The Plymouth Brethren is a conservative, Evangelical Christian movement, whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s.^[1][2] Although the group is notable for not taking any official "church name" to itself, and not having an official clergy or liturgy, the title "The Brethren," is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as "brethren" (meaning "brothers"). "Brethren assemblies" are commonly perceived as being divided into at least two branches, the "Open Brethren" and the "Exclusive Brethren".^[3]

History[link]

The Plymouth Brethren movement began in Dublin around 1827, and soon spread from Ireland to Britain. The first English assembly was in Plymouth, where the movement became well known. Brethren assemblies diffused throughout Europe and beyond.^[4] Leonard Strong led the formation about 1836 of assemblies in British Guiana among the slaves.^[5][6] In the early years, those involved were largely unknown to one another, with no direct contact between the various groups.^[2]

The two main but conflicting aspirations of the movement were to create a holy and pure fellowship on one hand, and to allow all Christians into fellowship on the other. Following decades of dissent, and the expansion of Methodism and political revolutions in the United States and France, believers in the movement felt that the established Church of England had abandoned or distorted many of the ancient traditions of Christendom. To get away from the sectarianism of dissenters, people in the movement wanted simply to meet together in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ without reference to denominational differences. Early meetings included Christians from a variety of denominations.

A feeling of dissatisfaction toward existing church gatherings also contributed to such differing movements as the "Oxford Movement", "Irvingism" and other Christian manifestations of change.

In Dublin, more than one group of believers met separately around 1827, and for some time were unknown to each other.^[7] These believers included John Nelson Darby and Anthony Norris Groves, who were dubbed "brethren" because of their practice of calling each other "brother" instead of the titles favoured by mainstream denominations.

The first meeting in England was held in December 1831^[8] in Plymouth. It was organised primarily by George Wigram, Benjamin Wills Newton and John Nelson Darby.^[9] The movement soon spread throughout the UK. By 1845, the assembly in Plymouth had over 1,000 people in fellowship.^[10] They became known as "the brethren from Plymouth" and were soon simply called "Plymouth Brethren". The term "Darbyites" is also used, especially when describing the "Exclusive" branch where the influence of John Nelson Darby is more pronounced. Many within the movement refuse to accept any name other than "Christian".

The movement rapidly gained popularity and spread worldwide. By 1848 divergence of practice and belief led to the development of two separate branches, commonly known as the Exclusive Brethren (sometimes referred to as "Closed Brethren") and the Open Brethren. One opinion is that the rift was caused primarily by theological differences between John Nelson Darby and Benjamin Wills Newton with regard to eschatology. Another opinion is that the rift was due to Darby's strong objections to a shift towards clericalism and away from the priesthood of all believers within the assembly in Plymouth in the early 1840s, whilst under the leadership of Newton during the years when Darby spent much of his time teaching and preaching in mainland Europe. Despite more divisions, assemblies are still often generalised into the two main categories of Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren.

The Brethren have been in decline in the UK since the 1950s, but the assemblies with more progressive approaches have grown. There has been a blurring of distinctions between some assemblies and other non-denominational and house church congregations. Some groups have abandoned earlier principles, such as rejection of a salaried ministry and insistence on women's silence.^[11] However those assemblies that have abandoned these principles, by allowing paid ministry and allowing women to teach openly from the pulpit, may no longer be considered "Brethren" assemblies, but referred to as "Bible" churches.^{[citation needed]} The "Bible" churches look more like traditional non-denominational congregations.^{[citation needed]}

Some fellowships maintain these distinctive principles while updating many traditions and practices, while others continue in much the same way as they have for most of the 20th century. The more traditional assemblies in the UK today can be found in Northern Ireland (where other denominations refer to them as 'Plyms'), Scotland, Northern England and parts of the South of England, like Hampshire. Outside the British Isles, the brethren have a large presence in the Faroe Islands, forming the largest non-conformist group amongst a population that predominantly belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Denmark.^[12]

The Brethren movement is widespread in the United States and Canada, where it has spread through evangelistic endeavours, immigration from the UK and Commonwealth countries, and by attracting Christians from other backgrounds with its emphasis on Biblicism, centrality of the Lord's Supper and equality of all believers under Christ, as well as its avoidance of denominational governance. Open Brethren congregations in America often are barely distinguishable from other evangelical denominations on the outside and often engage in joint efforts with other Christians in their communities. On the other hand, some previously thriving Brethren assemblies have seen dwindling attendances in recent years due in part to the lack of strong denominational loyalties and cultural discomfort with some Brethren traditions, such as head covering for women, silence of women, and a cappella singing. In America, the designation of the building in which Open Brethren assemblies meet most often include the word "Chapel" in their formal name, combined with a biblical place name or principle or otherwise a local geographic feature—for instance, Bethany Chapel, Central Gospel Chapel, Park Road Bible Chapel, Riverview Believers Chapel. But unlike many other Christian groups, the names of Christian saints, (e.g. Paul, Luke) are rarely or never used. Closed groups, however, avoid "taking a name" to their group. A Closed group building is referred to as a "Meeting Room" or "Gospel Hall", and the word "Chapel" is avoided.

"Open" and "Exclusive" Brethren[link]

The term "Exclusive" is most commonly used in the media to describe one separatist group known by other groups as "Taylor-Hales Brethren". The majority of Christians known as "Brethren" are not in any way connected with the Taylor-Hales group, who are known for their extreme isolationism. What other groups refer to as the "Raven" Brethren (named for prominent Exclusive leader Mr. Raven) are rather like the Taylor-Hales group but less strict and isolationist. Exclusive Brethren groups that are not in any way affiliated with, nor as isolationist as, the Ravens or the Taylor-Hales Exclusives (the "Tunbridge Wells" groups, for instance) are happier being called "Closed" rather than "Exclusive" brethren, so as to avoid any connection with these more militant groups.

With the exception of the separatist Raven-Taylor-Hales Brethren, so-called Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren differ on few theological issues. Some Exclusives hold to "Household Baptism" as opposed to "Believers' Baptism", which is practised by the Open Brethren. With the exception of the separatist Taylor-Hales brethren, all assemblies welcome visitors to Gospel meetings and other gatherings. Some Open Brethren assemblies allow any believer to "break bread" with them, and are said to have an "open table" approach to strangers. Others believe that only those formally recognised as part of that or another equivalent assembly should break bread. Similarly, practices of reception among "Exclusive" assemblies vary, many tending to operate a cautious or "guarded" approach to reception and others being more liberal. It is felt by many Brethren that the mutual Communion of their fellowship with bread and wine can be tainted by the inclusion of those whose hearts are not pure before God. Fellowship in the Lord's Supper is not considered a private matter but a corporate expression, "Because we, being many, are one loaf, one body; for we all partake of that one loaf." (1 Corinthians 10:17) A further verse that Brethren refer to is, "Shall two walk together except they be agreed?" (Amos 3:3) Many, both Closed and Open Brethren, hold that association with evil defiles and that the Communion meal can bring that association. Their support text is from 1 Corinthians 15:33, "Be not deceived: evil communications corrupt good manners."

A clearer difference between Open and Exclusive assemblies is in the nature of relationships between meetings. Open Brethren meetings are generally local assemblies that are autonomous but often informally linked with each other. Exclusive Brethren are generally "connexional" and so feel under obligation to recognise and adhere to the disciplinary actions of other associated assemblies. Disciplinary action normally involves denying the individual the breaking of bread (taking of communion) on Sunday mornings, and to varying degrees, dependant upon which kind of Brethren group it is, may also involve forms of formal social ostracism or shunning. (For instance, people placed "under discipline" may be asked not to attend any group functions which are purely social, and people may decline to eat with and shake hands with members who are under discipline.) One practical result of this might be that among Open Brethren, should a member be "disciplined" in one assembly other assemblies may feel free to allow the member to break bread with them (if they are not concerned by whatever caused the disciplinary action of the one in question). A numerically small movement known as the Needed Truth Brethren emerged out of the Open Brethren, around 1892, partly in an attempt to address the problem of making discipline more effective.

Reasons for being put "under discipline" by both the Open and Exclusive Brethren include refusing to recant and disseminating what is, in the eyes of the fellowship, gross Scriptural or doctrinal error, and/or being involved in what is deemed sexual immorality (including adulterous, homosexual, or premarital sex). Being accused of irregular or illegal financial dealings may also result in being put under discipline. In Exclusive meetings, a member "under discipline" in one assembly would not be accepted (allowed to "break bread" or play an active teaching and worshipping role) in another assembly, as the Assembly generally respects the decisions made by the other Assembly. As Exclusives have developed into a number of different branches, often when there was not universal agreement among the assemblies in a specific case of excommunication, a particular act of discipline may not be recognised by all assemblies. Exclusives are also much more adherent to the shunning (or "shutting up") of the offending party, using instructions given for dealing with a "leprous house" in Leviticus 14:34–48 as guidance. In extreme cases, members may be asked to shun or divorce members of their immediate families (as described in Ngaire Thomas^[13]' book Behind Closed Doors).

Another less clear difference between assemblies lies in their approaches to collaborating with other Christians. Some Open Brethren will hold Gospel meetings, youth events, or other activities in partnership with Evangelical Christian churches, while others (and perhaps the majority of Exclusive Brethren) tend not to support activities outside their own meetings.

Since the formation of the Exclusives in 1848, there have been a great number of subdivisions into separate groups, but most groups have since re-joined with the exception of the separatist Taylor-Hales (otherwise known as 'Jimite' from their following of James Taylor Jnr at the division in 1970) groups who practise extreme separation and whom other Brethren generally believe to be a cult. This, and other Exclusive groups (Closed Brethren), prefer not be known by any name and are only given such designations by non-members.

Both Open and Exclusive assemblies generally maintain relations within their respective groups through common support of missionaries, area conferences and the ministry of travelling "Commended Workers" or "Labouring Brothers."

Characteristics[link]

The Plymouth Brethren are generally dispensational, pre-tribulational, premillennial in their theology and have much in common with other conservative evangelical Christian groups. They believe in the "Eternal Security" of the true Bible-believing Christian with each believer being subject to "grace" and not "law".^[14] In Open Brethren meetings each local assembly is independent and autonomous, so the characteristics of each may differ to a greater or lesser degree, which makes it difficult to describe distinctive characteristics. Exclusive Brethren meetings are more affiliated to one another, but characterising their meetings is made difficult because over the years they have split many times into many divisions.

Essentially, therefore, the Brethren have no central hierarchy to dictate a statement of faith, and even local assemblies tend not to give tacit adherence to any of the historic "Creeds" and "Confessions of Faith" such as are found in many Protestant denominations. This is not because they are opposed to the central sentiments and doctrines expressed in such formulations but rather because they hold the Bible as their sole authority in regard to matters of doctrine and practice. Like many non-conformist churches, Brethren observe only the two ordinances of Baptism and Communion.

Their notable differences from other Christian groups lie in a number of doctrinal beliefs that affect the practice of their gatherings and behaviour. These differences can be summarised as follows:^[2]

Avoidance of traditional symbols[link]

Traditionally, meetings do not have a cross displayed inside or outside their place of worship as the focus is on Christ and the Word of God.^[15] The Plymouth Brethren view an unembellished room as more effective.^[16][17] Crosses are not typically placed inside homes or worn around the neck by these believers. Other symbols such as stained glass windows for their normal meeting hall have been traditionally discouraged. Their meeting places sometimes have Bible names, e.g., "Ebenezer," "Hebron," "Shiloh" and "Bethel"; sometimes they are named after the street on which they are found, e.g. Curzon Street Gospel Hall, Derby; sometimes after the locality, e.g. Ballynagarrick Gospel Hall. Some use the name Chapel instead of Gospel Hall.

Meetings do not follow a set liturgy nor the liturgical calendar of "High Church" groups, such as the Anglican or Lutheran churches.

Exclusive Brethren do not generally name their meeting rooms except by reference perhaps to the road, e.g. Galpins Road Meeting Room. The meeting room is often referred to as "The Room". Notice boards give the times of Gospel Preachings with a formula such as "If the Lord will, the Gospel will be preached in this room Lord's Day at 6.30." Symington/Taylor/Hales meeting rooms have notice boards which indicate that it is a place registered for public worship and give a contact number for further information.^{[citation needed]}

Fellowship, not membership[link]

Traditionally the assemblies have rejected the concept of anyone "joining" as a member of a particular local gathering of believers and the maintenance of any list of such members.^[18] Brethren emphasise the Christian doctrine of the one "Church" made up of all true believers and enumerated in Heaven in "Lamb's Book of Life",^[19] rather than by humans. However, as a practical matter, in the late 20th century many American Open assemblies began maintaining informal lists of those in regular attendance at meetings. This was often to comply with secular governance issues or to offer a directory of attendees for internal use. The Open Brethren emphasise that meeting attendance for the nonbeliever has no direct spiritual benefit (though it is hoped the individual may be influenced to convert). Nonbelievers are not to partake of the "Breaking of Bread", though this proves generally difficult to enforce in larger Open assemblies. Regardless, regular attendance for believers is felt to be an act of obedience to the New Testament command that they should not neglect the assembling of themselves together.^[20] Despite the Brethren's rejection of the term 'member', many observers use the term to refer to those who attend meetings. The concept of not having an official membership is not so clear cut among the Exclusives, as people who wish to break bread must be affiliated with a "home assembly" to which they are responsible in terms of lifestyle choices. Visiting brethren are usually expected to bring a "letter of introduction" from their "home assembly", assuring the group they are visiting that they are in fellowship and not under any form of discipline.

No clergy[link]

While much of typical Brethren theology closely parallels non-Calvinist English and American Baptist traditions on many points, the view on clergy is much closer to the Protestant Reformation in rejecting the idea of clergy. Many Protestant denominations claim adherence to the New Testament doctrine of the priesthood of all believers^{[1Pet 2:9-10]} to varying extents. The Plymouth Brethren embrace the most extensive form of that idea in that there is no ordained or unordained person or group employed to function as minister(s) or pastor(s). The spiritual leaders of certain Plymouth Brethren assemblies or meetings are termed "Elders" (though this is never used as a title in any sense, particularly it is never used as a title of address), and sometimes more practical leaders, called "Deacons", are identified. The term "Elder" is based on the same Scriptures that are used to identify "Bishops" and "Overseers" in other Christian circles.^[21], and some claim that the system of recognition of elders by the assembly means that the Plymouth Brethren as a movement cannot claim full adherence to the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers.^[22] However, this reveals a mistaken understanding of the priesthood of all believers which in the Assemblies has to do with the ability to directly offer worship, whether silently or audibly, to God and His Christ, at the Lord's Supper without any human mediator being necessary - which is in accordance with 1Tim 2:5 where it is stated that Christ Jesus Himself is the sole Mediator between God and men ("men", being used here generically of mankind, and not referring simply and solely to "males"). There is usually more than one elder in an assembly and although officially naming and recognizing "eldership" is common to Open Brethren (cf. 1Thess 5:12-13), there are many Exclusive assemblies that believe recognizing a man as an "elder" is too close to having clergy, and therefore a group of "leading brothers", none of whom has an official title of any kind, attempts to present issues to the entire group for it to decide upon, believing that the whole group must decide, not merely a body of "elders". (As in all Exclusive Brethren meetings, women are generally not permitted to speak at meetings at which the entire group makes "assembly decisions", and in many groups women may not attend these affairs.)

Plymouth Brethren groups generally recognise from the teachings of the Apostle Paul's epistles that not all the believers in any one fellowship are suited to give public ministry such as teaching and preaching.^[23]

As a practical matter, many Open assemblies have come to embrace the need to financially compensate an individual who has made preaching and teaching his full-time occupation, and these people are sometimes salaried or, perhaps more commonly, variously compensated as the Lord's people provide. Such an individual may be termed a "full-time worker" (or a "labouring brother" or "on the Lord's work"). At a given assembly, there may be no full-time workers, or one or several. It is generally up to the elders and dependent on the availability of such an individual and the financial means of the assembly. Some Exclusive assemblies "commend" men who are dedicated to the work of preaching. Although they usually do not receive a salary, gifts are often given to them by the separate assemblies where they preach and teach. This practice is also quite common among the Open assemblies.

Traditionally, the assemblies have recognized New Testament passages that seem to deny speaking and teaching roles to women, except when working with children or with other women. Some women may also be full-time workers, but their efforts are often limited to these mentioned areas or to supporting roles. Women are generally not allowed to participate in individual speech during the "Breaking of Bread" meeting (i.e., gathering). (see Separate Roles of Men and Women)

It is not strictly accurate to say that the assemblies reject the ordination of women. The assemblies reject the concept of ordination altogether. As a substitute practice, a male full-time worker often receives a "commendation" to the ministry, or work, of preaching and/or teaching that demonstrates the blessing and support of the assembly of origin, but that does not connote a transfer of any special spiritual authority. In some groups, both men and women may be commended to various forms of ministry, or work, but again the role of women is limited. In recent years some American assemblies have loosened the rules on women participating, such as women singing special music during the "family Bible hours" at their assemblies, though others have reacted by placing more emphasis on this traditional teaching.^{[citation needed]}

Weekly "Remembrance" meeting[link]

Former Brethren Meeting House, Burgess Hill

A distinctive practice of the Brethren is a separate weekly Communion meeting, referred to as the "Breaking of Bread" or "The Lord's Supper". Although specific practices will vary from meeting to meeting, there are general similarities.

• The "Remembrance Meeting" is usually held each Sunday morning (though some assemblies hold it in the evening).^[24]
• Where a meeting hall allows for the adjustment of furniture, the table bearing the communion "emblems" (bread and wine or grape juice) is sometimes placed in the centre of the room. Chairs may be arranged around the table in four radiating sections, all facing the table, although this is not a recognised standard.
• There is no order or plan for the meeting: rather the meeting is extempore; men (see The Separate Roles of Men and Women) will (as "led by the Spirit") rise and read or quote Scripture, pray, request a hymn to be sung or give a Christ-centered thought.
• Most assemblies do not have instrumental accompaniment to hymns and songs sung during the "Remembrance Meeting" but instead have men who "start the hymns" (choosing a tune, tempo, pitch and key and singing the first few words, with the rest joining in shortly thereafter).^[25] In some groups, musical accompaniment may be used at the other meetings (i.e., gatherings).
• Either at the beginning or toward the end of the "Remembrance Meeting" gathering, a prayer is said in reference to the bread concerning its portrayal as "the body of Christ", perhaps by an individual so appointed or (in a meeting where no one is appointed) by a man who has taken it upon himself.^[26][27][28]
• Generally a loaf of leavened bread is used as an emblem of Christ's body - though many assemblies use unleavended bread or matzos. After giving thanks for the loaf, it is broken and circulated to the quiet, seated congregation. Congregants will break off small pieces, or take small pieces of broken unleavened bread, as it is passed, and eat them individually (i.e. not waiting for a group invitation to consume it together). At this time, the worshipper usually engages in silent prayerful worship of the Lord Jesus Christ.
• As with common Christian practice, wine has been traditionally used at Brethren Remembrance Meeting s as the emblem of Christ's blood. Some individual meetings use grape juice, especially if someone in fellowship has had an alcohol problem in the past. The emblem of the blood is served after the bread has been circulated to the congregation and after it has been prayed over. In a similar fashion as each worshipper takes the "cup", so to speak, that individual again usually engages in silent prayerful worship of the Lord Jesus Christ.
• An offering bag, basket or box may be sent around after these two "emblems" have been passed, collecting money given voluntarily for use in maintaining the building, hall or room, to remunerate full-time or labouring members, or for distribution to the needy. In some cases an offering box may be placed at the door and not circulated.
• Because some assemblies do not encourage strangers to take Communion, it is the custom of those who are travelling to take with them a "letter of introduction" so they might be permitted to take Communion away from their home assemblies. These letters are typically read aloud to those present at the "Remembrance Meeting" and serve the purpose of introducing visitors to the meetings so that they can be made welcome and benefit from fellowship. These Exclusive and Open Brethren meetings operate what is termed a "Closed Table Policy". Any stranger arriving at such a meeting without a letter is allowed only to observe the meeting. Some Open assemblies welcome any who profess Jesus Christ as the Saviour and who give evidence of such after simple questioning by either one or more of the assembly elders or one or more of those ushering at that particular meeting. At some assemblies, a pamphlet explaining the Scriptural basis and purpose of the Lord's Supper is handed to visitors before they enter the main meeting room where the assembly is gathered preparing themselves for worship. This pamphlet explains to the visitor what they are about to witness and perhaps, if they so choose, be a participant in.
• Some Exclusive meetings differ from Open meetings in seating accepted men (men who are "in fellowship") in the front rows toward the table bearing the emblems, with accepted women behind the men, and unaccepted men and women toward the rear. Other Exclusive meetings seat accepted men and women together (so spouses can be seated together), and unaccepted men and women towards the rear in the "Seat of the Unlearned" or "Seat of the Observer".

Other Sunday meetings[link]

Following the Remembrance meeting there may be one other Sunday meeting, or perhaps more. Whereas the purpose of the Lord's Supper is predominantly for worship, recalling the person and work of Christ, other meetings involve Bible teaching, evangelism and gospel preaching (among young and old). Sunday Schools and Bible classes are common. In ministry and Gospel meetings the congregation, seated in rows facing a pulpit or platform, sing hymns and choruses and listen to Scripture readings and a sermon preached by one of the brethren called to "preach". Bible teaching may be given either in the form of a ministry meeting in which a sermon is delivered or in a "Bible reading" or "Bible study" in which the men discuss a portion of Scripture.

Low-key offerings taken[link]

The assemblies do not take an offering during the time their Sunday sermons are preached; but some, not all, do take an offering at the Breaking of Bread meetings. Only those in fellowship are expected to give. Tithing, giving 10 percent of one's income, is seen as commandment for Israel from the Old Testament law and not applicable to the Church. Instead, the amount given is left to the giver and is a private matter between the individual and the Lord.^[29]

One reason for not taking up an offering at all meetings is to avoid causing any unbelievers who may be present to think that they might gain a spiritual benefit by making a donation. Some assemblies never send an offering bag round the congregation, even at the Breaking of Bread meeting. They prefer to simply have a box or two located at the back of the meeting hall, thus avoiding even the appearance of solicitation for funds. Many assemblies operate a "back seat" or "guest row" during the Breaking of Bread so that neither the offering bag nor the emblems of bread and wine will pass down the row of those not in fellowship.

No salaried ministry[link]

See the comments on "No Clergy" above. Most assemblies are led by a group of unordained men, "Overseers" or "Elders", who believe they have been 'Called by God' (Romans 8:28). Ordination is "anathema" to Plymouth Brethren, because the separate "office" of "Preacher" does not appear in the original Koine Greek language of the New Testament, and because such ordination connotes unbiblical separation of some believers into a distinctly higher class.^[30]

Conversely, an Elder is should be able and ready to teach when his assembly sees the "Call of God" on his life to assume that office (1 Timothy 3:2). The Elders conduct many other duties that would be typically performed by "clergy" in other Christian groups, including: counselling those who have decided to be baptised, performing baptisms, visiting the sick and giving general spiritual advice. Some Open assemblies, especially the larger assemblies in North America, have salaried staff, including some designated as "Teaching Elders" or "Teaching Pastors". Normally, sermons are given by both Elders and other members of the meeting. Visiting speakers, however, are usually paid to cover expenses such as the cost of travel. Full-time missionaries are often financially supported by assemblies known by them, particularly their home assemblies.

Separate roles of men and women[link]

No distinction is made in Brethren teaching between men and women in their individual relation to Christ and his "vicarious atonement" for them on the cross, or their individual position before God as believers. However, in most Brethren meetings the principle of "male headship" is applied in accordance with teaching found in several passages in the Bible, including 1 Corinthians 11:3, which says:

"But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of the woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God."

"1 The Head of every man is Christ – no equality. 2 The head of the woman is the man – equality and subjection. 3 The Head of Christ is God – equality, yet subjection."^[31]

Thus most Brethren meetings reserve public leadership and teaching roles to men, based on 1 Timothy 2:11,12...:

"A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent."

Also, 1 Corinthians 14:34,35 states, "Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law. And if they will learn any thing, let them ask their husbands at home: for it is a shame for women to speak in the church." (The reason for this has to do with acknowledging Headship: Headship and the head covering are seen by many as inseparable since the head covering is intended to teach the meaning of headship. See below for information on the head covering).

From this, Brethren teaching traditionally (there are regional exceptions) outlines a system in which the men take the "vocal" and leadership roles and the women take supportive and "silent" roles. In practical terms, what is traditionally seen is that the men are fully responsible for all preaching, teaching and leading of worship. Therefore, in most Brethren groups women will be heard to sing the hymns along with the group, but their voices will not otherwise be heard during the meeting. Often the men are, practically speaking, the only ones involved fully and vocally in all discussions leading up to administrative decision making as well. Within Exclusive groups in particular, matters up for debate may be discussed at special meetings attended solely by adult males called, in some groups, "Brothers Meetings".

The Head Covering:

[As to the reason behind women covering their heads at meetings in some groups, 1 Corinthians 11:5,6 says:

"But every woman that prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonours her head: for that is even all one as if she were shaven. For if the woman be not covered, let her also be shorn: but if it be a shame for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her be covered."

For this reason, some meetings will be characterized by the women wearing head coverings ("loaners" in some assemblies are available at the back for women who have come without a covering). Head coverings typically take the form of a tam, beret or similar hat which can be more aptly described as a "head topping," rather than as covering the head in any real way. Sisters in Exclusive ('Jimite') gatherings quite commonly wear a headscarf or "mantilla" (a lace/doily-like Spanish veil) on their heads. It is a fairly common misconception that Exclusive women characteristically wear a shawl over their heads, though no doubt some women have sometimes resorted to this.

While that is an overly-simplified view of the head covering, understanding the purpose for the head covering comes from looking at 1 Corinthians 11:3&4, which says:

"³But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of the woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God. ⁴ Every man praying or prophesying, having his head covered, dishonoreth his head."

Here is the "picture" that the head covering displays: the Head of the man is Christ, so the man's physical head needs to be uncovered to honor his Head, Christ is displayed. The head of the woman is the man, so the woman's physical head must be covered, men are not on display in the church. The woman's head covering and silence in the church shows that the men participating are not on display but rather that Christ is on display.^[31]

Over recent years the practice in some Open and Closed Brethren assemblies throughout the world have developed to leave questions of head coverings, levels of female participation and responsibility mainly to the discretion of individuals and groups. Concerning levels of female participation in prayer at the Lord's Supper: this is particularly true of assemblies in India which can trace their heritage back to the so-called brother Bakht-Singh assemblies where women are permitted to offer prayer at the Lord's Supper.

Some Brethren of both Open and Exclusive persuasion seek to be completely untouched by changing attitudes within society regarding the role of women. They view the abandonment of the traditionally practised doctrine of Headship as evidence of an overall apostasy (or moral deterioration) within Christendom and as leading to disorder and eventual anarchy within their fellowships.

Other practices[link]

Gatherings and meetings[link]

Assemblies prefer to use the term "meeting" to describe their gatherings rather than "service". The term "service", to some, is normally associated with a service or something which is offered for a fee. Assemblies might also have weekly meetings which might include: preaching/teaching meetings, missionary reports, Bible studies and prayer meetings. There is frequently a Sunday School for children and youth groups for teens. Although women do not verbally participate in the Breaking of Bread meeting, in some groups they take part in Sunday School, teach classes, conduct ladies meetings and are generally very active in "Camping" ministry.

Music[link]

During the weekly Breaking of Bread meeting, hymns are traditionally sung unaccompanied by any musical instrument, though some assemblies may have instrumental accompaniment. In some assemblies, hymns sung during the other types of meetings are accompanied by piano or electronic organ, though this practice varies among assemblies. Other musical instruments are used at some assemblies. Some assemblies blend traditional hymns with contemporary "Praise & Worship" music accompanied by bands. One of the unifying features in each of the different branches of the Brethren is a common hymnbook. The first collection used among the united assemblies was, "Hymns for the Poor of the Flock," from 1838 and again in 1840. Another such hymnbook, used by Exclusive Brethren (Tunbridge-Wells and Ames) dating back to 1856 is called, "Hymns and Spiritual Songs for the Little Flock," the first edition of which was compiled by G.V. Wigram. A revision was made in 1881 by J.N. Darby. The Little Flock hymnbook has gone through many different editions in different languages. In modern times one of the more commonly-used English hymn books in British and North American assemblies is The Believers Hymn Book.

Influence[link]

The influence of the Plymouth Brethren upon evangelical Christianity exceeds their relatively small numerical proportion. The movement today has many congregations around the world.

Christian Missions in Many Lands (CMML), in the United States, Missionary Service Committee (MSC), in Canada, and Echoes of Service, in the United Kingdom, serve as support agencies for Brethren missionaries, helping with logistics and material support. These agencies help to equip and support those sent from local churches. Hudson Taylor, the founder of the China Inland Mission, kept strong ties with the Open Brethren, even though he was raised a Methodist and later was a member of a Baptist Church. The concept of "Faith Missions" can be traced back through Hudson Taylor, to the example of the early Brethren missionary, Anthony Norris Groves.

J.N. Darby, one of the original members and perhaps the most well known of the movement, wrote over 50 books including a translation of the New Testament and is often credited with the development of the theology of "dispensationalism" and "pretribulationism" which have been widely adopted in evangelical churches outside of the brethren movement. In the early twentieth century, Darby's writings have the greatest influence on the Little Flock of Watchman Nee and Witness Lee.

Many leaders of the contemporary evangelical movement came from Brethren backgrounds. These include England-born Dr. D. Stuart Briscoe, author, international speaker and former senior pastor of Elmbrook Church (one of the 50-largest churches in the U.S.), in Brookfield, Wisconsin, Dr. Geoff Tunnicliffe, CEO of the World Evangelical Alliance; the late British scholar F.F. Bruce; 1956 Auca missionary martyrs Ed McCully, Jim Elliot and Peter Fleming; Walter Liefeld, NT professor at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School; the late preacher Dr. Harry A. Ironside, who wrote the, Historical Sketch of the Brethren Movement. Radio personality Garrison Keillor was raised among the Plymouth Brethren, whom he sometimes refers to as the, "sanctified brethren," in his News from "Lake Wobegon" monologues. Peter Maiden, the current leader of Operation Mobilization, also came from the Brethren.^[32]

Since 2004 the separatist Raven-Taylor-Hales Exclusive Brethren have become politically active. Formerly, they embraced non-involvement, "in the things of the world", because they are "citizens of heaven". These heterodox Taylor Exclusive Brethren have been responsible for the production and distribution of political literature in the Australian, American, Swedish, Canadian and New Zealand national elections.^[33] For more details, see Exclusive Brethren. These Taylor Brethren are atypical of other streams of Plymouth Brethren, which distance themselves from the "Taylorites."

Many mainstream assemblies discourage political involvement, sometimes to the extent of judging anyone in fellowship who opts to exercise their voting rights in democratic, free elections. This teaching is based on the premise that the Bible teaches that Christians are citizens of heaven, only sojourners here on earth and therefore ought not to become involved in activities which could be deemed as being too worldly.^[34] A criticism could be leveled that the movement, with its upper-class roots, lacks compassion for the plight of the underprivileged. For example, it was left to William Wilberforce, Lord Shaftesbury and other politically active Christians to work toward the abolishment of slavery and improving the welfare of factory children in the 19th century. This can be viewed as unfair criticism when reflecting on the light of George Müller's ministry caring for homeless orphans and also on some of the sacrifices of its missionaries such as Anthony Norris Groves. It is more reasonable to state that the Brethren are more concerned with people's spiritual rather than their physical condition. However, where physical help is given, it is tended to be given directly and not through secular organisations.

Notable members[link]

• John Bodkin Adams^[35] — General practitioner and suspected serial killer (tried for one murder but controversially acquitted)
• Robert Anderson — Head of Scotland Yard and Christian author. Influenced many of the Brethren, though wasn't among them himself.
• Thomas John Barnardo^[36] — Took in destitute male and female street children; founded Barnardo's.
• Patricia Beer^[37] — Poet. Born into Brethren, left as adult.
• John Gifford Bellet^[38] — Prized Classics researcher of Trinity College, Cambridge
• Lancelot Brenton — Translator of what is probably the most widely available Greek-English edition of the Septuagint^[39]
• Stuart Briscoe — author, international speaker and Minister-At-large at Elmbrook Church, was raised Plymouth Brethren, in England
• F.F. Bruce — 20th Century Bible scholar and Christian apologist.
• Geoffrey Bull — Missionary to Tibet in the early 1950s
• Wilson Carlile — British evangelist who founded Church Army and prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral^[40]
• Robert Chapman — Prominent among the Plymouth Brethren in the 19th Century^[41]
• Dr. Edward Cronin^[42] — Pioneer of homeopathy
• Anthony Crosland — Foreign Secretary in Britain's Labour Government, raised in Plymouth Brethren^[43]
• Aleister Crowley^[44] — Bisexual Occultist, drug user and practitioner of Magick raised within the Exclusive Brethren, referred in his memoirs to considering Brethren teachings and practices as essential for understanding his views. Known in his day as "the wickedest man in the world."
• John Nelson Darby^[45] — Famous preacher and father of modern Rapture doctrine
• James George Deck^[46] — Evangelist and missionary to New Zealand
• L.C.R. Duncombe-Jewell — raised as a Plymouth Brother.
• Jim Elliot — Missionary killed by Waodani Indians along the Curaray River, in Ecuador.^[47]
• Peter Fleming — Missionary killed by the Waodani Indians along the Curaray River, in Ecuador
• Ken Follett — Author of The Pillars of the Earth was raised in a Plymouth Brethren family.
• Roger T. Forster — Author, theologian and leader of Ichthus Christian Fellowship
• David Willoughby Gooding — Professor Emeritus of Old Testament Greek at Queen's University Belfast and Christian author
• Edmund Gosse — Poet, author and critic. Raised as Plymouth Brethren and wrote the book Father and Son about his upbringing.
• Emily Bowes Gosse — painter, illustrator and author of religious tracts
• Philip Henry Gosse^[48] — Naturalist and marine biologist
• Anthony Norris Groves^[49] — Missionary to Baghdad and India
• John George Haigh — Serial killer^[50]
• David Hendricks^[51] — Convicted of killing his wife and children but acquitted in a retrial
• William John Hocking — Superintendent of the Royal Mint of the United Kingdom
• Zane Hodges — Professor of New Testament Greek at Dallas Theological Seminary and co-author of the Greek New Testament according to the Majority Text
• John Eliot Howard — Chemist and quinologist
• Luke Howard — Chemist and meteorologist, the 'namer of clouds'
• Harry Ironside^[52] — Bible teacher, preacher and author.
• Garrison Keillor — Radio personality ("A Prairie Home Companion") and author; raised Plymouth Brethren; No longer associates with them.
• William Kelly — Prominent leader of the Exclusive Brethren in the late 19th Century
• Dr. Ferenc Kiss — anatomist, university professor, former head of the Institute of Anatomy in Budapest, Hungary
• Maurice Koechlin — Structural Engineer. Chief Engineer in the construction of the Eiffel Tower.
• J. Laurence Kulp — 20th Century geologist. Critic of Young Earth creationism^[53][54]
• William_MacDonald — Christian author and scholar, author of well known Believer's Bible Commentary^[55]
• C.H. Mackintosh^[56] — 19th Century author of Christian books
• Peter Maiden — Current head of Operation Mobilization
• Jim McCotter — Was a part of Brethren in early life. Left and was the founder of Great Commission Churches
• Ed McCully — Missionary killed by the Waodani Indians along the Curaray River, in Ecuador
• Brian D. McLaren — Prominent and controversial voice in the Emerging Church movement. Raised in a Brethren family.^[57]
• George Müller^[58] — Founder of the Bristol Orphanage and a stated teacher in Bethesda Chapel, Bristol
• Watchman Nee - Respected Leader in the "Little Flock" movement in China after being excommunicated by Exclusive brethren for "breaking bread with sectarians."^[59]
• Thomas Newberry^[60] — Translator of the Newberry Reference Bible, which uses a system of symbols to explain verb tenses
• Francis William Newman^[61] — Younger brother of Cardinal John Henry Newman. Excommunicated for denying the Divinity of Christ.
• Benjamin Wills Newton — Early leader of the assembly in Plymouth. Branded as a heretic.^[62]
• Frederick Handley Page — Pioneer in the design and manufacture of aircraft^[63]
• Luis Palau^[64] — Argentinian-American evangelist, raised in the Plymouth Brethren.
• Roger Panes^[65] — Part of Exclusive Brethren who, while being "shunned" by his congregation, killed his wife and three children, before committing suicide.
• John Parnell, 2nd Baron Congleton — Missionary to Mesopotamia
• Joseph M. Scriven — Writer of the words to the hymn, "What A Friend We Have In Jesus".
• Arthur Rendle Short^[66] — Professor of surgery at Bristol University and author
• K.V. Simon – Recognized poet, hymn writer, biblical scholar and a pioneer of the brethren movement in India.
• William Gibson Sloan — Scottish missionary to the Faroe Islands.
• James Taylor, Jr. — Controversial leader of one Exclusive Brethren branch (a.k.a. "Taylorites") from 1953–1970
• Ngaire Thomas^[13] — Wrote the book, Behind Closed Doors, about her childhood abuse in the Exclusive Brethren.
• Samuel Prideaux Tregelles — English biblical scholar and theologian
• Elsie Tu, then Elsie Elliott — A Plymouth Brethren missionary in China before leaving the movement and becoming a prominent political figure in Hong Kong
• William Edwy Vine — Author of, Vine's Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words, and numerous commentaries^[67]
• Arthur Wallis — Founder of the British New Church Movement, formerly in the Plymouth Brethren
• Jim Wallis — Founder and editor of Sojourners Magazine, raised in a Brethren family
• Charles Gidley Wheeler– Author of The Believer, and A Good Boy Tomorrow: Memoirs of a Fundamentalist Upbringing – Fleet Air Arm pilot, TV dramatist, novelist and philosopher – was raised in the Plymouth Brethren before breaking away at the age of 16.
• Smith Wigglesworth^[68] — Pentecostal preacher. Testified that he had received his grounding in Bible teaching within the Plymouth Brethren
• George Wigram^[69] — Wrote a Greek and English Concordance to the New Testament and the Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance to the Old Testament.
• Dr. Edward Wilson^{[disambiguation needed ][70]} — Founding member of the Brethren
• Orde Wingate^[71] — British Major General, advisor to Hagana units during the 1930s
• Gordon Jackson (politician)^[72] — Scottish politician and QC

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/exclusivebrethren_1.shtml

Major collection of literature[link]

The "Christian Brethren Archive" is housed at the John Rylands University Library in Oxford Road, Manchester. It contains a large collection of materials, including books and manuscripts, relating to assemblies or meetings of Christians often called Plymouth Brethren, with particular reference to the British Isles.^[73]

Film portrayal[link]

The Exclusive Hales branch of the Plymouth Brethren are portrayed in the film Son of Rambow as trying to restrict the creativity and freedom of the film's main character. The Plymouth Brethren are also featured in the book Oscar and Lucinda by Peter Carey, and in the film adaptation. Oscar is raised by a strict Plymouth Brethren father and rebels by becoming an Anglican priest. Sir Edmund Gosse wrote the book Father and Son about his upbringing in a Plymouth Brethren household.

See also[link]

• Behind the Exclusive Brethren
• Open Brethren
• Gospel Hall Brethren
• Needed Truth Brethren
• Exclusive Brethren
• Kerala brethren

Notes and references[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Carroll, H. K. (1912) Religious Forces in the United States. New York
• Adams, Norman (1972) Goodbye, Beloved Brethren. Impulse Publications Inc. ISBN 0-901311-13-8
• Coad, F. Roy (2001) A History of the Brethren Movement: Its Origins, Its Worldwide Development and Its Significance for the Present Day. Regent College Publishing ISBN 1-57383-183-2
• Grass, Tim (2006) Gathering to his Name Carlisle: Paternoster
• Ironside, H. A. (1985) Historical Sketch of the Brethren MovementLoizeaux Brothers ISBN 0-87213-344-3
• Neatby, William Blair (1901) A History of the Plymouth Brethren; Reprinted by Tentmaker Publications [1]^{[dead link]} covers the first seventy years of the Brethren movement. Free download site
• Pickering, Henry (1918) Chief Men Among the Brethren. London: Pickering & Inglis, 1918; Loizeaux Brothers, Inc. Neptune, NJ, 1996, ISBN 0-87213-798-8
• Smith, Natan Dylan (1996) Roots, Renewal and the Brethren. Hope Publishing House ISBN 0-932727-08-5
• Strauch, Alexander (1995) Biblical Eldership: an Urgent Call to Restore Biblical Church Leadership. Lewis & Roth Publishers ISBN 0-936083-11-5
• Stunt, Timothy C. F. (2000) From Awakening to Secession: radical evangelicals in Switzerland and Britain, 1815–35. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark ISBN 0-567-08719-0
• Teulon, J. S. (1883) The History and Teaching of The Plymouth Brethren. London Free download site
• Kelly, William (1883) Response by William Kelly to J. S. Teulon's Plymouth Brethren Free download site
• Groves, Mrs. (1869) Biography of A. N. Groves, by his widow, 3rd edition. London
• Taylor (1866) Biography of Henry Craik. London
• Dorman (1866) The Close of Twenty-eight Years of Association with J. N. Darby. London
• Groves, Henry (1866) Darbyism: Its Rise and Development. London

Criticism:

• J. L. C. Carson, The Heresies of the Plymouth Brethren (London, 1862) Free Download 19mb
• W. Reid, The Plymouth Brethren Unveiled and Refuted (Second edition, Edinburgh, 1874–76) Free Download 17mb
• T. Croskery, Plymouth Brethrenism: A Refutation of its Principles and Doctrines (London, 1879)
• A. Miller, Plymouthism and the Modern Churches (Toronto, 1900)

Other sources of information are writings by B. W. Newton and W. Kelly.

External links[link]

• BrethrenPedia :: The Plymouth Brethren Wiki Documenting the history of the Plymouth Brethren one assembly at a time
• The Church and the Churches by W.E. Vine – A book outlining assembly principles by a leading scholar
• Brethren Online.Org
• Brethren Assembly.Com
• Gospel Hall.org – FAQ about the Brethren, History about assemblies in North America
• Plymouth Brethren.Org

Plymouth
—  City  —
City of Plymouth
Plymouth Hoe viewed from Mount Batten
Official logo of Plymouth City Council's Coat of Arms
Nickname(s): Spirit of Discovery[1]
Motto: Turris fortissima est nomen Jehova "The name of Jehova is the strongest tower"[2]
Plymouth shown within Devon and England
Coordinates: 50°22′17.03″N 4°08′32.75″W / 50.3713972°N 4.1424306°W / 50.3713972; -4.1424306Coordinates: 50°22′17.03″N 4°08′32.75″W / 50.3713972°N 4.1424306°W / 50.3713972; -4.1424306
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Constituent country	England
Region	South West England
Ceremonial county	Devon
City status	1928
Unitary Authority	1998
Government
• Type	City Council
• Administration	Conservative
• Lord Mayor	Peter Brookshaw
• HQ	Civic Centre Precinct
• Wards	20
• UK Parliament	Moor View Sutton and Devonport South West Devon
Area
• Total	30.61 sq mi (79.29 km2)
Highest elevation	509 ft (155 m)
Lowest elevation	0 ft (0 m)
Population (2009 est.)[3]
• Total	256,700
• Density	8,261/sq mi (3,188/km2)
• Demonyms	Plymothian (formal) Janner (informal)
• Ethnicity (2001)[4]	98.35% White 96.53% White British 0.56% White Irish 1.26% Other White   0.30% Asian 0.11% Indian 0.03% Pakistani 0.06% Bangladeshi 0.10% Other Asian   0.19% Black 0.07% Black Caribbean 0.10% Black African 0.02% Other Black   0.64% Mixed 0.17% White & Black Caribbean 0.10% White & Black African 0.21% White & South Asian 0.16% White & Other   0.49% East Asian and Other 0.28% Chinese 0.21% Other
	Population ranked 50/326)
Time zone	GMT (UTC0)
• Summer (DST)	BST (UTC+1)
Postcode district	PL1 – 9
Website	www.plymouth.gov.uk

Plymouth ⁱ/ˈplɪməθ/ is a city and unitary authority area on the south coast of Devon, England, about 190 miles (310 km) south-west of London. It is situated between the mouths of the rivers Plym to the east and Tamar to the west, where they join Plymouth Sound. Since 1967, the City of Plymouth has included the suburbs of Plympton and Plymstock, which are on the east side of the River Plym.

Plymouth's history goes back to the Bronze Age, when its first settlement grew at Mount Batten. This settlement continued to grow as a trading post for the Roman Empire, until the more prosperous village of Sutton, the current Plymouth, surpassed it. In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers left Plymouth for the New World and established Plymouth Colony – the second English settlement in what is now the United States of America. During the English Civil War the town was held by the Parliamentarians and was besieged between 1642 and 1646.

Throughout the Industrial Revolution, Plymouth grew as a major commercial shipping port, handling imports and passengers from the Americas, while the neighbouring town of Devonport grew as an important Royal Naval shipbuilding and dockyard town. In 1914 the three neighbouring and independent towns, viz., the county borough of Plymouth, the county borough of Devonport, and the urban district of East Stonehouse were merged to form a single County Borough. The new, merged town took the name of Plymouth which, in 1928, achieved city status. The city's naval importance later led to its targeting and partial destruction during World War II, an act known as the Plymouth Blitz. After the war the city centre was completely rebuilt.

Today the city is home to around 250,000 people, making it the 19th most populous city in England. It is governed locally by Plymouth City Council and is represented nationally by three MPs. Plymouth's economy is still strongly influenced by shipbuilding, but has become a more service-based economy since the 1990s. It has the ninth largest university in the United Kingdom by number of students, the University of Plymouth, and the largest operational naval base in Western Europe – HMNB Devonport. The city has ferry links to France and Spain.

History[link]

Early history[link]

Upper Palaeolithic deposits, including bones of Homo sapiens, have been found in local caves,^[5] and artefacts dating from the Bronze Age to the Middle Iron Age have been found at Mount Batten showing that it was one of the main trading ports of the country at that time.^[6]. An unidentified settlement named 'TAMARI OSTIA' is listed in Ptolemy's Geographia and is presumed to be located in the present city^[7]. The settlement of Plympton, further up the River Plym than the current Plymouth, was also an early trading port, but the river silted up in the early 11th century and forced the mariners and merchants to settle at the current day Barbican near the river mouth.^[8]

At the time this village was called Sutton, meaning south town in Old English.^[8] The name Plymouth, meaning "mouth of the River Plym" – the river name being a back-formation from Plympton ("Plum-tree town"),^[9] was first mentioned in a Pipe Roll of 1211.^[10]

Early defence and Renaissance[link]

Prysten House, Finewell Street, 1498, is the oldest surviving house in Plymouth

During the Hundred Years' War a French attack (1340) burned a manor house and took some prisoners, but failed to get into the town.^[11] In 1403 the town was burned by Breton raiders.^[12] A series of fortifications were built in the Tudor and Elizabethan eras, which include the four round towers featured on the city coat of arms; the remains of two of these can still be found at Mount Batten and at Sutton Pool below the Royal Citadel.^[13] See 1591 Spry Map of Plimmouth and surrounding areas, British Library

Siege of Plymouth, 1643

During the 16th century locally produced wool was the major export commodity.^[14] Plymouth was the home port for successful maritime traders, among them Sir John Hawkins, who led England's first foray into the Atlantic slave trade,^[15] as well as Sir Francis Drake.^[16] According to legend, Drake insisted on completing his game of bowls on the Hoe before engaging the Spanish Armada in 1588.^[16] In 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers set sail for the New World from Plymouth, establishing Plymouth Colony – the second English colony in what is now the United States of America.^[17]

During the English Civil War Plymouth sided with the Parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the Royalists.^[18] The last major attack by the Royalist was by Sir Richard Grenville leading thousands of soldiers towards Plymouth, but they were defeated by the Plymothians.^[18] The civil war ended as a Parliamentary win, but monarchy was restored by King Charles II in 1660, who imprisoned many of the Parliamentary heroes on Drake's Island.^[18] Construction of the Royal Citadel began in 1665, after the Restoration; it was armed with cannon facing both out to sea and into the town, rumoured to be a reminder to residents not to oppose the Crown.^[19]

Naval power, docks and Foulston[link]

John Foulston's Town Hall, Column and Library in Devonport

Black-eyed Sue and Sweet Poll of Plymouth mourning their lovers, who are soon to be transported to Botany Bay, 1792

Unloading mail by hand from the Sir Francis Drake at Millbay Docks, March 1926

Throughout the 17th century Plymouth had gradually lost its pre-eminence as a trading port. By the mid-17th century commodities manufactured elsewhere in England cost too much to transport to Plymouth and the city had no means of processing sugar or tobacco imports, although it played a relatively small part in the Atlantic slave trade during the early 18th century.^[14] In nearby Stoke Damerel (which became the town of Devonport) the first dockyard, HMNB Devonport, opened on the banks of the River Tamar in 1690. Further docks were built in 1727, 1762 and 1793.^[2] In the 18th century new houses were built near the dock, called Plymouth Dock at the time,^[20] and a new town grew up. In 1712 there were 318 men employed and by 1733 it had grown to a population of 3,000 people.^[8]

Prior to the latter half of the 18th century grain, timber and then coal were Plymouth's greatest imports.^[21] During this time the real source of wealth was from the neighbouring town of Devonport – the major employer in the entire region was the dockyard.^[8] The Three Towns conurbation of Plymouth, Stonehouse and Devonport enjoyed some prosperity during the late 18th and early 19th century and were enriched by a series of neo-classical urban developments designed by London architect John Foulston.^[22] Foulston was important for the town and was responsible for several grand public buildings, many now destroyed, including the Athenaeum, the Theatre Royal and Royal Hotel, and much of Union Street.^[22]

The mile-long Breakwater in Plymouth Sound was designed by John Rennie and work started in 1812; numerous technical difficulties and repeated storm damage meant that it was not completed until 1841, twenty years after Rennie's death.^[23] In the 1860s, a ring of Palmerston forts was constructed around the outskirts of Devonport, to protect the dockyard from attack from any direction.^[24] Some of the greatest imports to Plymouth from the Americas and Europe during the latter half of the 19th century included maize, wheat, barley, sugar cane, guano, sodium nitrate and phosphate.^[25] Aside from the dockyard in Devonport, industries in Plymouth such as the gasworks, the railways and tramways and a number of small chemical works had begun to develop in the 19th century, continuing into the 20th century.^[26]

[edit] Plan for Plymouth 1943

During World War I, Plymouth was the port of entry for many troops from around the Empire and also developed as a facility for the manufacture of munitions.^[27] Although major units of the Royal Navy moved to the safety of Scapa Flow, Devonport was an important base for escort vessels and repairs. Flying boats operated from Mount Batten.^[27]

Royal William Victualling Yard, Stonehouse by Sir John Rennie,1825–33.

In World War II, Devonport was the headquarters of Western Approaches Command until 1941 and Sunderland flying boats were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force. It was an important embarkation point for US troops for D-Day.^[28] The city was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe, in a series of 59 raids known as the Plymouth Blitz.^[26] Although the dockyards were the principal targets, much of the city centre and over 3,700 houses were completely destroyed and more than 1,000 civilians lost their lives. This was largely due to Plymouth's status as a major port^[29] Charles Church was hit by incendiary bombs and partially destroyed in 1941 during the Blitz, but has not been demolished, as it is now an official permanent monument to the bombing of Plymouth during World War II.^[30]

Dingles Department Store 1949–50 a late work by the architect Thomas S. Tait.

The redevelopment of the city was planned by Sir Patrick Abercrombie in his 1943 Plan for Plymouth whilst simultaneously working on the reconstruction plan for London.^[31] Regarded at the time as the most influential city planner in Britain, responsible also for the his vision for the radical reconstruction of the city according to Beaux Arts and Garden City principles attracted the work of some of the very best national architects of their generation which can be seen in the 'Heroic Modernist' style of the principal boulevards of Royal Parade and Armada Way.^[32] Between 1951 and 1957 over 1000 homes were completed every year mostly using innovative prefabricated systems of just three main types;^[32] by 1964 over 20,000 new homes had been built transforming the dense overcrowded and unsanitary slums of the pre-War city into a low density, dispersed suburbia.^[32][33] Most of the city centre shops had been destroyed and those that remained were cleared to enable a zoned reconstruction according to his plan.^[33][32] In 1962 the modernist high rise of the Civic Centre was constructed, an architecturally significant example of mid twentieth century civic slab-and-tower set piece allowed to fall into disrepair by and recently grade II listed by English Heritage to prevent its demolition.^[34][32].

Postwar, Devonport Dockyard was kept busy refitting aircraft carriers such as the Ark Royal and, later, nuclear submarines while new light industrial factories were constructed in the newly zoned industrial sector attracting rapid growth of the urban population. The army had substantially left the city by 1971, with barracks pulled down in the 1960s,^[33] however the city remains home to the 42 Commando of the Royal Marines.^[33]

Government[link]

Local government history[link]

The first record of the existence of a settlement at Plymouth was in the Domesday Book in 1086 as Sudtone, Saxon for south farm, located at the present day Barbican.^[2] From Saxon times, it was in the hundred of Roborough.^[35] In 1254 it gained status as a town and in 1439, became the first town in England to be granted a Charter by Parliament.^[2] Between 1439 and 1934, Plymouth had a Mayor.^[36] In 1914 the county boroughs of Plymouth and Devonport, and the urban district of East Stonehouse merged to form a single county borough of Plymouth.^[8] Collectively they were referred to as "The Three Towns".^[37]

In 1919 Nancy Astor was elected the first ever female member of parliament to take office in the British Houses of Parliament for the constituency of Plymouth Sutton. Taking over office from her husband Waldorf Astor, Lady Astor was a vibrantly active campaigner for her resident constituents . Plymouth was granted city status on 18 October 1928.^[38] The city's first Lord Mayor was appointed in 1935 and its boundaries further expanded in 1967 to include the town of Plympton and the parish of Plymstock.^[8]

In 1945, Plymouth-born Michael Foot was elected Labour MP for the war-torn constituency of Plymouth Devonport and after serving as Secreatry of State for Education and responsible for the 1974 Health and Safety at Work Act, went on to become one of the most distinguished leaders of the Labour party.

The 1971 Local Government White Paper proposed abolishing county boroughs, which would have left Plymouth, a town of 250,000 people, being administered from a council based at the smaller Exeter, on the other side of the county. This led to Plymouth lobbying for the creation of a Tamarside county, to include Plymouth, Torpoint, Saltash, and the rural hinterland.^[39] The campaign was not successful, and Plymouth ceased to be a county borough on 1 April 1974 with responsibility for education, social services, highways and libraries transferred to Devon County Council. All powers returned when the city become a unitary authority on 1 April 1998 under recommendations of the Banham Commission.^[40]

In the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Plymouth is represented by the three constituencies of Plymouth Moor View, Plymouth Sutton and Devonport and South West Devon and within the European Parliament as South West England.^[41] In the 2010 general election, Sutton and Devonport and South West Devon were held by Conservative MPs Oliver Colvile and Gary Streeter, with Moor View held by Labour MP Alison Seabeck.^[41]

City Council[link]

Civic Centre, 1954–61, symbolic of the Post War 'Heroic Modernism' of the Welfare State; nationally listed in 2009 to prevent its demolition by Plymouth City Councillors

The City of Plymouth is divided into 20 wards, 17 of which elect three councillors and the other three electing two councillors, making up a total council of 57.^[43] Each year a third of the council is up for election for three consecutive years – there are no elections on the following "fourth" year, which is when County Council elections take place.^[43] The total electorate for Plymouth was 180,998 in December 2011.^[44] The local election of 3 May 2012 resulted in a political composition of 26 Conservative councillors and 31 Labour resulting in a Labour administration^[45]

Plymouth has a Lord Mayor, which is elected each year on the third Friday of May by a group of six people.^[46] It is traditional that the position of the Lord Mayor alternates between the Conservative Party and the Labour Party annually and that the Lord Mayor chooses the Deputy Lord Mayor.^[46]

The Great Hall in the Guildhall

The Lord Mayor's official residence is 3 Elliot Terrace, located on the Hoe.^[47] Once a home of Waldorf and Nancy Astor, it was given by Lady Astor to the City of Plymouth as an official residence for future Lord Mayors and is also used today for civic hospitality, as lodgings for visiting dignitaries and High Court judges and it is also available to hire for private events.^[47] The Civic Centre municipal office building in Armada Way became a listed building in June 2007 because of its quality and period features, but has become the centre of a controversy as the council planned for its demolition estimating that it could cost £40m to refurbish it, resulting in possible job losses.^[48]

Plymouth City Council is formally twinned with:^[49] Brest in France since 1963, Gdynia in Poland since 1976, Novorossiysk in Russia since 1990, San Sebastián in Spain since 1990, and Plymouth, Massachusetts in the United States since 2001.

Geography[link]

Northeastward view of Plymouth Sound from Mount Edgcumbe Country Park in Cornwall, with Drake's Island (centre) and, behind it from left to right, the Royal Citadel, the fuel tanks of Cattedown, and Mount Batten; in the background, the hills of Dartmoor.

Plymouth lies between the River Plym to the east and the River Tamar to the west; both rivers flow into the natural harbour of Plymouth Sound.^[50] Since 1967, the unitary authority of Plymouth has included the, once independent, towns of Plympton and Plymstock which lie along the east of the River Plym.^[8] The River Tamar forms the county boundary between Devon and Cornwall and its estuary forms the Hamoaze on which is sited Devonport Dockyard.^[50]

The River Plym, which flows off Dartmoor to the north-east, forms a smaller estuary to the east of the city called Cattewater. Plymouth Sound is protected from the sea by the Plymouth Breakwater, in use since 1814.^[51] In the Sound is Drake's Island which is seen from Plymouth Hoe, a flat public area on top of limestone cliffs.^[52] The Unitary Authority of Plymouth is 30.8 square miles (80 km²),^[53] but the city of Plymouth, as cited from Plymouth City Council, is 30.61 square miles (79.3 km²).^[54] The topography rises from sea level to a height, at Roborough, of about 509 feet (155 m) above Ordnance Datum (AOD).^[54]

Geologically, Plymouth has a mixture of limestone, Devonian slate, granite and Middle Devonian limestone.^[55] Plymouth Sound, Shores and Cliffs is a Site of Special Scientific Interest, because of its geology.^[56] The bulk of the city is built upon Upper Devonian slates and shales and the headlands at the entrance to Plymouth Sound are formed of Lower Devonian slates, which can withstand the power of the sea.^[55]

A band of Middle Devonian limestone runs west to east from Cremyll to Plymstock including the Hoe.^[55] Local limestone may be seen in numerous buildings, walls and pavements throughout Plymouth.^[55] To the north and north east of the city is the granite mass of Dartmoor; the granite was mined and exported via Plymouth. Rocks brought down the Tamar from Dartmoor include ores containing tin, copper, tungsten, lead and other minerals.^[55] There is evidence that the middle Devonian limestone belt at the south edge of Plymouth and in Plymstock was quarried at West Hoe, Cattedown and Radford.^[57]

On 27 April 1944 Sir Patrick Abercrombie's Plan for Plymouth to rebuild the city was published; it called for the demolition of the few remaining pre-War buildings in the city centre and their replacement with wide, modern boulevards aligned east–west linked by a north–south avenue (Armada Way) connecting the railway station and Plymouth Hoe.^[31] Prefabs had started to be built by 1946, and over 1,000 permanent council houses were built each year from 1951–57.^[33] By 1964 over 20,000 new homes had been built, more than 13,500 of them permanent council homes and 853 built by the Admiralty.^[33] Plymouth is home to 28 parks with an average size of 45,638 square metres (491,240 sq ft).^[58] Its largest park is Central Park,^[59] with other sizeable green spaces including Victoria Park, Freedom Fields Park, Alexandra Park, Devonport Park and the Hoe.^[58]

Climate[link]

Along with the rest of South West England, Plymouth has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England. This means a wide range of exotic plants can be grown. The annual mean temperature is approximately 11 °C (52 °F). Due to the modifying effect of the sea the seasonal range is less than in most other parts of the UK.^[61] February is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 3 °C (37 °F) and 4 °C (39 °F). Snow is rare, not usually equating to more than a few flakes, but there have been exclusions, namely the European winter storms of 2009-10 which, in early January, covered Plymouth in at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) of snow; more on higher ground. Another period of notable snow occurred from 17–19 December 2010 when up to 8 inch (20 cm) of snow fell through the period – though only 2 inches (5 cm) would lie at any one time due to melt. Over the 1961–1990 period, annual snowfall accumulation averaged less than 7 cm (3 in) per year.^[62] July and August are the warmest months with mean daily maxima over 19 °C (66 °F).^[60]

South West England has a favoured location when the Azores High pressure area extends north-eastwards towards the UK, particularly in summer. Coastal areas have average annual sunshine totals over 1,600 hours.^[61]

Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. The Atlantic depressions are more vigorous in autumn and winter and most of the rain which falls in those seasons in the south-west is from this source. Average annual rainfall is around 980 millimetres (39 in). November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, with June to August having the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west.^[61]

Typically, the warmest day of the year (1971–2000) will achieve a temperature of 26.6 °C (80 °F),^[63] although in June 1976 the temperature reached 31.6 °C (89 °F),^[64] the site record. On average, 4.25 days^[65] of the year will report a maximum temperature of 25.1 °C (77 °F) or above. During the winter half of the year, the coldest night will typically fall to −4.1 °C (25 °F)^[66] although in January 1979 the temperature fell to −8.8 °C (16 °F).^[67] Typically, 18.6 nights^[68] of the year will register an air frost.

Education[link]

See also: List of schools in Plymouth

The Roland Levinsky Building – Arts Department of the University of Plymouth

The University of Plymouth is the 9th largest university in the United Kingdom by total number of students (including the Open University).^[71] It has over 30,000 students, almost 3,000 staff and an annual income of around £160 million.^[72] It was founded in 1992 from Polytechnic South West (formerly Plymouth Polytechnic) following the Further and Higher Education Act 1992.^[73] It has courses in maritime business, marine engineering, marine biology and Earth, ocean and environmental sciences, surf science, shipping and logistics.^[74] The university formed a joint venture with the fellow Devonian University of Exeter in 2000, establishing the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry. The college is ranked 8th out of 30 universities in the UK in 2011 for medicine.^[75] Its dental school was established in 2006, which also provides free dental care in an attempt to improve access to dental care in the South West.

The city is also home to three large colleges. The University College Plymouth St Mark & St John (known as "Marjon" or "Marjons"), which specialises in teacher training, offers training across the country and abroad.^[76] The City College Plymouth provides courses from the most basic to Foundation degrees for approximately 26,000 students.^[77] Plymouth College of Art offers a selection of courses including media. It was started 153 years ago and is now one of only four independent colleges of art and design in the UK.^[78] Plymouth also has 71 state primary phase schools, 13 state secondary schools, eight special schools and three selective state grammar schools,^[79] as well as an independent school, Plymouth College.

The city was also home to the Royal Naval Engineering College; opened in 1880 in Keyham, it trained engineering students for five years before they completed the remaining two years of the course at Greenwich. The college closed in 1910, but in 1940 a new college opened at Manadon. This was renamed Dockyard Technical College in 1959 before finally closing in 1994; training was transferred to the University of Southampton.^[80]

Plymouth is home to the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom (MBA) which conducts research in all areas of the marine sciences. The Plymouth Marine Laboratory is an offshoot of the MBA. Together with the National Marine Aquarium, the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Sciences, Plymouth University's Marine Institute and the Diving Diseases Research Centre, these marine-related organisations form the Plymouth Marine Sciences Partnership. The Plymouth Marine Laboratory, which focuses on global issues of climate change and sustainability. It monitors the effects of ocean acidity on corals and shellfish and reports the results to the UK government. It also cultivates algae that could be used to make biofuels or in the treatment of waste water by using technology such as photo-bioreactors. It works alongside the Boots Group to investigate the use of algae in skin care protects, taking advantage of the chemicals they contain that adapt to protect themselves from the sun.^[81]

Demography[link]

In June 2010, the Office for National Statistics estimated that Plymouth's unitary authority area population for mid-2009 was 256,700;^[3] 15,980 more people than that of the last census from 2001, which indicated that Plymouth had a population of 240,720.^[82] The average household size was 2.3 persons.^[83] At the time of the 2001 UK census, the ethnic composition of Plymouth's population was 98.4% White, with the largest minority ethnic group being Chinese at 0.3%.^[82] To the right is a graph showing the population change of the city since 1801. The population rose rapidly during the second half of the 19th century, but declined by over 1.6% from 1931 to 1951.