The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a self-repellent fluid called caloric that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids. The "caloric theory" was superseded by the mid-19th century in favor of the mechanical theory of heat but nevertheless persisted in scientific literature until the end of the 19th century.^[1]

Early history[link]

The world’s first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782-83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat involved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of latent heat. These experiments mark the foundation of thermochemistry.

In the history of thermodynamics, the initial explanations of heat were thoroughly confused with explanations of combustion. After J. J. Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl introduced the phlogiston theory of combustion in the 17th century, phlogiston was thought to be the substance of heat.

One version of the caloric theory was introduced by Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier developed the explanation of combustion in terms of oxygen in the 1770s. In his paper "Réflexions sur le phlogistique" (1783), Lavoisier argued that phlogiston theory was inconsistent with his experimental results, and proposed a 'subtle fluid' called caloric as the substance of heat. According to this theory, the quantity of this substance is constant throughout the universe, and it flows from warmer to colder bodies. Indeed, Lavoisier was one of the first to use a calorimeter to measure the heat changes during chemical reaction.

In the 1780s, some believed that cold was a fluid, "frigoric". Pierre Prévost argued that cold was simply a lack of caloric.

Since heat was a material substance in caloric theory, and therefore could neither be created nor destroyed, conservation of heat was a central assumption.^[2]

The introduction of the Caloric theory was also influenced by the experiments of Joseph Black related to the thermal properties of materials. Besides the caloric theory, another theory existed in the late eighteenth century that could explain the phenomena of heat: the kinetic theory. The two theories were considered to be equivalent at the time, but kinetic theory was the more modern one, as it used a few ideas from atomic theory and could explain both combustion and calorimetry.

Successes[link]

Quite a number of successful explanations can be, and were, made from these hypotheses alone. We can explain the cooling of a cup of tea in room temperature: caloric is self-repelling, and thus slowly flows from regions dense in caloric (the hot water) to regions less dense in caloric (the cooler air in the room).

We can explain the expansion of air under heat: caloric is absorbed into the air, which increases its volume. If we say a little more about what happens to caloric during this absorption phenomenon, we can explain the radiation of heat, the state changes of matter under various temperatures, and deduce nearly all of the gas laws.

Sadi Carnot developed his principle of the Carnot cycle, which still forms the basis of heat engine theory, solely from the caloric viewpoint.

However, one of the greatest confirmations of the caloric theory was Pierre-Simon Laplace's theoretical correction of Sir Isaac Newton’s calculation of the speed of sound. Newton had assumed an isothermal process, while Laplace, a calorist, treated it as adiabatic.^[3] This addition not only substantially corrected the theoretical prediction of the speed of sound, but also continued to make even more accurate predictions for almost a century afterward, even as measurements of the index became more precise.

Original caloric theory worked with an image of a continuous fluid. In quantum mechanical context, some aspects of discreteness extend the picture, for example, in the study of crystals in modern solid-state physics. Lattice vibrations of crystals, which are formally equivalent (but not identical) to some thermal energy, are quantized, and consequently have wave-particle duality. The particle representation of a lattice vibration is called a phonon, by analogy with the photon. Note that the concepts of heat and mechanical vibration, which are often confused due to their similarity, show fundamental differences in spectroscopy and other physical phenomena.

Later developments[link]

In 1798, Count Rumford published An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction, a report on his investigation of the heat produced while manufacturing cannons. He had found that boring a cannon repeatedly does not result in a loss of its ability to produce heat, and therefore no loss of caloric. This suggested that caloric could not be a conserved "substance" though the experimental uncertainties in his experiment were widely debated.

His results were not seen as a "threat" to caloric theory at the time, as this theory was considered to be equivalent to the alternative kinetic theory.^[4] In fact, to some of his contemporaries, the results added to the understanding of caloric theory.

Joule's apparatus for measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Rumford's experiment inspired the work of James Prescott Joule and others towards the middle of the 19th century. In 1850, Rudolf Clausius published a paper showing that the two theories were indeed compatible, as long as the calorists' principle of the conservation of heat was replaced by a principle of conservation of energy. In this way, the caloric theory was absorbed into the annals of physics, and evolved into modern thermodynamics, in which heat may formally be put equivalent to kinetic energy of some particles (atoms, molecules) of the substance. However, there is a principal difference between the concept of heat and a mechanical movement of particles, which shows in spectroscopy. While sharp spectral lines correspond to mechanical movements of the particles, the heat shows spectroscopically as a noise with some spectral distribution^{[citation needed]}.

In later combination with the law of energy conservation, the caloric theory still shows a very valuable physical insight into some aspects of heat. For example, the emergence of Laplace's equation and Poisson's equation in the problems of spatial distribution of heat and temperature. The caloric theory is now also remembered for the naming of the calorie.^{[citation needed]}

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Fox, R. (1971). The Caloric Theory of Gases. Clarendon Press: Oxford. 
• Chang, H.S. (2003). "Preservative realism and its discontents: Revisiting caloric". Philosophy of Science 70 (5): 902–912. DOI:10.1086/377376. 
• Mendosa, E. (February 1961). "A sketch for a history of early thermodynamics". Physics Today 14 (2): 32–42. DOI:10.1063/1.3057388. 

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Bernard H. Lavenda
Bernard H. Lavenda
Born	(1945-09-18) 18 September 1945 (age 66) New York City, USA
Nationality	Italian
Fields	Physics
Notable awards	Telesio-Galilei Academy Award in 2009

Bernard Howard Lavenda (born September 18, 1945 in New York City) is a professor of chemical physics at the University of Camerino. He is an expert on irreversible thermodynamics who has contributed to many areas of physics, including that of Brownian motion, and in the establishment of the statistical basis of thermodynamics, and non-Euclidean geometrical theories of relativity. He was the scientific coordinator of the "European Thermodynamics Network" in the European Commission Program of Human Capital and Mobility. He was also a proponent for the establishment of, and scientific director of, a National (Italian) Centre for Thermodynamics, and has acted as scientific consultant to companies such as the ENI Group, where he helped to found TEMA^{[disambiguation needed ]}, a consulting firm for SNAM Progetti, ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and the Environment), and the Solar Energy Research Institute in Golden, Colorado. He has had over 130 scientific papers published in international journals, some critical of the new fashions and modes in theoretical physics.

Professor Lavenda currently lives in Trevignano Romano near Rome, is married with two adult children and two grand-children, for whom his textbook "A New Perspective on Thermodynamics" is dedicated.

Biography[link]

Early years[link]

Bernard H. Lavenda was born in New York City. After completing secondary school in North Adams, Massachusetts, he attended Clark University where he graduated cum laude in 1966 with a B.Sc in chemistry. Having passed the entrance examination for the doctoral program at the Weizmann Institute of Science, he began experimental work on enzymes under the direction of Ephraim Katzir, who was later to become the President of Israel. Realizing that he was not made out for experimental work, he came under the influence of Ephraim's brother, Aaron, after reading his book Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics in Biophysics, coauthored with Peter Curran.

After the Six Days War, Aaron Katchalsky helped him secure a studentship for a doctoral degree in Ilya Prigogine's group in Brussels.

Doctoral thesis[link]

His doctoral thesis, "Kinetic analysis and thermodynamic interpretation of nonequilibrium unstable transitions in open systems", showed that when homogeneous nonlinear chemical reactions far from equilibrium on the thermodynamic branch, which is an extension of the law of mass action at equilibrium, become unstable they make transitions to kinetic branches with lower entropy production than the thermodynamic branch.

This result was initially contested by Prigogine who reasoned from hydrodynamic instabilities, like the Rayleigh-Benard instability, which show a larger entropy production beyond the critical point in order to maintain spatial structures. Prigogine later considered these spatial structures to be produced by unstable chemically diffusing systems, based on Alan Turing’s morphological models, calling them 'dissipative structures' and for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977.

Prigogine later acknowledged that such transitions to lower states of entropy reduction were possible since no spatial structural changes were involved, and later incorporated Lavenda’s work into a chapter of his new book Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability, and Fluctuations, co-authored with Paul Glansdorff. After receiving his doctorate from the Universite Libre de Bruxelles, with la plus grande distinction, he returned to Israel in 1970 to work as a post-doctoral student in the Physical Chemistry Department of the Hebrew University. During that period he published a short note in the Italian physics journal, Lettere Al Nuovo Cimento [3 (1972) 385-390] criticizing the Glansdorff-Prigogine universal criteria of evolution which attributes an inequality to a potential which is a function only of intensive variables, the forces. He pointed out that no such thermodynamic potential could exist for it would be devoid of all information regarding how large the system is, or how many particles it contains. The inequality would be a criterion of stability, but, on account of the assumption of local (stable) equilibrium of the components that the system is broken up into, the sum of stable components can hardly become unstable. The note would probably have gone unnoticed were it not for Peter Landsberg’s citation of it in his Nature review of the Glansdorff-Prigogine book [P. T. Landsberg, “The fourth law of thermodynamics”^[1]], where he predicted "the occasional lack of lucidity in the book which may give rise to some discussion within the next few years".

Career[link]

Consultancies[link]

After the murder of Aaron Katchalsky in Lod Airport massacre in May 1972, Lavenda accepted a position of consultant at Nuovo Pignone in Florence Italy together with a teaching position at the University of Pisa. Through the vice President of Nuovo Pignone, he came into contact with Vicenzo Gervasio who was later to become President of ENI Data, and the idea crystallized of setting up a company dedicated to the analysis and dynamic modeling of fouling processes in refineries and reactors. He established relations between ENI and Northwest Research, Boeing, and SERI (Solar Energy Research Institute). He helped form a new company within the ENI group, TEMA, which was supported by SNAM Progetti. While retaining an unpaid lectureship in Thermodynamics at the University of Naples, Lavenda published his critical appraisal of the then current theories of irreversible thermodynamics, Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, in 1978. It was originally published by the Macmillan Press and later became a Dover Classic of Science and Mathematics.

Camerino years[link]

In 1980 he won a chair in Physical Chemistry. Transferring to Camerino, he was to spend more than three decades there. His first book during this period, "Nonequilibrium Statistical Thermodynamics", published by Wiley in 1985, developed the nonlinear generalization of the Onsager-Machlup formulation of nonequilibrium fluctuations which was restricted to linear (Gaussian) processes. Just as equilibrium is characterized by the state of maximum entropy, corresponding to maximum probability, nonequlibrium states are characterized by the principle of least dissipation of energy, corresponding to the maximum probability of a transition between nonequilibrium states that are not well-separated in time. This principle can be generalized to non-Gaussian fluctuations in the limit of small thermal noise and constitutes a kinetic analog to Boltzmann’s principle.

During a sabbatical year in 1986 in Porto Alegre, Lavenda had ample time to browse through the well-furnished library at the Universidade Federale di Rio Grande del Sud. He was impressed by the parallelism between statistical inference and statistical thermodynamics: two distinct and separate branches that are essentially working on the same problems but with no apparent connection. His work, summarized in Statistical Physics: A Probabilistic Approach, published by Wiley-Interscience in 1991, completes Boltzmann’s principle, which expresses the entropy as the logarithm of a combinatorial factor, by showing that the entropy is the potential that determines Gauss’ law of error for which the average value is the most probable value. Just as there are frequency and degree- of-belief (Bayes' theorem) interpretations of statistical inference, the same should apply to statistical thermodynamics. The frequency interpretation applies to extensive variables, like energy and volume which can be sampled, while the degree-of-belief interpretations applies to the intensive variables, like temperature and pressure, for which sampling has no meaning. The connection between the two branches translates the Cramer-Rao inequality into thermodynamic uncertainty relations, analogous to quantum mechanical uncertainty relations, where the more knowledge we have about a thermodynamic variable the less we know about its conjugate. Since the lack of a probability distribution means the absence of its statistics, the possibility of an intermediate statistics, or what is referred to as parastatistics, between Bose–Einstein statistics and Fermi-Dirac statistics is nonexistent.

Statistical thermodynamics is usually concerned with most probable behavior which becomes almost certainty if large enough samples are taken. But sometimes surprises are in store where extreme behavior becomes the prevalent one. Turning his attention to such rare events Lavenda published Thermodynamics of Extremes in 1995, whose real interest lies in the formulation of a thermodynamics of earthquakes that was subsequently published in Annali di Geofisica (Extreme value statistics and thermodynamics of earthquakes: "Large earthquakes";^[2] "aftershock sequences"^[3]), and which is gaining increasing attention. By properly defining entropy and energy, a temperature can be associated to an aftershock sequence giving it an additional means of characterization. A new magnitude-frequency relation is predicted which applies to clustered after-shocks in contrast to the [Gutenberg-Richter law] which treats them as independent and identically distributed random events.

Attempts at forming a centre for thermodynamics[link]

In the nineties, Lavenda saw thermodynamics as a cultural heritage that could have a place in Italian society, and would be pertinent to both industrial research and to the preservation of its artistic patrimony. He was a proponent for the establishment of a National Centre of Thermodynamics for which financial funding was unavailable. Capturing the interest of the ENEA, or the Italian agency for alternative energy resources, he applied for funding in the European Commission of Human Capital and Mobility Programme. His project, "Thermodynamics of Complex Systems", came in sixth place in Chemistry section with maximum funding in 1992. This led to the formation of a European Thermodynamics Network consisting of 16 partners in the EU and Switzerland. It was later extended to the Eastern European Countries in the European Commission PECO Programme. This eventually led to the establishment of a National Centre for Thermodynamics that was brought into existence by the ENEA, but lasted only several months.

Later years[link]

Often critical of new fashions and modes in thermodynamics, Lavenda wrote A New Perspective on Thermodynamics,^[4] published in 2009, by returning to Carnot's original conception that work can only be done when there is a difference in temperature, and the necessity of closing the cycle before that work can be assessed. More recently Lavenda has directed his interests to relativity by providing it with a new foundation based on non-Euclidean geometries. Rather than measuring distances in terms of the usual Euclidean metric, distances are defined in terms of what is known as a cross-ratio, a perspective invariant of four points, which, for the space of velocities, just happens to be the compounding of longitudinal Doppler shifts. Doppler shifts are fundamental to relativity: oblique Doppler shifts describe aberration, while second order ones describe length contraction, but rather than being in the direction of the motion are perpendicular to it. The uniformly rotating disc, which is considered by some to be the missing link in Einstein’s formulation of general relativity, is exactly described by the hyperbolic metric in polar coordinates, named after the nineteenth century Italian geometer Eugenio Beltrami, which predicts the circumference of the disc to be greater when in motion than when it is at rest. Thus a uniformly rotating disc belongs to hyperbolic, and not Euclidean, space and so, too, does relativity.

Monographs and textbooks[link]

• A New Perspective on Relativity: An Odyssey in Noneuclidean Spaces: World Scientific (2011)
• A New Perspective on Thermodynamics: Springer, NewYork (2009) ISBN 978-1-4419-1429-3
• Thermodynamics of Extremes: Horwood (1995)
• Statistical Physics: A Probabilistic Approach (1991)
• Nonequilibrium statistical thermodynamics - Wiley (1985) ISBN-0-471-90670-0
• Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes - Macmillan Press, London, 1978 ISBN 0-333-21616-4, Dover Reprint in Dover Classics of Science and Mathematics 1993 ISBN 0-486-67576-9 (pbk)
• Russian translation Mir, Moscow, 1999 ISBN 5-03-003211-8
• Introduzione alla Fisica Atomica e Statistica- (E. Santamato coauthor) Ligouri Editore, Naples, 1989
• Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes-Italian translation, Liguori Editore, Naples, 1980 ISBN 978-88-207-0952-5
• Introduction to Atomic Physics and Statistics-In Italian

Academic positions[link]

• 1980 until present — Full Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
• 1997 — Scientific Director of the National Centre for Thermodynamics, ENEA Rome
• 1992–1996 — Scientific Coordinator of the European Thermodynamics Network
• 1993–1996 — Scientific Coordinator of the Eastern European Thermodynamics Network of the European Commission (PECO)
• 1986 — Visiting Professor, Department of Physics Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre (RS), Brasil
• 1978–1984 — Scientific Consultant at TEMA (ENI Group)Bologna
• 1975–1980 — Professore Incaricato of Thermodynamics University of Naples, Faculty of Natural Sciences
• 1975–1976 — Professore Incaricato of Electronics, University of Naples, Engineering Faculty
• 1974–1975 — Incarico di Ricerca at the International Institute of Genetics and Biophysics, Naples
• 1972–1973 — Professore Incaricato of Chemical Statistics, University of Pisa, Faculty of Natural Sciences

Academic history[link]

• 1966 — Bachelor of Arts in Chemistry, Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA
• 1968 — Masters of Science in Physical Chemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
• 1970 — Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry, Chemie-Physique II, Université libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
• 1970–2 Post Doctoral, Department of Physical Chemistry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel

Awards and prizes[link]

• Telesio-Galilei Academy Award 2009 given for his work on irreversible thermodynamics and contributions to many areas of physics, including those of Brownian motion, and in the establishment of the statistical basis of thermodynamics, and his contributions to astrophysics/cosmology.http://www.telesio-galilei.com/tg/index.php/academy-award-2009

References[link]

Gary Taubes (born April 30, 1956) is an American science writer.

He is the author of Nobel Dreams (1987), Bad Science: The Short Life and Weird Times of Cold Fusion (1993), and Good Calories, Bad Calories (2007), titled The Diet Delusion (2008) in the UK and Australia.^[1] His book Why We Get Fat: And What to Do About It was released in December 2010. In December 2010 Taubes launched his own blog at GaryTaubes.com to promote the book's release and to respond to critics.

Biography[link]

Born in Rochester, New York, Taubes studied applied physics at Harvard University and aerospace engineering at Stanford University (MS, 1978). After receiving a master's degree in journalism at Columbia University in 1981, Taubes joined Discover magazine as a staff reporter in 1982.^[2] Since then he has written numerous articles for Discover, Science and other magazines. Originally focusing on physics issues, his interests have more recently turned to medicine and nutrition.

Taubes's books have all dealt with scientific controversies. Nobel Dreams takes a critical look at the politics and experimental techniques behind the Nobel Prize-winning work of physicist Carlo Rubbia. Bad Science is a chronicle of the short-lived media frenzy surrounding the Pons-Fleischmann cold fusion experiments of 1989.

His brother, Clifford Henry Taubes, is the William Petschek Professor of Mathematics at Harvard University.^[3]

Dietary science[link]

Gary Taubes on Bookbits radio.

Taubes gained prominence in the low-carb diet debate following the publication of his 2002 New York Times Magazine piece "What if It's All Been a Big Fat Lie?". The article, which questioned the efficacy and health benefits of low-fat diets, was seen as defending the Atkins diet against the medical establishment, and it became extremely controversial. Taubes himself stated: "[E]ven though I knew the article would be the most controversial article the Times Magazine ran all year, [the reaction] still shocked me."^[4] The Center for Science in the Public Interest published a rebuttal to the Times article in its November 2002 newsletter.^[5] According to Taubes: "[T]he CSPI is an advocacy group that has been pushing low-fat diets since the 1970s."^[6]

In 2007, Taubes published his book Good Calories, Bad Calories: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom on Diet, Weight Control, and Disease (published as The Diet Delusion in the UK). This book examined how a hypothesis became dogma and claimed to show how the scientific method was circumvented so a contestable hypothesis could remain unchallenged. The book uses data and studies compiled from dietary research from as early as the 19th century.^[7][8]

Taubes's hypothesis is that the medical community and the federal government of the United States of America have relied upon misinterpreted scientific data on nutrition to build the prevailing paradigm about what constitutes healthful eating. Taubes makes the case that — contrary to the conventional wisdom — it is refined carbohydrates that are responsible for heart disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and many other maladies of civilization. In the Epilogue to Good Calories, Bad Calories on page 454, Taubes notes ten "inescapable" conclusions, the first of which is:^[9]

Taubes includes information and studies which indicate that physical exercise increases appetite to a degree that makes it an inefficient tool in weight loss. He tracks the origins of commonly accepted dietary advice and aims to show that information that is filtered to the public often contradicts scientific evidence. On October 19, 2007 Taubes appeared on Larry King Live to discuss his book. Although Taubes has no formal training in nutrition or medicine, his book was praised as "raising interesting and valuable points" by Andrew Weil, a proponent of alternative medicine, while Mehmet Oz and trainer Jillian Michaels who appeared on the same program disagreed with Taubes on many questions.^[10]

The reviews for Good Calories, Bad Calories have varied. George Bray of the Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Louisiana notes in his review that the book "...has much useful information and is well worth reading." but "Obese people clearly eat more than do lean ones."^[11] Taubes, in a letter to the editor in the same journal, clarifies some of the comments made by Bray. Taubes notes, "The hypothesis favored by Bray and a half century of authorities on human obesity is that fat accumulation is fundamentally caused by positive energy balance." Taubes responds, "The alternative hypothesis begins with the fundamental observation that obesity is a disorder of excess fat accumulation and then asks the obvious question, what regulates fat accumulation. This was elucidated by 1965 and has never been controversial. 'Insulin is the principle regulator of fat metabolism'..."^[12]

John Tierney in his New York Times review entitled "Diet and Fat: A Severe Case of Mistaken Consensus", discusses information cascades and the role of Ancel Keys in widely held beliefs related to diet and fat. Tierney quotes Taubes in noting that "the most rigorous meta-analysis of the clinical trials of low-fat diets, published in 2001 by the Cochrane Collaboration, concluded that they had no significant effect on mortality."^[13]

Awards[link]

Taubes has won the Science in Society Journalism Award of the National Association of Science Writers three times and was awarded an MIT Knight Science Journalism Fellowship for 1996-97.^[4] He is a Robert Wood Johnson Foundation independent investigator in health policy.^[14]

See also[link]

• William Banting

References[link]

Publications[link]

• Nobel Dreams: Power, Deceit and the Ultimate Experiment. Random House. 1986. ISBN 978-0-394-54503-5. 
• Bad Science: The Short Life and Weird Times of Cold Fusion. Random House. 1993. ISBN 978-0-394-58456-0. 
• Epidemiology Faces Its Limits, Science, July 1995.
• Nobel Gas, Slate, October 11, 1997.
• The Soft Science of Dietary Fat, Science, March 2001.
• What if It's All Been a Big Fat Lie?, New York Times Magazine, July 7, 2002.
• Do We Really Know What Makes Us Healthy?, New York Times, September 17, 2007.
• Good Calories, Bad Calories: Challenging the Conventional Wisdom on Diet, Weight Control, and Disease. Knopf. 2007. ISBN 978-1-4000-4078-0.  (Also published as The Diet Delusion ISBN 978-0-09-189141-1)
• Why We Get Fat: And What to Do About It. 2010. 
• Is Sugar Toxic?. The New York Times, April 13, 2011.

External links[link]

• (Link is dead) Webcast of Lecture by Gary Taubes at University of California, Berkeley -- "The Quality of Calories: What Makes Us Fat and Why Nobody Seems to Care"
• Webcast of Lecture by Gary Taubes at Stevens Institute of Technology, Center for Science Writings, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2/6/2008 -- "Big Fat Lies"
• Article by Gary Taubes questioning the efficacy of exercise in weight loss -- "We Can't Work It Out"
• Excerpt from Good Calories, Bad Calories and NPR interview -- "Not All Calories Are Created Equal, Author Says".
• Interview with Gary Taubes by Knight Fellowships at MIT
• Interview with Gary Taubes by John Horgan (Stevens Center for Science Writing, Cross-check): "Science Saturday: Why We Get Fat"
• Interview with Gary Taubes by Aaron McCloud, Seattle, 2012, and the Interview Transcript