |
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Year |
| Record high °C (°F) |
22.4
(72.3) |
25.8
(78.4) |
26.3
(79.3) |
30.2
(86.4) |
34.7
(94.5) |
36.0
(96.8) |
38.9
(102.0) |
39.4
(102.9) |
37.8
(100.0) |
32.5
(90.5) |
27.5
(81.5) |
23.5
(74.3) |
39.4
(102.9) |
| Average high °C (°F) |
13.4
(56.1) |
14.5
(58.1) |
16.9
(62.4) |
17.9
(64.2) |
20.4
(68.7) |
24.6
(76.3) |
27.5
(81.5) |
27.5
(81.5) |
25.4
(77.7) |
20.7
(69.3) |
16.6
(61.9) |
14.3
(57.7) |
20.0
(68.0) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) |
8.7
(47.7) |
9.8
(49.6) |
11.5
(52.7) |
12.6
(54.7) |
15.0
(59.0) |
18.6
(65.5) |
20.9
(69.6) |
20.6
(69.1) |
19.0
(66.2) |
15.3
(59.5) |
11.8
(53.2) |
10.0
(50.0) |
14.5
(58.1) |
| Average low °C (°F) |
4.1
(39.4) |
5.1
(41.2) |
6.1
(43.0) |
7.3
(45.1) |
9.7
(49.5) |
12.5
(54.5) |
14.3
(57.7) |
13.7
(56.7) |
12.5
(54.5) |
9.9
(49.8) |
7.0
(44.6) |
5.7
(42.3) |
9.0
(48.2) |
| Record low °C (°F) |
−3.4
(25.9) |
−4.1
(24.6) |
−2.3
(27.9) |
−1.3
(29.7) |
1.1
(34.0) |
3.7
(38.7) |
5.9
(42.6) |
4.0
(39.2) |
2.6
(36.7) |
−1
(30.2) |
−3.8
(25.2) |
−4.1
(24.6) |
−4.1
(24.6) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) |
192.7
(7.587) |
161.0
(6.339) |
102.3
(4.028) |
122.5
(4.823) |
118.5
(4.665) |
62.2
(2.449) |
24.1
(0.949) |
29.8
(1.173) |
79.0
(3.11) |
166.8
(6.567) |
175.4
(6.906) |
231.4
(9.11) |
1,465.7
(57.705) |
| Source: Instituto de Meteorologia, IP Portugal[2] |
A similar panorama taken from the Este River valley
Owing to its urbanized nature, it is assumed that Braga includes all the civil parishes in Braga Municipality. In reality, the city of Braga includes only the following urban civil parishes:
Similarly, while governmental authority is vested in the Câmara Municipal of Braga, this organ is responsible for the administration the municipality in its entirety, and not just the city of Braga. There is no formal city government, only municipal government authority, with local administration handled by the individual juntas de freguesia or civil parish councils.
The major industries in the municipality are construction, metallurgy and mechanics, software development and web design. The computer industry is growing rapidly.
Braga is serviced by both regional and high-speed rail connection to major centres in the region. This regional district is also accessible from international and domestic air services, that include the regional aerodrome in Palmeira (Braga Aerodrome) and the Sá Carneiro International Airport, located 20 minutes away in the city of Porto.
The city of Braga is rich in architectural buildings dating back to the late Neolithic and Roman eras, when it became a center for settlement. Apart from many of the sites and monuments located throughout the municipality of Braga, the historical city has been a storehouse of religious, military and civic architecture that includes many of the following sites:
- Arch of the New Gate (Portuguese: Arco da Porta Nova), the 18th century city gate implemented to substitute the early Gothic entranceway;
- Roman Thermae of Maximinus (Portuguese: Termas romanas de Maximinos/Alto da Cividade/Colina dos Maximinos), an ancient Roman public baths complex, that was integrated into the life of Bracara Augusta, during the first centuries of Cividade;
- Palace of the Falcões (Portuguese: Palácio dos Falcões/Governo Civil de Braga), a Baroque-era palace originally commissioned by Francisco de Meira Carrilho on 23 July 1703, and later, upon successive renovations, used by the Civil Governor's residence;
- Fountain of the Idol (Portuguese: Fonte do Ídolo), the 1st century Roman fountain dedicated to an indigenous god, located in the central civil parish of São José de São Lázaro;
- Fountain of the Iron Waters (Portuguese: Fonte das Águas Férreas), following the discovery in July 1173 of iron-rich springs in the parish of Fraião, Archbishop Gaspar de Bragança ordered the municipal council to begin the canalization of these waters for public use, giving rise to a series of fountains, such as the Baroque decorated main fountain;
- Hospital of São Marcos (Portuguese: Hospital de São Marcos), with a facade comparable to any religious monument in the city, the Hospital of São Marcos, is an example of the complex Baroque style of Carlos Amarante, featuring ornate double belfrey and accents;
- Palace of Raio (Portuguese: Palácio de Raio), an 18th-century Baroque-Rococo urban residence, with richly decorated blue azulejo facade of Andre Soares;
- Residence of the Crivos (Portuguese: Casas das Gelosias/Casa dos Crivos), a Renaissance-era shop/residence constructed outside the old walls characteristic of late Renaissance architecture and one of the few examples of a building covered in wood-lattice facade from this period.
- Seven Sources Aqueduct (Portuguese: Sete Fontes), a complex network of aqueducts that provided potable water to citizenry of Braga;
- Theatro Circo (Portuguese: Teatro Circo de Braga), 20th century revivalist theatre, known for its architecture, as much for the films, theatre plays and performances;
- Tower of Santiago (Portuguese: Torre de Santiago e troço das antigas muralhas de Braga), part of the ancient walls of Braga, the Tower of Santiago was designed by Portuguese Baroque master André Soares, based on a mixture of Gothic, Baroque and Rococo elements;
- Tower of Braga Castle (Portuguese: Castelo de Braga, designadamente a Torre de Menagem (restos)), the 14th century remains of the Gothic tower, which are all that remains of the ancient castle of the city;
The
Pópulo Church, that includes convent, dependencies and cloister
- Archiepiscopal Palace of Braga (Portuguese: Antigo Paço Arquiepiscopal de Braga), between the 14th–18th centuries, a religious residence, but after the 20th century, the home of the municipal offices, public library and archive;
- Chapel of the Espírito Santo (Portuguese: Capela do Espírito Santo), an example of mixed styles, the chapel includes elements of Baroque, Neoclassical and Mannerist eras;
- Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Consolaçã (Portuguese: Capela de Nossa Senhora da Consolação), a simple single-nave chapel constructed in the Baroque-style
- Chapel of São Bento (Portuguese: Capela de São Bento), constructed in the middle of the 18th century, the chapel was blessed by Archbishop José of Bragança in 1755;
- Chapel of Senhor do Bom Sucesso (Portuguese: Capela do Senhor do Bom Sucesso), a Baroque and Neoclassical chapel, is highlighted by a main facade, typical of André Soares, but constructed by Carlos Amarante, at the beginning of his career, who timidly applied Neoclassical decorative elements;
- Chapel of the Coimbras (Portuguese: Capela dos Coimbras), the providor for the bishopric of Braga, João de Coimbra constructed the chapel between 1525 and 1528, which is an example of the Manueline-style architecture;
- Church of Santa Cruz (Portuguese: Igreja de Santa Cruz), and the Hospital of the Brotherhood of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem (Portuguese: Irmandade de Santa Cruz de Jerusalem), constructed in 1581, and later supported by the nuns of the Order Hospitaler;
- Church of Santa Eulália (Portuguese: Igreja de Santa Eulália), is a 13th-14th century Romanesque church, located near [[Bom Jesus do Monte;
- Church of Santa Maria (Portuguese: Igreja Paroquial de Ferreiros/Igreja de Santa Maria), constructed in 1560, under the orders of Archibishop Bartolomeu dos Mártires, as a church of the Society of Jesus;
- Church of Santo André (Portuguese: Igreja Paroquial de Gondizalves/Igreja de Santo André), an example of the reforumulations of the Modernist asthetic of the mid-20th century, the 18th century church was adapted and expanded after the parishes deannexation in 1975;
- Chapel of São Frutuoso (Portuguese: Capela de São Frutuoso), originally built by the Visigoths in the 7th century, the structure, alongside the Convent of São Francisco de Montélios, in the form of a Greek cross;
- Chapel of São Sebastião das Caravelheiras (Portuguese: Capela de São Sebastião das Caravelheiras)
- Church of São Martinho (Portuguese: Igreja Matriz de Espinho/Igreja de São Martinho), the Baroque and Classical parochial church of Espinho, known for its ornate facade and belfrey, as well as its Rococo interior;
- Church of São Miguel de Frossos (Portuguese: Igreja Paroquial de Frossos/Igreja de São Miguel), a 16th-century parochial church in the civil parish of Frossos;
- Church of São Miguel de Gualtar (Portuguese: Igreja Paroquial de Gualtar/Igreja de São Miguel), part of the intense building period of teh 16th-17th century, the parochial church of Gultar was constructed in the 17th century, but later remodelled during the 18th century;
- Church of São Paio (Portuguese: Igreja Paroquial de Arcos/Igreja de São Paio), located in Arcos, the church is an early 18th century church (built in 1706);
- Church of São Paulo (Portuguese: Igreja de São Paulo e Seminário de Santiago), the historical seminary and church of Saint Paul with its contrast between stoic facade and decorated Baroque interior, built in the era of archbishop Bartholomew;
- Church of São Pedro de Lomar (Portuguese: Igreja de São Pedro de Lomar), remnant of ancient Benedictine monastery of São Pedro in Lomar, the Church of Saint Peter exemplifies a mix of Baroque, Mannerist and Neoclassical architecture;
- Church of São Pedro de Maximinos (Portuguese: Igreja de São Pedro de Maximinos), known for the missing organ of organist Manuel de Sá Couto;
- Church of São Tiago (Portuguese: Igreja Paroquial da Cividade/Igreja de São Tiago)
- Church of São Vicente (Portuguese: Igreja de São Vicente)
- Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo (Portuguese: Convento de Nossa Senhora do Carmo), principally recognizable for its central spire/belfrey, which was designed by João de Moura Coutinho de Almeida e Eça, and constructed in the 17th-18th century;
- Church of the Misericórdia (Portuguese: Igreja da Misericórdia)
- Church of the Third Order of St. Francis (Portuguese: Igreja dos Terceiros), the Terceiros began the process of constructing their church in 1685, which they dedicated to Our Lady of Conception (Portuguese: Nossa Senhora da Conceição;
- Church, Convent and College of the Congregation of São Filipe de Néri (Portuguese: Igreja dos Congregados), attributed to the architect André Soares, for the complex/risky facade of the church and corner convent windows, Monk's chapel (or Chapel of Our Lady of the Appearance), and retable of Our Lady of Pain (Portuguese: Nossa Senhora das Dores)
- Convent of Nossa Senhora da Conceição (Portuguese: Convento da Nossa Senhora da Conceição), which includes the Chapel of São Domingos, an 18th-century convent, home to the Instituto Monsenhor Ariosa;
- Convent of Pópulo (Portuguese: Convento do Pópulo), the Mannerist, Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassical austere elements of the convent belying the extravagant interior, that was originally the home to Augustine monks, highlighted by the Baroque facade of the Church of Pópulo (Portuguese: Igreja de Pópulo);
- Convent of Salvador (Portuguese: Convento do Salvador/Lar Conde de Agrolongo), began with the need to transfer the nuns from the Monastery of Vitorino das Donas in 1528
- Convent of São Francisco de Montélios (Portuguese: Convento de São Francisco/Igreja de São Jerónimo de Real), the Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassical convent, highlighted by the imposing three-storey facade of the Church of São Jerónimo;
- Cross of Nossa Senhora dos Aflitos (Portuguese: Cruzeiro da Nossa Senhora dos Aflitos), a Baroque cross on an ionic column, with an image of Christ in wood, surmounted by a rectangular Tuscan colonnade and roof;
- Cross of the Espírito Santo (Portuguese: Cruzeiro do Espírito Santo)
- Monastery of Dumio (Portuguese: Ruínas Arqueológicas de São Martinho de Dume), the ancient religious seat founded by Martin of Braga in the provincial centre of Dume;
- Monastery of Tibães (Portuguese: Mosteiro de Tibães), the 17th–18th century Benedictine monastery renowned for the ornate/artistic gilt work in its chancel and altars;
- Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte, constructed on Monte Santo, overlooking the urban sprawl of Braga, the 18th to early-19th century, Neoclassic sanctuary and church (itself preceded by Baroque stairway), is reachable by trail or Bom Jesus funicular (one of the oldest in Iberian Peninsula);
- Sanctuary of Nossa Senhora do Sameiro (Portuguese: Santuário de Nossa Senhora do Sameiro), isolated on the hilltop of Monte do Sameiro, the church and retreat began in 1861, from the mind of Father Martinho António Pereira da Silva, who wished to construct a monument dedicated to Our Lady of the Conception;
- Sanctuary of Santa Maria Madalena (Portuguese: Santuário de Santa Maria Madalena/Santuário da Falperra), located on Monte Falperra, the Baroque-era sanctuary church, was designed by local architect André Soares, incorporating decorative elements into a two-bell tower homage to the Mary Magdalene;
- Sé Cathedral of Braga (Portuguese: Sé Catedral de Braga)
- Wayside shrine of São Brás (Portuguese: Alminhas de São Brás), although conjecturally a contemporary monument, the wayside shrine in Ferreiros has the characteristics of many Baroque monuments in Braga;
In addition, many of the district's treasures and historical artifacts are housed in several museums that are scattered throughout the city, such as:
- Museum of the Biscainhos (Portuguese: Museu dos Biscainhos, housed in the historical Palace of the Biscainhos, the museum exhibits a permanent collection of decorative art, that includes furniture, ceramics, European and Oriental porcelain, European Glass, European and Portuguese watches and clocks;
- Treasure Museum of the Sé Cathedral (Portuguese: Tesouro Museu da Sé Catedral), the collection varies, but collects together artefacts from the 16th to 18th century during the period of religious/cultural exploration, associated with the Cathedral, including images and azulejo tiles;
- Museum of Image (Portuguese: Museu da Imagem), dedicated to photography, located near the Arco da Porta Nova and Braga Castle;
- Museum Medina (Portuguese: Museu Medina), located in the same building as the Museum of Pius XII, the collection is the home to the 83 oil paintings and 21 drawings of the painter Henrique Medina;
- Museum of Nogueira da Silva (Portuguese: Museu Nogeuira da Silva), bequeathed to the University of Minho, the collection includes artefacts, paintings, furniture and sculptures collected over a lifetime, such as Renaissance artwork, 17th furniture, ceramics and objects in ivory, silver and religious art;
- Museum of Pius XII (Portuguese: Museu Pio XII), housing a collection of Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age implements, Pre-historic and Luso-Roman pottery;
- D. Diogo de Sousa Museum (Portuguese: Museu D. Diogo de Sousa), its collection includes many items discovered during archaeological excavations within the municipality, extending as far back as the Palaeolithic to the Middle Ages.
- Museum of String Instruments (Portuguese: Museu dos Cordofones), the collection features Portuguese instruments as far back as the Middle Ages including Cavaquinhos, Portuguese guitars, Mandolins and banjos among others.
The city is the headquarters and main campus for the Universidade do Minho (Minho University), a public university founded in 1973. A campus of Portugal's oldest private university of Portugal, the Universidade Católica Portuguesa, was also established in 1967, as well as theEscola Secundária Sá de Miranda (the oldest Secondary school in Braga).
In the late 2000s, the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory also opened their international research centre in the city.
Braga's football team, Sporting Clube de Braga, was founded in 1921 and play in the top division of Portuguese football, the Liga Sagres, from Braga Municipal Stadium, carved out of the Monte Castro hill that overlooks the city.
The Rampa da Falperra, a round of the European Hillclimb Championship, is held every year in the outskirts of the city.
The Circuito Vasco Sameiro and adjacent the Kartódromo Internacional de Braga are located around the local airfield. The racing track held European Touring Car Cup events in 2009 and 2010, and the KIB has held rounds of the Karting World Championship.
Braga is the home of a professional Quidditch team, the Braga Broomfleet, operating within the fictional Harry Potter universe.[3]
- Paulus Orosius (c. 385 – c. 420): Important historian and theologue from the Braga diocese, friend of St. Augustine.
- Martin of Braga (c. 520 – 580): Bishop of Braga that converted the Suevi to Catholicism.
- Diogo de Sousa (c. 1461 – 1532): Archbishop of Braga after 1505. A great sponsor of the arts, he remodelled the Cathedral and promoted the urbanisation of the city following Renaissance models. He also founded several churches and an important school (the São Paulo School).
- Francisco Sanches (1550–1623): 16th-century physician born in the Braga diocese and educated in universities in France and Italy.
- André Soares (1720–1769): 18th-century architect, designed several important Rococo buildings in Braga and Northern Portugal.
- Irmã Maria Estrela Divina, religious and stigmatic woman. Buried in Braga Cathedral.
- Domingos Leite Pereira: Portuguese politician of the Portuguese First Republic.
- Maria Ondina Braga (1932–2003) escritora e cosmopolita
- António Variações (1944–1984) innovative pop composer and singer
- Marie Myriam (born Myriam Lopes in Braga, 8 May 1957) French singer of Portuguese origin, winner of 1977 Eurovision Song Contestwith "L`Oiseau et L`Enfant" ("The Bird and the Child"), written by Jean Paul Cara and Joe Grace.
- Notes
