Pueblo Revolt
Part of Spanish colonization of the Americas
Date August 10–21, 1680 Location Santa Fe de Nuevo México, New Spain Result Pueblo victory
Belligerents
Kingdom of Spain	Revolting Puebloans Taos Picuris Jemez Kha'p'oo Owinge Kewa Tesuque Ohkay Owingeh Nambé
Commanders and leaders
Antonio de Otermín	Popé see list below for others
Casualties and losses
400, including civilians	Unknown

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, or Popé's Rebellion, was an uprising of several pueblos of the Pueblo people against Spanish colonization of the Americas in the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México.^[1]

Background[link]

In the 1670s, drought swept the region, causing famine among the Pueblo and provoked increased attacks from neighboring nomadic tribes—attacks against which Spanish soldiers were unable to defend. At the same time, European-introduced diseases were ravaging the natives, greatly decreasing their numbers. Unsatisfied with the protection offered by the Spanish crown and disenchanted with the Roman Catholic religion it had brought along, the people turned to their old religions. This provoked a wave of repression on the part of Franciscan missionaries. While previously the church and Spanish officials tended to ignore occasional manifestations of the old religion as long as the Puebloans attended mass and maintained a public veneer of Catholicism, Fray Alonso de Posada (in New Mexico 1656–1665) "forbade Kachina dances by the Pueblo Indians and ordered the missionaries to seize every mask, prayer stick, and effigy they could lay their hands on and burn them ... In matters regarding their religion, the Pueblos of the seventeenth Century were not that different from those of today. To give up their religion would have been like giving up life itself." ^[2] Several Spanish officials, such as Nicolas de Aguilar, who attempted to curb the power of the Franciscans were charged with heresy and tried before the Inquisition.

In 1675, Governor Juan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblo medicine men and accused them of practicing "sorcery". ^[3] Four medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging; three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were publicly whipped and sentenced to prison. When this news reached the Pueblo leaders, they moved in force to Santa Fe, where the prisoners were held. Because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting the Apache, Governor Treviño released the prisoners. Among those released was a San Juan (called "Ohkay Owingeh" by the Pueblo) Indian named "Popé".^[4]

Rebellion[link]

Following his release, Popé, along with a number of other Pueblo leaders (see list below), planned and orchestrated the Pueblo Revolt. He plotted the revolt from Taos, New Mexico. Popé dispatched runners to all the Pueblos carrying knotted cords, the knots signifying the number of days remaining until the appointed day. Each morning the Pueblo leadership was to untie one knot from the cord, and when the last knot was untied, that would be the signal for them to rise against the Spaniards in unison.

The day for the attack had been fixed for August 11, 1680, but the Spaniards learned of the revolt after capturing two Tesuque Pueblo youths entrusted with carrying the message to the pueblos. Popé then ordered the execution of the plot on August 10, before the uprising could be put down.

The attack was commenced by the Taos, Picuris, and Tewa Indians in their respective pueblos. They killed twenty-one of the province's forty Franciscans, and another three hundred and eighty Spaniards, including men, women, and children. Spanish settlers fled to Santa Fe, the only Spanish city, and Isleta Pueblo, one of the few Pueblos that did not participate in the rebellion.

Meanwhile Popé's insurgents besieged Santa Fe, surrounding the city and cutting off its water supply. New Mexico Governor Antonio de Otermín, barricaded in the Governor’s Palace, called for a general retreat. On August 21 the remaining 3,000 Spanish settlers streamed out of the capital city and headed for El Paso del Norte. The Pueblo Indians acquired horses from the Spanish, thus allowing the further spread of horses to the Plains tribes.^[5] Believing themselves the only survivors, the refugees at Isleta left for El Paso del Norte on September 15.

Popé's world[link]

Statue of Popé, now in the National Statuary Hall Collection in the US Capitol Building as one of New Mexico's two statues.

The retreat of the Spaniards left New Mexico in the power of the Pueblos.^[6] Popé was a mysterious figure in the history of the southwest as there are many tales of what happened to him after the revolt had transpired. One tale tells that he ordered the Puebloan people, under penalty of death, to burn or destroy crosses and other religious imagery, as well as any other vestige of the Roman Catholic religion and Spanish culture, including Spanish livestock and fruit trees. He supposedly also forbade the planting of wheat and barley. Popé supposedly went so far as to command those Indians who had been married according to the rites of the Catholic Church to dismiss their wives and to take others after the old native tradition. Another tale says that he left after the revolt to Taos where he lived out the rest of his days incognito to avoid persecution from the returning Spaniards and the anger of the Puebloans who didn't support him during the revolt. Another tale states that he simply disappeared.^{[citation needed]} In short no living person actually knows what happened to Pope, but his impact on the native population of New Mexico will forever be felt.^{[citation needed]}

Following their success, the diverse Pueblo tribes, separated by hundreds of miles and eight different languages, quarreled as to who would occupy Santa Fe and rule over the country. These power struggles, combined with raids from nomadic tribes, Spanish raids (including the destruction of Zia with 600 Indians killed^[7]) and a seven-year drought, weakened the Pueblo resolve and set the stage for a Spanish reconquest.

"Bloodless" reconquest[link]

In July 1692, Diego de Vargas returned to Santa Fe with a converted Zia war captain, Bartolomé de Ojeda.^[7] de Vargas, with only sixty soldiers, one hundred Indian auxiliaries, seven cannons (which he used as leverage against the Pueblo inside Santa Fe), and one Franciscan priest, entered the city before dawn and called on the Indians, promising clemency and protection if they would swear allegiance to the King of Spain and return to the Christian faith. The Indian leaders gathered in Santa Fe, met with de Vargas and Ojeda, and agreed to peace. On September 14, 1692,^[8] de Vargas proclaimed a formal act of repossession. It was the thirteenth town he had reconquered for God and King in this manner, he wrote jubilantly to the Conde de Galve, viceroy of New Spain.^[8]

Though the 1692 agreement to peace was bloodless, in the years that followed de Vargas maintained increasingly severe control over the increasingly defiant Pueblo. During de Vargas's absence from Santa Fe in 1693 the Pueblo retook the city. de Vargas and his forces staged a quick and bloody recapture that concluded with seventy executions and 400 Pueblo sentenced to ten years' servitude.^[9] In 1696 the Indians of fourteen pueblos attempted a second organized revolt, launched with the murders of five missionaries and thirty-four settlers and using weapons the Spanish themselves had traded to the Indians over the years; de Vargas's retribution was unmerciful, thorough and prolonged.^[9][10] By the end of the century the last resisting Pueblo had scattered and the Spanish reconquest was essentially complete.

While their independence from the Spaniards was short-lived, the Pueblo Revolt granted the Pueblo Indians a measure of freedom from future Spanish efforts to eradicate their culture and religion following the reconquest. Moreover, the Spanish issued substantial land grants to each Pueblo and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Indians and argue their legal cases in the Spanish courts.

In the arts[link]

In 1995, in Albuquerque, La Compañía de Teatro de Albuquerque produced the bilingual play Casi Hermanos, written by Ramon Flores and James Lujan. It depicted events leading up to the Pueblo Revolt, inspired by accounts of two half-brothers who met on opposite sides of the battlefield.

In 2005, in Los Angeles, Native Voices at the Autry produced Kino and Teresa, an adaptation of Romeo and Juliet written by Taos Pueblo playwright James Lujan. Set five years after the Spanish Reconquest of 1692, the play links actual historical figures with their literary counterparts to dramatize how both sides learned to live together and form the culture that is present-day New Mexico.

The Pueblo Revolt is referred to in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Journey's End," in which Capt. Jean-Luc Picard learns that an ancestor of his, Javier Maribona Picard, helped suppress the uprising.

Pueblo revolt leaders and their home pueblos[link]

• Ku-htihth (Cochiti): Antonio Malacate
• Galisteo (Galisteo): Juan El Tano
• Walatowa (Jemez): Luis Conixu
• Nambé (Nambé): Diego Xenome
• Welai (Picuris): Luis Tupatu (Ciervo Blanco)
• Powhogeh (San Ildefonso): Francisco El Ollito and Nicolas de la Cruz Jonv
• Ohkay (San Juan): Po'pay and Tagu
• San Lazaro: Antonio Bolsas and Cristobal Yope
• Khapo (Santa Clara): Domingo Naranjo and Cajete
• Kewa (Santo Domingo): Alonzo Catiti
• Teotho (Taos): El Saca
• Tehsugeh (Tesuque): Domingo Romero ^[11]

See also[link]

	New Mexico portal
	New Spain portal

• List of conflicts in the United States
• Spanish missions in New Mexico
• Fiestas de Santa Fe
• Zozobra

References[link]

1. ^ pg 189 - David Pike. Roadside New Mexico (August 15, 2004 ed.). University of New Mexico Press. p. 440. ISBN 0-8263-3118-1. 
2. ^ Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 pp. 61–62
3. ^ Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 p. 63
4. ^ Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 p. 63
5. ^ pg 32 - Phillip M. White. American Indian chronology (August 30, 2006 ed.). Greenwood Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-313-33820-5. 
6. ^ Richard Flint and Shirley Cushing Flint (2009). "Bartolome de Ojeda". New Mexico Office of the State Historian. http://www.newmexicohistory.org/filedetails.php?fileID=481. Retrieved July 6, 2009. 
7. ^ ^{a b} pg 33 - Margaret Szasz. Between Indian and White Worlds (September 2001 ed.). University of Oklahoma Press. p. 386. ISBN 0-8061-3385-6. 
8. ^ ^{a b} Kessell, John L., 1979. Kiva, Cross & Crown: The Pecos Indians and New Mexico, 1540-1840. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior: Washington, DC.
9. ^ ^{a b} Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Meredith D. Dodge (eds.), 1995. To the Royal Crown Restored (The Journals of Don Diego De Vargas, New Mexico, 1692-94). University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.
10. ^ Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Meredith D. Dodge (eds.), 1998. Blood on the Boulders (The Journals of Don Diego De Vargas, New Mexico, 1694-97). University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.
11. ^ Sando, Joe S. and Herman Agoyo, editors, Po'pay: Leader of the First American Revolution, Clear Light Publishing, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 2005 p. 110

Bibliography[link]

• Knaut, Andrew L. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995. 14.
• Ponce, Pedro, "Trouble for the Spanish, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680", Humanities, November/December 2002, Volume 23/Number 6. [1]
• PBS The West - Events from 1650 to 1800
• Salpointe, Jean Baptiste, Soldiers of the Cross; Notes on the Ecclesiastical History of New-Mexico, Arizona and Colorado, Salisbury, N.C.: Documentary Publications, 1977 (reprint from 1898).
• Simmons, Mark, New Mexico: An Interpretive History, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977.
• Weber, David J. ed., What Caused the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? New York: Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1999.
• Preucel, Robert W., 2002. Archaeologies of the Pueblo Revolt: Identity, Meaning, and Renewal in the Pueblo World. University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.

External links[link]

• ancientweb.org/America
• PBS: The West - Archives of the West. "Letter of the governor and captain-general, Don Antonio de Otermin, from New Mexico, in which he gives him a full account of what has happened to him since the day the Indians surrounded him. [September 8, 1680.]" Retrieved Nov. 2, 2009.
• Pueblo Rebellion

Pueblo is a term used to describe modern (and ancient) communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material. These structures were usually multi-storeyed buildings surrounding an open plaza. They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Pueblo people.

Etymology and usage[link]

The Castilian word pueblo evolved from the Latin word populus (people), meaning "town".

On the central Spanish meseta the unit of settlement was and is the pueblo; that is to say, the large nucleated village surrounded by its own fields, with no outlying farms, separated from its neighbours by some considerable distance, sometimes as much as ten miles or so. The demands of agrarian routine and the need for defense, the simple desire for human society in the vast solitude of the plains, dictated that it should be so. Nowadays the pueblo might have a population running into thousands. Doubtless they were smaller in the early middle ages, but we should probably not be far wrong if we think of them as having had populations of some hundreds.^[1]

Of the federally recognized Native American communities in the Southwest, those designated by the King of Spain as pueblo at the time Spain ceded territory to the United States, after the American Revolutionary War, are legally recognized as Pueblo by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some of the pueblos also came into under jurisdiction of the United States (in its view) by its treaty with Mexico, which had briefly gained rule over territory in the Southwest ceded by Spain after Mexican independence. There are 21 federally recognized Pueblos^[2] that are home to Pueblo people. Their official federal names are as follows:

Historical places[link]

Taos Pueblo, circa 1920

Pre-Columbian towns and villages in the Southwest, such as Acoma, were located in defensive positions, for example, on high steep mesas. Anthropologists and official documents often refer to ancient residents of the area as pueblo cultures. For example, the National Park Service states, "The Late Puebloan cultures built the large, integrated villages found by the Spaniards when they began to move into the area."^[3] The people of some pueblos, such as Taos Pueblo, still inhabit centuries-old adobe pueblo buildings.^[4]

Contemporary residents often maintain other homes outside the historic pueblos.^[4] Adobe and light construction methods resembling adobe now dominate architecture at the many pueblos of the area, in nearby towns or cities, and in much of the American Southwest.^[5]

In addition to contemporary pueblos, numerous ruins of archeological interest are located throughout the Southwest. Some are of relatively recent origin. Others are of prehistoric origin, such as the cliff dwellings and other habitations of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples or Anasazi, who emerged as a people about 12th century BCE and began to construct their pueblos about AD 750-900.^[6][7]

See also[link]

• Ancient Pueblo Peoples
• Pueblo Revolt

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• The SMU-in-Taos Research Publications digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research, primarily on Pueblo Indian ruins and excavations, at the SMU-in-Taos (Fort Burgwin) campus near Taos, New Mexico, including Papers on Taos archaeology, Taos archeology, Pueblo through time: eight centuries of change in a northern Rio Grande pueblo and Excavations at Pot Creek Pueblo.

Eric Foner (born February 7, 1943) is an American historian. On the faculty of the Department of History at Columbia University since 1982, he writes extensively on political history, the history of freedom, the early history of the Republican Party, African American biography, Reconstruction, and historiography. Foner is the leading contemporary historian^[1] of the post-Civil War Reconstruction period, having written Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877, winner of many prizes for history writing, and more than ten other books on the topic. In 2011, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery, Foner's most recent book, was selected as the recipient of the Pulitzer Prize, Lincoln Prize and the Bancroft Prize.^[2][3][4] Foner also won the Bancroft in 1989 for his book Reconstruction.

In 2000, he was elected president of the American Historical Association.^[5]

Early life[link]

Foner was born in New York City, the son of Liza (née Kraitz), a high school art teacher, and historian Jack D. Foner, who actively supported the Spanish Republic against fascism during the Spanish Civil War, the trade union movement, and the campaign for civil rights for African Americans. In 1981, Jack Foner received an apology from the New York City Board of Higher Education for an "egregious violation of academic freedom" in 1941 that had resulted in his blacklisting for thirty years.^[6] Jon Wiener, professor of history at the University of California, Irvine, wrote that Eric Foner describes his father as his "first great teacher," and recalls how, "deprived of his livelihood while I was growing up, he supported our family as a freelance lecturer... . Listening to his lectures, I came to appreciate how present concerns can be illuminated by the study of the past—how the repression of the McCarthy era recalled the days of the Alien and Sedition Acts, the civil rights movement needed to be viewed in light of the great struggles of Black and White abolitionists, and in the brutal suppression of the Philippine insurrection at the turn of the century could be found the antecedents of American intervention in Vietnam. I also imbibed a way of thinking about the past in which visionaries and underdogs—Tom Paine, Wendell Phillips, Eugene V. Debs, and W. E. B. Du Bois—were as central to the historical drama as presidents and captains of industry, and how a commitment to social justice could infuse one's attitudes towards the past."^[7]

Foner earned a B.A., summa cum laude, from Columbia University in 1963; a second B.A. from Oriel College, Oxford, as a Kellett Fellow in 1965; and a Ph.D. in 1969, under the tutelage of Richard Hofstadter at Columbia University.

Career[link]

Appointed the DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at Columbia University, Foner specializes in nineteenth century American history, the American Civil War, slavery, and Reconstruction. He served as president of the Organization of American Historians in (1993–94), and of the American Historical Association (2000).

From 1973-1982, he served as a Professor in the Department of History at City College and Graduate Center at City University of New York. In 1976-1977, he was a visiting professor of American History at Princeton University. In 1980 he was Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at the University of Cambridge.

Foner serves on the editorial boards of Past and Present and The Nation. He has written for The New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, London Review of Books, and other publications. In addition, he has spoken about history on television and radio, including Charlie Rose, Book Notes, and All Things Considered, and appeared in historical documentaries on PBS and The History Channel. Foner also contributed an essay and conversation with John Sayles in Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies, published by the Society of American Historians in 1995. He was the historian in Freedom: A History of US on PBS in 2003.

Exhibitions[link]

With Olivia Mahoney, chief curator at the Chicago History Museum Foner curated two prize-winning exhibitions on American history: A House Divided: America in the Age of Lincoln, which opened at the Chicago History Museum in 1990, and America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War, a traveling exhibit that opened at the Virginia Historical Society in 1995. He revised the presentation of American history at the Hall of Presidents at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, and Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln at Disneyland, and has served as consultant to several National Park Service historical sites and historical museums.

Foner served as an expert witness for the University of Michigan's defense of affirmative action in its undergraduate and law school admissions (Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger) considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2003.

Prizes[link]

In 1989, Foner won the Avery O. Craven Award from the Organization of American Historians. In 1991, Foner won the Great Teacher Award] from the Society of Columbia Graduates.^[8] In 1995, he was named Scholar of the Year by the New York Council for the Humanities.^[9] He is an elected fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and of the British Academy and holds an honorary doctorate from Iona College. He has taught at Cambridge University as Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions, at Oxford University as Harmsworth Professor of American History and at Moscow State University as Fulbright Professor. In 2007, the alumni of Columbia College voted to give him the John Jay Award for Distinguished Professional Achievement. In 2011, his new book, "The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery" won the Pulitzer Prize for history, the Bancroft Prize and the Lincoln Prize.

Praise[link]

Journalist Nat Hentoff called his Story of American Freedom "an indispensable book that should be read in every school in the land."^[10] "Eric Foner is one of the most prolific, creative, and influential American historians of the past 20 years," according to a write-up in the Washington Post. His work is "brilliant, important" a reviewer wrote in the Los Angeles Times.^[11]

Historian Michael Perman notes Foner's significance as an historian of the Reconstruction era:

And now, with the appearance of Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877, a massive volume of 690 pages, Foner has established himself as the leading authority on the Reconstruction period. This book is not simply a distillation of the secondary literature; it is a masterly account - broad in scope as well as rich in detail and insight.^[12]

Criticism[link]

In a review of The Story of American Freedom in the New York Review of Books, Theodore Draper wrote, "If the story of American freedom is told largely from the perspective of blacks and women, especially the former, it is not going to be a pretty tale. Yet most Americans thought of themselves not only as free but as the freest people in the world."^[13] John Patrick Diggins of the City University of New York wrote that Foner's Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877, was a "magisterial" and "moving" narrative, but compared Foner's "unforgiving" view of America for its racist past to his notably different views on the fall of communism and Soviet history.^[14]

Some conservatives have attacked Foner. David Horowitz labeled as "anti-American" a Columbia University teach-in that Foner helped organize in 2003; Daniel Pipes named Foner among the "Profs who hate America" (for the historian's opposition to the Iraq War).

Personal life[link]

Foner is married to Lynn Garafola,^[15] professor of dance at Barnard College and dance critic, historian, and curator. They have one daughter. He had been previously married to screenwriter Naomi Foner Gyllenhaal.^[16]

Eric Foner is the nephew of the late Marxist labor historian Philip S. Foner.

Quotations[link]

"Like all momentous events, September 11 is a remarkable teaching opportunity. But only if we use it to open rather than to close debate. Critical intellectual analysis is our responsibility—to ourselves and to our students." - "Rethinking American History in a Post-9/11 World" History News Network

"[S]uccessful teaching rests both on a genuine and selfless concern for students and on the ability to convey to them a love of history." - Eric Foner, Who Owns History? (Farrar, Straus & Giroux: 2002), page 7.

"In a global age, the forever-unfinished story of American freedom must become a conversation with the entire world, not a complacent monologue with ourselves." - "American Freedom in a Global Age" Presidential Address to the American Historical Association annual meeting January 2001.

"Events are only inevitable after they happen." -Who Owns History? Rethinking the Past in a Changing World

Works by Foner[link]

Books[link]

• Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995 [1970]. ISBN 0-19-509497-2.  Reissued with a new preface.
• America's Black Past: A Reader in Afro-American History. New York: Harper & Row. 1970. ,editor
• Nat Turner. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 1971. ISBN 0-13-933143-3. , editor
• Tom Paine and Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford University Press. 1976. ISBN 0-19-501986-5. 
• Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press. 1980. ISBN 0-19-502781-7. 
• Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1983. ISBN 0-8071-1118-X. 
• Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877. New York: Harper & Row. 1988. ISBN 0-06-015851-4.  Political history; and winner, in 1989, of the Bancroft Prize, the Francis Parkman Prize, the Los Angeles Times Book Award, the Avery O. Craven Prize, and the Lionel Trilling Prize.
• A Short History of Reconstruction, 1863-1877. New York: Harper & Row. 1990. ISBN 0-06-096431-6.  An abridgement of Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution.
• A House Divided: America in the Age of Lincoln. with Olivia Mahoney. Chicago: Chicago Historical Society. 1990. ISBN 0-393-02755-4. 
• The Reader's Companion to American History. ed. with John A. Garraty. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. 1991. ISBN 0-395-51372-3. , editor
• The Tocsin of Freedom: The Black Leadership of Radical Reconstruction. Gettysburg, Pa.: Gettysburg College. 1992. 
• Slavery and Freedom in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press. 1994. ISBN 0-19-952266-9. 
• America's Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War. with Olivia Mahoney. New York: HarperPerennial. 1995. ISBN 0-06-055346-4. 
• Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction (rev. ed. ed.). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. 1996. ISBN 0-8071-2082-0. 
• The New American History (rev. ed. ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 1997. ISBN 1-56639-551-8. , editor
• The Story of American Freedom. New York: W.W. Norton. 1998. ISBN 0-393-04665-6. 
• Who Owns History?: Rethinking the Past in a Changing World. New York: Hill and Wang. 2002. ISBN 0-8090-9704-4. 
• Give Me Liberty!: An American History. New York: W.W. Norton. 2004. ISBN 0-393-97872-9.  A survey of United States history, published with companion volumes of documents,
• 'Voices of Freedom: A Documentary History, ISBN 0-393-92503-X (vol. 1), and ISBN 0-393-92504-8 (vol. 2).
• Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. New York: Knopf. 2005. ISBN 0-375-40259-4. 
• Our Lincoln: New Perspectives on Lincoln and his World. New York: W.W. Norton. 2008. ISBN 0-393-06756-4. 
• The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W.W. Norton. 2010. 

Some of his books have been translated into Portuguese, Italian, and Chinese.

Articles[link]

• Foner, Eric. "Radical Individualism in America: Revolution to Civil War," Literature of Liberty, vol. 1 no. 3, July/September 1978 pp 1-31 online
• "He's the Worst Ever", Dec. 3, 2006, The Washington Post column on George W. Bush
• "Rethinking American History in a Post-9/11 World" History News Network -- September 6, 2004
• "Diversity Over Justice" The Nation - June 26, 2003
• "Dare Call It Treason" The Nation - June 2, 2003
• "Not All Freedom Is Made In America" The Nation April 13, 2003
• "The Century, A Nation's Eye View" The Nation December 10, 2002
• "Changing History" The Nation September 5, 2002
• "Expert Report of Eric Foner" from Gratz, et al. v. Bollinger, et al.
• "Rebel Yell" The Nation - January 27, 2000
• (Additional articles available at EricFoner.com)

Secession and the Soviet Union[link]

In an article in the February 11th, 1991 edition of The Nation Foner addresses the proposed secession of the Baltic States from the Soviet Union. These states claimed “the right to secede in part because they were annexed in 1940 against the wishes of their citizens after more than two decades of independence”.

Foner takes note of political scientist Ronald Suny's opinion that the current crisis (in 1990) that the Soviet Union was facing with respect to these states “reflect[ed] the failure of Soviet nationality policy” which served to “strengthen nationalism in the republics, while the fate of minorities within those political units became extremely problematic.”

Foner wrote of potential problems with the separatist movements by these states:

Every Soviet republic now demanding independence has significant populations of other ethnic groups. And respect for minority rights has never been a prominent feature of nationalist movements. When I visited Estonia last year a local nationalist told me that the first step after independence would be to expel ‘illegal aliens’ -- by which he meant any non-Estonian who had come to live in the region since 1940.

Foner asked the question, “What is the proper unit for self-determination? What happens to residents who want to remain part of the larger unit.” Drawing an analogy from the American Civil War, Foner noted that West Virginia successfully separated from Virginia and returned to the Union while the Confederate States of America “violently suppress[ed] East Tennessee’s desire to remain within the Union” while Texas treated pro-Union Germans with “extreme brutality”. While visiting in Tbilisi, Foner was told that “autonomous regions of non-Georgians within the republic” would not be allowed to secede.^[17]

Further reading[link]

• Diggins, John Patrick. "Fate and freedom in history: the two worlds of Eric Foner," The National Interest, Fall, 2002 Issue 69, pp 79-90 online
• Snowman, Daniel, "Eric Foner", History Today Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2000, pp. 26–27 .

References[link]

External links[link]

• EricFoner.com - Professor Foner's homepage
• Eric Foner lecture "Who Owns History?" from the 2009 Key West Literary Seminar (audio recording)
• Books written by Eric Foner or edited or introduced by him
• American Historical Association - Bibliography of Foner's Books
• Fathom Source for Online Learning Foner discusses influential history books he has read.
• Excerpt from Eric Foner essay on the John Sayles film, Matewan in the book Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies edited by historian Mark C. Carnes
• Who Owns History? - Publisher's page of Foner's book by the same title.
• VIDEO: "The Story of American Freedom: 1776-2005"- MIT SPURS/Humphrey Program sponsored lecture by Eric Foner from the series "Myths About America."
• The Left's Lion: Eric Foner's History - by Ronald Radosh
• Expert report by Eric Foner for University of Michigan Affirmative Action cases
• A film clip "The Open Mind - A Historian's 'Story of American Freedom,' Part I (1999)" is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
• A film clip "The Open Mind - A Historian's 'Story of American Freedom,' Part II (1999)" is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
• Booknotes interview with Foner on The Story of American Freedom, November 15, 1998.

Laguna Pueblo dwellers

Taos Pueblo, circa 1920

The Pueblo people are a Native American people in the Southwestern United States.^[1] Their traditional economy is based on agriculture and trade. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 16th century, they were living in villages that the Spanish called pueblos, meaning "towns". Of the 21 pueblos that exist today, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main Pueblos are located primarily in Arizona, and New Mexico and also in Texas and formerly in Colorado.

Subdivisions[link]

While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo People that have been published in the literature, Kirchhoff (1954)^[2] published a subdivision of the Pueblo People into two subareas: the group that includes Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, Jemez which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple kivas, believe in emergence of people from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos (except Keres) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence of people from underwater, five directions beginning in the west, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three.

Eggan (1950)^[3] in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuñi and Hopi dry-farmers and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers.They mostly grew maize (corn).

Linguistic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan; Zuñi is a language isolate; Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe. The Tanoan is an areal grouping of three branches consisting of 6 languages: Towa (Jemez), Tewa (San Juan, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Nambe, Pojoaque, and Hano); and the 3 Tiwa languages Taos, Picuris, and Southern Tiwa (Sandia, Isleta).

History[link]

The Pueblos are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact:

1. Mogollon, an area near the Gila Wilderness
2. Hohokam, archaeological term for a settlement in the Southwest
3. Ancient Pueblo Peoples (or the Anasazi, a term coined by the Navajos).^[4]

Despite forced conversions to Catholicism (as evidenced by the establishment of a mission at each surviving pueblo) by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the Rio Grande and Colorado River.

Sculptor Cliff Fragua. Unveiling and Dedication of the Popé statue in Washington DC, September 2005.

These peoples were the first to successfully revolt against the Spanish in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which expelled the Spanish for 12 years. The code for the action was a knotted rope sent by a runner to each pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. It began one day early, August 10, 1680; by August 21, Santa Fe fell to 2,500 warriors.^[5] On September 22, 2005, the statue of Po'pay, (Popé) the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. The statue was the second one from the state of New Mexico and the 100th and last to be added to the Statuary Hall collection. It was created by Cliff Fragua, a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo, and it is the only statue in the collection created by a Native American.

Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. One such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the Christmas and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the kivas. They may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions.

Formerly, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal in a Pueblo home, but because of the large number of visitors, such meals are now by personal invitation only.

Culture[link]

A Zuni drying platform for maize and other foods, with two women crafting pottery beneath it. From the Panama-California Exposition, San Diego, California. January 1915.

Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize—white cornmeal. Thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. Once, after the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.^[6]

The Puebloans employed prayer sticks, which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; these prayer sticks (or talking sticks) were also used by other nations.

By the 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth.^[7] Cloth and weaving were known to the Puebloans before the conquest, but it is not known whether they knew of weaving before or after the Aztecs. But since clothing was expensive, they did not always dress completely until after the conquest, and breechcloths were not uncommon.

Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They were what was called "dry farmers". Because there was not a lot of water in New Mexico, they farmed using as little water as possible, which restricted what they could grow. Because of this, they mainly would farm many types of corn, beans and squash. They would use pottery to hold their food and water.

Religion[link]

The most highly developed Native communities of the Southwest were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, rocky tablelands typical to the region. The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man, nature, plants and animals. Man depended on the blessings of children, who in turn depended on prayers and the goddess of Himura. Children led the religious ceremonies to create a more pure and holy ritual.

List of Pueblos[link]

New Mexico[link]

Some of the pueblos in New Mexico

• Acoma Pueblo — Keres language speakers. One of the oldest continuously inhabited villages in the US. Access to mesa-top pueblo by guided tour only (available from visitors' center), except on Sept 2nd (feast day). Photography by $10 permit per camera only. Photographing of Acoma people allowed only with individual permission. No photography permitted in Mission San Esteban del Rey or of cemetery. Sketching prohibited. Video recording strictly prohibited. Video devices will be publicly destroyed if used.
• Cochiti Pueblo — Keres speakers.
• Isleta Pueblo — Tiwa language speakers. Established in the 14th century. Both Isleta and Ysleta were of Shoshonean stock. The isleta was originally Shiewhibak ^[8]
• Jemez Pueblo — Towa language speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at Red Rocks.
• Kewa Pueblo( Formerly Santo Domingo Pueblo) — Keres speakers. Known for turquoise work and the Corn Dance.
• Laguna Pueblo — Keres speakers. Ancestors 3000 BC, established before the 14th century. Church July 4, 1699. Photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at San Jose Mission Church.
• Nambe Pueblo — Tewa language speakers. Established in the 14th century. Was an important trading center for the Northern Pueblos. Nambe is the original Tewa name, and means "People of the Round Earth". Feast Day of St. Francis October 4.
• Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo — Tewa speakers. Originally named O'ke Oweenge in Tewa. Headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council. Home of the Popé, one of the leaders of the August 1680 Pueblo Revolt. Known as San Juan Pueblo until November 2005.
• Picuris Pueblo, Peñasco, New Mexico — Tiwa speakers.
• Pojoaque Pueblo, Santa Fe, New Mexico — Tewa speakers. Re-established in the 1930s.
• Sandia Pueblo, Bernalillo, New Mexico — Tiwa speakers. Originally named Nafiat. Established in the 14th century. On the northern outskirts of Albuquerque.
• San Felipe Pueblo — Keres speakers. 1706. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo.
• San Ildefonso Pueblo, between Pojoaque and Los Alamos— Tewa speakers. Originally at Mesa Verde and Bandelier. The valuable black-on-black pottery was made famous here by Maria and Julian Martinez. Photography by $10 permit only. Sketching prohibited at pueblo. Heavily-visited destination.
• Santa Ana Pueblo — Keres speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo.
• Santa Clara Pueblo, Española, New Mexico — Tewa speakers. 1550. Originally inhabited Puyé Cliff Dwellings on Santa Clara Canyon.The valuable black-on-black pottery was developed here
• Taos Pueblo — Tiwa speakers. World Heritage Site. National Historic Landmark.
• Tesuque Pueblo Santa Fe— Tewa speakers. Originally named Te Tesugeh Oweengeh 1200. National Register of Historic Places. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual Camel Rock are open.
• Zia Pueblo — Keres speakers. New Mexico's state flag uses the Zia symbol.
• Zuni Pueblo — Zuni language speakers. First visited 1540 by Spanish. Mission 1629

Arizona[link]

• Hopi Tribe Nevada-Kykotsmovi — Hopi language speakers. Area of present villages settled around 700 AD

Texas[link]

• Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, El Paso, Texas —originally Tigua (Tiwa) speakers. Also spelled 'Isleta del Sur Pueblo'. This Pueblo was established in 1680 as a result of the Pueblo Revolt. Some 400 members of Isleta, Socorro and neighboring Pueblos were forced or accompanied the Spaniards to El Paso as they fled Northern New Mexico.^[9] Three missions (Ysleta, Socorro, and San Elizario) were established on the Camino Real to Santa Fe. The San Elizario mission was administrative (that is, non Puebloan).
• Some of the Piru Puebloans settled in Senecu, and then in Socorro, Texas, adjacent to Ysleta, Texas (which is now within El Paso city limits). When the Rio Grande would flood the valley or change course, these missions would lie variously on the north or south sides of the river. Although Socorro and San Elizario are still separate communities, Ysleta has been annexed into El Paso.

Feast days[link]

January

• Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6
• San Ildefonso Pueblo Feast Day: January 23.

May

• San Felipe Pueblo Feast Day: May 1

Dancers at Ohkay Owingeh

June

• Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo Feast Day: June 24
• Sandia Pueblo Feast Day: June 13.
• Ysleta / Isleta del Sur Pueblo Feast Day: June 13.

July

• Cochiti Pueblo Feast Day: July 14
• Santa Ana Pueblo Feast Day: July 26

August

• Picuris Pueblo Feast Day: August 10
• Jemez Pueblo Feast Day: August 2
• Santo Domingo Pueblo Feast Day: August 4
• Santa Clara Pueblo Feast Day : August 12
• Zia Pueblo Feast Day: August 15

September

• Acoma Pueblo Feast Day of San Esteban del Rey: September 2
• Laguna Pueblo Feast Day: September 19
• Taos Pueblo Feast Day: September 30

October

• Nambe Pueblo Feast Day of St. Francis: October 4

December

• Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6

Variable

• Isleta Pueblo Feast Days

Pottery[link]

There is a short history of creating pottery among the various Pueblo communities. Mera, in his discussion of the "Rain Bird" motif, a common and popular design element in pueblo pottery states that, "In tracing the ancestory of the "Rain Bird" design it will be necessary to go back to the very beginnings of decorated pottery in the Southwest to a ceramic type which as reckoned by present day archaeologists came into existence some time during the early centuries of the Christian era." ^[10]

• PotteryOfPuebloPeoples.jpg

  Pottery of the Pueblo people, Field Museum, Chicago

• ZiaBowl1.jpg

  Zia Pueblo, pottery bowl, Field Museum

• TesuqueJar2.jpg

  Tesuque Pueblo Pottery Jar, Field Museum

• AcomaBowl2.jpg

  Acoma Pueblo, bowl. (background: Tesuque jar.) Field Museum

• 

  Acoma Pueblo, pottery jar, Field Museum

• 

  Tesuque Pueblo, Pottery Jar, Field Museum

• 

  San Ildefonso Pueblo, Black-on-Black Pottery Bowl. Field Museum

• BirdEffigyJarCicuye1.jpg

  Bird effigy, pottery. Cicuye Pueblo, Field Museum

• 

  Deer effigy, pottery. Cicuye Pueblo, Field Museum

• AcomaJar1.jpg

  Pottery Jar, Acoma Pueblo, taken at Field Museum

• AcomaCanteen1.jpg

  Pottery Canteen, Acoma Pueblo, taken at Field Museum

• JemezBowl1.jpg

  Pottery Bowl, Jemez Pueblo, Field Museum, Chicago

See also[link]

• Arizona Tewa
• Hopi
• Tanoan languages
• Navajo people
• Paquime
• Pueblo Revolt
• Tewa people
• Tiwa
• Keresan languages
• Zuni people

Notes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Media related to Pueblo people at Wikimedia Commons

Alfonso Alex Ortiz (April 30, 1939 San Juan, New Mexico - September 27, 1998) was a Native-American cultural anthropologist.^[1][2]

Life[link]

He graduated from the University of New Mexico in 1961, and from the University of Chicago with a masters degree and a Ph.D. in anthropology. He taught at University of California at Los Angeles, Colorado College, Pitzer College and Princeton University, and at the University of New Mexico.^[3]

He was president of the Association on American Indian Affairs. His San Juan Pueblo, Oral History tapes and papers are held at Princeton.^[4][5]

Legacy[link]

In 1999, the National Endowment for the Humanities issued a grant for the University of New Mexico to establish the Alfonso Ortiz Center for Intercultural Studies.^[6]

Awards[link]

• 1975 Guggenheim Fellowship
• 1982 MacArthur Fellows Program

Works[link]

• The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society. University of Chicago Press. 1972. ISBN 978-0-226-63307-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=il2I7qOM9cMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alfonso+Ortiz&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
• New Perspectives on the Pueblos, University of New Mexico Press, 1972
• Handbook of North American Indians (volumes 9 and 10, Smithsonian Institution, 1979 and 1983
• To Carry Forth the Vine: an Anthology of Traditional Native North American Poetry.
• American Indian myths and legends Richard Erdoes, Alfonso Ortiz (eds) Pantheon Books, 1984, ISBN 978-0-394-50796-5
• Raymond J. DeMallie, Alfonso Ortiz, ed. (1994). North American Indian anthropology: essays on society and culture. Verlag für die Deutsche Wirtschaft AG. ISBN 978-0-8061-2614-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=FFnaBwUIMdMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alfonso+Ortiz&cd=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
• Raymond J. DeMallie, Alfonso Ortiz, ed. (1994). "The Dynamics of Pueblo Cultural Survival". North American Indian anthropology: essays on society and culture. Verlag für die Deutsche Wirtschaft AG. ISBN 978-0-8061-2614-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=FFnaBwUIMdMC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&dq=Alfonso+Ortiz&source=bl&ots=o0Unco-ZUu&sig=evmrnnWQQGqexuC4wEuDOG1C_6g&hl=en&ei=9IKFS56cAqL2MZvQlOkM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAzge#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 

References[link]

External links[link]

• "A Tribute to Alfonso Ortiz (1939-97)", Ted Jojola, Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 9–11
• "A Conversation with Alfonso Ortiz", Dewitt, Susan, La Confluencia, 1, 2, 32-9, Dec 76