Free Syrian Army الجيش السوري الحر
225px Official logo of Free Syrian Army
Active	29 July 2011 – present
Country	Syria
Allegiance	Syrian National Council[1]
Branch	Army
Type	Light infantry
Role	Civilian protection,[2] armed struggle
Size	70,000[3] (Free Syrian Army figure)
Main base	Hatay, Turkey
Nickname	Free Officers Movement (Arabic: حركة الضباط الأحرار‎)
Motto	Free Army, Free Syria! (Arabic: جيش حر, سوريا حرة‎)
Colors	Green, Red, White and Black
Engagements	Syrian Uprising Battle of Rastan Battle of Zabadani Battle of Douma Homs clashes Battle of Al-Qusayr Damascus clashes Idlib province clashes Daraa province clashes Homs airbase attack Hama clashes
Commanders
Commander-in-Chief	Colonel Riad al-Asaad
Deputy Commander-in-Chief	Colonel Malik Kurdi[4]
Chief of Staff	Colonel Ahmad Hijazi[5]
Military Council Head	General Mustafa al-Sheikh
Insignia
Identification mark

The Free Syrian Army (Arabic: الجيش السوري الحر‎, al-jayš as-suri al-ħurr) is an armed opposition group operating in Syria that has been active during the Syrian Uprising.^[6] Composed mainly of defected Syrian Armed Forces personnel, its formation was announced on 29 July 2011 in a video released on the internet by a uniformed group of deserters from the Syrian military who called upon members of the Syrian army to defect and join them.^[7] The leader of the group, who identified himself as Colonel Riad al-Asaad, announced that the Free Syrian Army would work with demonstrators to bring down the system, and declared that all security forces attacking civilians are justified targets.^[8][9]

Riad al-Asaad has stated that the Free Syrian Army (FSA) has no political goals except the removal from Syria of president Bashar Assad's government.^[10][11] The FSA has also claimed that the conflict is not sectarian, that they have in their ranks Alawis who oppose the government, and that there will be no reprisals if it falls.^[12] On 23 September 2011, the Free Syrian Army merged with the Free Officers Movement (Arabic: حركة الضباط الأحرار‎, ħarakat al-ḍubbaṭ al-aħrar) and became the main opposition army group.^[6][13][14] By early December, there were an estimated 15,000 to 25,000 defectors from the armed forces according to activist and media sources,^[15][16] western intelligence sources estimated greater than 10,000 defectors,^[17][18] By the middle of January 2012, the Free Syrian Army reported because of continuing defections a total of 40,000 men in its ranks.^[19][20] The actual number of soldiers defecting to the Free Syrian Army is unknown.^[21][22]

The FSA operates throughout Syria, both in urban areas and in the countryside. Forces are active in the northwest (Idlib, Aleppo), the central region (Homs, Hama, and Rastan), the coast around Latakia, the south (Deraa and Houran), the east (Dayr al-Zawr, Abu Kamal), and the Damascus area. The largest concentration of these forces appears to be in the central region (Homs, Hama, and surrounding areas), with nine or more battalions active there.^[23][24] The Free Syrian Army has stated that it does not have the resources to occupy and take control of territories, and instead relies primarily on hit and run attacks to prompt the Syrian army into withdrawing.^[25] The head of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon has said that the Free Syrian Army controlled significant parts of some cities.^[26]

History[link]

Origin[link]

The Free Syrian Army traces its origin to early defectors from the Syrian army who refused to shoot on unarmed protesters during the Syrian Uprising.^[27] The first defections occurred when the army was sent into Daraa to quell ongoing protests. There were reports that different units had refused to shoot on protesters and had split from the army.^[28] Video footage showed civilians helping defecting soldiers who had been shot for refusing orders.^[29] Defections continued throughout the spring as the government used lethal force to clamp down on protesters and lay siege on protesting cities across the country such as Baniyas, Hama, Talkalakh and, Deir ez-Zor. Many soldiers who refused to open fire against civilians were summarily executed by the army.^[30] In July 2011, seeing the need for action Riad al-Asaad and a group officers announced the formation of the Free Syrian Army with the goal to protect unarmed protesters and to help overthrow the regime.^[9]

Formation[link]

On 29 July 2011, Riad al-Asaad announced the opposition army's formation. He explained that the free army’s formation resulted from the defecting soldier's nationalistic duty, loyalty to the people, a sense of the need for conclusive decisions to stop government killings, and the army’s responsibility to protect the unarmed free people. He proceeded to announce the formation of the free Syrian army to work hand in hand with the people to achieve freedom and dignity, bring the government down, protect the revolution and the country’s resources, and stand in the face of the irresponsible military machine that protects the system.^[9]

Asaad called on the officers and men of the Syrian army to "defect from the army, stop pointing their rifles at their people's chests, join the free army, and form a national army that can protect the revolution and all sections of the Syrian people with all their sects." He continued that the Syrian army "[represents] gangs that protect the regime" and declared that "as of now, the security forces that kill civilians and besiege cities will be treated as legitimate targets. We will target them in all parts of the Syrian territories without exception."^[9]

As no confirmed evidence of an organized Free Syrian Army beyond video statements was produced in the beginning, its existence was questioned by some sources.^[31][32] However in late August, a top member of the organization, Colonel Hussein Harmoush, was detained during a special operation by Syrian forces in Idlib and confessed on state television that he was a member of the opposition army and that while in the Syrian army he was not forced to shoot on protesters.^[33] Since August, the Free Syrian Army has also made a number of interviews with the international media from both locations on the Syrian-Turkish border and inside Syria.^[34] Al Jazeera journalist Nir Rosen, however, reported that many of the rebels were not military defectors but civilians who chose to arm themselves, and that the opposition called them defectors to give them more legitimacy.^[35] He added that many of the civilian deaths reported everyday by activists groups were armed insurgents.^[36] Rosen's description is disputed by reports of other journalists and photographers who have been in Syria with the Free Syrian Army and civilians.^[37][38]

Expansion[link]

The FSA operates throughout Syria, both in urban areas and in the countryside.

External videos
	Idlib, Syria, 21 February 2012, About 500 soldiers defect from the Syrian army's 17th Regiment and join the opposition Free Syrian Army.[39]

Since the summer there has been a steady flow of defections to the Free Syrian Army which have been documented in defection videos.^[40][41] Western intelligence reports in December indicated that as many as half the army conscripts did not report to army duty in the last three call-ups, and that lower-level officers were deserting in large numbers. In some cases, whole units had deserted en masse.^[17] In the winter, the FSA continued to announce the formation of new army units, pledging to Bashar al-Assad that "you will find us everywhere at all times, and you will see that which you do not expect, until we re-establish the rights and freedom of our people."^[42] In an effort to weaken the pro-Assad forces, the free army released a statement in mid November which announced that a temporary military council had been formed.^[43]

In January, high ranking defections continued.^[44] On 6 January, General Mostafa Ahmed al-Sheikh of the Syrian Army defected from the government forces to join the FSA.^[45] A day later, Colonel Afeef Mahmoud Suleima of the Syrian Air Force logistics division defected from Bashar Al Assads regime along with at least fifty of his men and joined the FSA. He announced his groups defection on live television and ordered his men to protect protesters in the city of Hama. Colonel Suleima in a statement declared: "We are from the army and we have defected because the government is killing civilian protesters. The Syrian army attacked Hama with heavy weapons, air raids and heavy fire from tanks ... We ask the Arab League observers to come visit areas affected by air raids and attacks so you can see the damage with your own eyes, and we ask you to send someone to uncover the three cemeteries in Hama filled with more than 460 corpses."^[46] Defections continued a week later, when another general of the Syrian army defected to the opposition in the city of Qusayr in Homs province.^[47]

General Mostafa Ahmed al-Sheikh told Reuters that up to 20,000 soldiers in total had deserted the army since the beginning of the conflict, and that the FSA had taken control of large swathes of land. He said in an interview on 12 January 2012 : "If we get 25,000 to 30,000 deserters mounting guerrilla warfare in small groups of six or seven it is enough to exhaust the army in a year to a year-and-a-half, even if they are armed only with rocket-propelled grenades and light weapons", and also mentioned that the majority of army deserters had gone to be with their families, rather than join the rebellion.^[48] On 29 January, there were reports of a new round of high ranking defections after the Syrian Army was deployed to fight in the Damascus suburbs. At least two generals and hundreds of soldiers with their weapons defected at this time.^[49][50][51]

On 21 February 2012, it was reported that General Fayez Amro of the Syrian air force, who is originally from the Bab Amr district in Homs and of Turkmen origin, defected to the opposition. Another intelligence general from the Syrian army also defected at this time to Turkey. His name was not disclosed due to security reasons. This was at the same time that a defected liuetenant who worked in the chemical weapons department claimed that “BZ-CS, Chlorine Benzilate, which damages people’s nerves and makes them fade away, is being used in Bab Amr." He said that some Syrian soldiers had been supplied with gas masks for protection.^[52] It was also reported that a brigadier general defected in Idlib with 200 of his soldiers.^[53] The next month General Adnan Farzat from the city of Rastan and two other generals defected.^[54][55] Turkish government sources reported that same month a surge in desertions with there being over 20,000 desertions in the past month alone bringing the total number of deserters from the Syrian army to over 60,000 soldiers.^[56]

On 24 March 2012, the Free Syrian Army united with the Higher Military Council. The groups agreed to put their differences behind them, and in a statement said: "First, we decided to unite all the military councils and battalions and all the armed battalions inside the country under one unified leadership of the Free Syrian Army and to follow the orders of the commander of the FSA, Col. Riad al-Asaad."^[57]

Strategy[link]

The Free Syrian Army is the military wing of the opposition movement,^[58] and it aims to bring down the government by protecting civilian protesters, encouraging army defections and by carrying out armed action.^[9] As the Syrian army is highly organised and well-armed, the Free Syrian Army has adopted guerrilla-style tactics in the countryside and cities. The FSA's military strategy is focused on a dispersed countrywide guerrilla campaign with a tactical focus on armed action in the capital of Damascus. The campaign is not meant to hold territory, but rather, is meant to spread the government's forces and their logistics chains thin in the battles for urban centers where protests continue, to attrition the security forces, to degrade morale, and to destabilize Damascus the center of government.^[59][60]

The Free Syrian Army's armed actions focus on the government's combat advantages, which include the ability to mount coordinated operations on a large scale, the ability to move its forces at will, and the ability to employ heavy firepower.^[61] To halt these advantages the FSA has mounted attacks on the government's command and control and logistical infrastructure. A sabotage campaign has begun in Syria with reports of attacks on different government assets. The FSA has mounted attacks on security service command centers and on Syrian social media sites information about blocking roads, attacking logistics vehicles, including tank transporters and fuel trucks, cutting coaxial communications cables servicing airfields, and destroying telecommunications towers, sabotaging engines of combat and other vehicles used by government forces by sugaring the fuel tank, and attacking railways and pipelines has been discussed.^[62][63]

The Free Syrian Army on the local level engages and ambushes the state’s shabiha militia^[12] and confronts the army during which it encourages defections.^[37] The FSA also uses improvised explosive devices to attack military convoys of buses, trucks and tanks that are transporting supplies and security reinforcements and engages in attack and retreat operations on government checkpoints.^[12][64] In neighborhoods opposed to the government, the FSA has acted as a defense force, guarding streets while protests take place and attacking the militias, known as shabiha, which are an integral part of the government's efforts to suppress dissent.^[65] In Deir ez-Zor, Al-Rastan, Abu Kamal and other cities the Free Syrian Army, however, engaged in street battles that raged for days with no particular side gaining the advantage.^[12] The FSA has also sought international help in bringing down the Assad government. It has asked the international community for arms and the implementation of a no fly zone and naval blockade of Syria^[14]

Weapons[link]

The Free Syrian Army is mainly armed with AK-47s and RPG-7s.

The Free Syrian Army is mainly armed with AK-47s and RPG-7s.^[66] Because defecting soldiers lack air cover, deserting soldiers have to abandon their armoured vehicles. Soldiers defect carrying only their army issued light arms and hide in cities, suburbs or the cover of the countryside.^[12] Raids on government checkpoints and arms depots are carried out to supply the free army with ammunition and new arms. The FSA also purchases weapons on the Syrian black market which is supplied by arms smugglers from neighboring countries and corrupt loyalist forces selling government arms. There have been reports that whole arms depots have been offered for sale, although these offers were refused because of fears of a potential trap.^[67][68] Besides AK-47s, some free army soldiers also have M16s, FN FALs, shotguns,^[69] G3 assault rifles,^[70] and PK machine guns.^[71] Col. Assad has asked the international community to supply the FSA with arms to alleviate the organization's supply issues.^[72][73] While many nations have been hesitant to provide Syria with arms out of fears of escalating the conflict,^[74] the organization does appear to be receiving some outside arms shipments. In April, the Lebanese Navy intercepted a Sierre Leone-registered vessel carrying a large number of arms and ammunition believed to be destined for the Free Syrian Army. Some of the arms were labeled as Libyan.^[75]

The FSA has a few heavy weapons captured from the Syrian government. In February, video footage was posted online showing a captured government tank, being used in Homs by FSA forces. The tank carried Syrian opposition flags and was seen firing with armed men in civilian clothes taking cover behind it.^[76] An FSA spokesman has said that the organization received 3 tanks from a group of 100 deserters from the Syrian army.^[51]

Location[link]

The Free Syrian Army operates throughout Syria, both in urban areas and in the countryside. Forces are active in the northwest (Idlib, Aleppo), the central region (Homs, Hama, and Rastan), the south (Deraa and Houran), the east (Dayr al-Zawr, Abu Kamal), and the Damascus area. The largest concentration of these forces appears to be in the central region (Homs, Hama, and surrounding areas), with nine or more battalions active there.^[23] The free army uses guerrilla warfare tactics when it fights and does not aim to occupy terrain once a fight is over, however, by late 2011 large swathes of area in Syria had fallen under partial control of the Free Syrian Army.^[77][78] In late 2011, the FSA established control over a number of towns and villages across Idlib province.^[79][80] Later in January 2012, the Free Syrian Army succeeded in taking control of the town of Zabadani in Damascus province, following intense clashes with the regular troops. On 21 January, the FSA temporarily captured the town of Douma, near Damascus.^[81] The Free Syrian Army also for three months controlled around two-thirds of Homs, Syria's third largest city, according to Syrian military officers inside the city.^[82] In January, some Damascus suburbs fell under partial opposition control. For example, the town of Saqba, a suburb of Damascus fell under opposition control for a week until the FSA was forced to tactically retreat into the local population after sustained heavy bombardment by the Syrian Army.^[83][84] In late February, the city of Idlib was under opposition control, with opposition flags flying in the city centre.^[85] In May, United Nations monitors confirmed media reports that large areas of Syria's countryside and provincial cities were under de facto FSA or nobody's control.^[86] The Free Syrian Army has stated that it only has partial control over its held areas, and that in a head to head battle with the Syrian army was unable in most cases to hold the territory. The FSA’s goal as of winter was to loosen government control over areas, rather than to impose firm control of its own.^[87]

Operations[link]

Armed action in 2011[link]

September[link]

Detailed map of Syria

Battle of Rastan[link]

From 27 September to 1 October, Syrian government forces, backed by tanks and helicopters, led a major offensive on the city of Rastan in Homs province, which had been under opposition control for a couple weeks.^[88][89] There were reports of large numbers of defections in the city, and the Free Syrian Army reported it had destroyed 17 armoured vehicles during clashes in Rastan,^[90] using RPGs and booby traps.^[91] The Harmoush battalion also reported that it killed 80 loyalist soldiers in fighting.^[92] A defected officer in the Syrian opposition claimed that over a hundred officers had defected as well as thousands of conscripts, although many had gone into hiding or home to their families, rather than fighting the loyalist forces.^[91] The Battle of Rastan between the government forces and the Free Syrian Army was the longest and most intense action up until that time. After a week of fighting, the FSA was forced to retreat from Rastan.^[89] To avoid government forces, the leader of the FSA, Col. Riad Asaad, retreated to the Turkish side of Syrian-Turkish border.^[93]

October[link]

Jabal al-Zawiya clashes[link]

By the beginning of October, clashes between loyalist and defected army units were being reported fairly regularly. During the first week of the month, sustained clashes were reported in Jabal al-Zawiya in the mountainous regions of Idlib province.^[94] On 13 October, clashes were reported in the town of Haara in Daraa province in the south of Syria that resulted in the death of two rebel and six loyalist soldiers, according to the London based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.^[95] Clashes were also reported in the city of Binnish in Idlib province with a total of 14 fatalities for both affected towns, including rebels, loyalists and civilians.^[96] A few days later on 17 October, five government troops were killed in the town of Qusair in the central province of Homs, near the border with Lebanon, and 17 people were reported wounded in skirmishes with defectors in the town of Hass in Idlib province near the mountain range of Jabal al-Zawiya, although it was unclear if the wounded included civilians.^[97] According to the London based organization, an estimated 11 government soldiers were killed that day, four of which were killed in a bombing. It was not clear if the defectors linked to these incidents were connected to the Free Syrian Army.^[98]

Continuing clashes in Idlib province[link]

On 20 October, the opposition reported that clashes occurred between loyalists and defectors in Burhaniya, near the town of Qusair in the central province of Homs, leading to the death of several soldiers and the destruction of two military vehicles.^[99] A week later on 25 October, clashes occurred in the northwestern town of Maarat al-Numaan in Idlib province between loyalists and defected soldiers at a roadblock on the edge of the town. The defectors launched an assault on the government held roadblock in retaliation for a raid on their positions the previous night.^[100] The next day on 26 October, the opposition reported that nine soldiers were killed by a rocket-propelled grenade when it hit their bus in the village of Hamrat, near the city of Hama. The gunmen who attacked the bus were believed to be defected soldiers.^[101]

On 29 October, the opposition reported that 17 pro-Assad soldiers were killed in the city of Homs during fighting with suspected army deserters, including a defected senior official who was aiding the rebel soldiers. Two armoured personnel carriers were disabled in the fighting. Later the number of casualties was revised to 20 killed and 53 wounded soldiers in clashes with presumed army deserters, according to Agence France Presse. In a separate incident, 10 security agents and a deserter were killed in a bus ambush near the Turkish border, opposition activists reported. The Syrian Observatory of Human Rights reported that the bus was transporting security agents between the villages of Al-Habit and Kafrnabuda in Idlib province when it was ambushed "by armed men, probably deserters".^{[102][103][104]}

November[link]

On 1 November, dozens of armored vehicles converged on a village in the Kafroma in Idlib, as defected soldiers killed an unknown number of Syrian soldiers.^{[citation needed]} A few days later on 5 November, at least nine people died in clashes between soldiers, protesters and defectors, and four Shabeeha were killed in Idlib reportedly by army deserters.^[105] On the same day, the state-news agency SANA reported the deaths of 13 soldiers and policemen as a result of clashes with armed groups.^[106] According to SANA, four policemen were also wounded in clashes with an armed group in Kanaker in the Damascus countryside while one of the armed individuals died, additionally that day, two explosive devices were dismantled.^[107]

Defections and checkpoint raids[link]

More army defections were reported in Damascus on 10 November, three out of at least nine defectors were shot dead by loyalist gunmen after abandoning their posts. The same day, clashes reportedly resulted in the death of a fifteen year old boy in Khan Sheikhoun, when he was caught in crossfire between Assad loyalists and the free army.^[108] Also on the 10 November "at least four soldiers in the regular army were killed at dawn in an attack, headed by armed men – probably deserters – on a military checkpoint in Has region, near Maaret al-Numan town" according to the Syrian Observatory For Human Rights.^[109] However, the number has also been put at five soldiers.^[108] A checkpoint in Maarat al-Numaan three kilometers south of Homs also came under attack by defectors, resulting in an increase in tank deployment by Syrian security forces in the city.^[108]

In November, there were conflicting reports of the number of Syrian soldiers injured and killed. On 11 November, Reuters reported that 26 soldiers were killed,^[110] while Syrian state media reported the lower figure of 20 soldiers killed at this time.^[111][112] For the month up until 13 November, the Local Coordination Committees reported the death of about 20 soldiers,^[110] the Syrian Observatory of Human Rights reported the death of more than 100 soldiers,^[110] and the Syrian state media SANA reported the death of 71 soldiers.^{[111][112][113][114][115][116][117]} Increased Clashes in Deraa province began on the 14 November when 34 soldiers and 12 defectors were killed in an ambush by the free army. The death toll as a result of the fighting also included 23 civilians.^[118] One day later on 15 November, eight soldiers and security forces troops were killed by an assault on a checkpoint in Hama province, according to activists.^[119]

Damascus Intelligence complex attack[link]

On 16 November in a coordinated attack, an air force intelligence complex on the edges of Damascus was attacked. According to the Free Syrian Army, they did so with machine guns and rocket-propelled grenades, leading to the death of at least six soldiers with twenty others wounded. A western diplomat said the assault was "hugely symbolic and tactically new".^[43][120] The attack on the air force intelligence complex was a continuation of clashes in Damascus. The next day, the Free Syrian Army launched an assault against the Baath party youth headquarters in Idlib province with RPG's and small arms.^[121] The state news agency SANA reported the deaths of three Syrian troops as a result of a bomb blast, with an officer also critically wounded and two law-enforcement agents injured.^[122] Three members of the security forces were reportedly killed on between the 18 to 19 November by the Free Syrian Army.^[105] Multiple attacks on 19 December by armed groups were also reported by the state news agency SANA.^[123] State news also reported that ten wanted armed individuals were captured in Maarat al-Numan.^[124]

According to Reuters, two rocket propelled grenades hit a Baath party building in Damascus on 20 December. This if true is highly significant; it is the first attack of this kind within the capital itself and would lend weight to the Free Syrian Army's claim that it can strike anywhere in Syria. According to Reuters, a witness said: "Security police blocked off the square where the Baath's Damascus branch is located. But I saw smoke rising from the building and fire trucks around it." The building was reportedly mostly empty in the attack which took place before dawn and was seemingly a message to the regime.^[125] However, an AFP reporter went to the area and saw no signs of the claimed attack while residents said that there had been no explosions.^[126] Colonel Asaad himself denied that the Free Syrian Army was responsible for the attack. It is therefore likely that it was a provocation by the Assad regime.^[127] On 22 November, the Free Syrian Army claimed responsibility for killing eight members of the security forces.^{[citation needed]} On 23 November, five defected soldiers were killed; four in a farm near Daraa where they were hiding and one near the Lebanese border, according to Reuters. If there was a confrontation between the soldiers and government troops is unclear. Any government troop casualties as a result of these clashes are also unknown.^[128]

Homs airbase attack[link]

According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, on the 24 November soldiers and Shabiha with armoured vehicles started operations in farmland west of Rastan in Homs province to track down defectors. 24 people died as a result (if they were soldiers, defectors or civilians was not stated). At least fifty tanks and other armoured vehicle opened fire with 50 cal. machine guns and anti-aircraft weapons on positions held by the Free Syrian Army on Rastan's outskirts. Deaths were also reported in Daraa and Homs^[129] On 24 November, 11 defectors were killed and four wounded during clashes on the western outskirts of Homs.^[130]

In an attack on an airbase in Homs province on 25 November, six elite pilots, one technical officer and three other personnel were killed. The Syrian government vowed to "cut every evil hand" of the attackers as a result.^[131][132] The Free Syrian army claimed responsibility for the attack on the airbase staff.^[133] On that same day, at least 10 troops and security service agents were killed in clashes with mutinous soldiers in the east of Syria. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the deaths occurred in Deir Ezzor, while early the next day a civilian was also killed in the eastern city. Several defectors were also killed or wounded.^{[134][135][136]}

Army convoy ambushes[link]

Sustained clashes in Idlib province began on 26 November between loyalist and opposition fighters. At least 8 soldiers were killed and 40 more wounded that day when the free army attacked them in Idlib, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported. "A group of deserters attacked a squad of soldiers and security agents in a convoy of seven vehicles, including three all-terrain vehicles, on the road from Ghadka to Maarat al-Numaan,” the Britain-based watchdog said. “Eight were killed and at least 40 more were wounded. The deserters were able to withdraw without suffering any casualties,” it added. The FSA claimed to be behind the attack.^[137][138]

Syrian human rights activists claimed that the Free Syrian Army had killed three loyalist soldiers and captured two others on 29 November, although they did not specify where.^[139] According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, seven soldiers were killed on 30 November in fighting in the town of Deal in Daraa province after security forces moved on the town in force. The fighting went on from the early morning to the late afternoon. "Two security force vehicles were blown up. Seven (troops) were killed," said Rami Abdel Rahman, head of the observatory. An activist from the town, in the province of Deraa, said some 30 busloads of security men stormed Deal and two of the buses were blown up in fighting "between security forces and defectors," the Observatory reported. One of the destroyed buses was allegedly empty.^[140]

December[link]

Idlib intelligence building raid[link]

On 1 December, FSA troops launched a raid on an intelligence building in Idlib, leading to a three hour fire fight in which eight loyalists were killed.^[141] This came the same day the United Nations announced it considered Syria to be in a state of civil war.^[142] On 3 December, clashes in the city of Idlib in the north of Syria the next day resulted in the death of seven Assad loyalist soldiers, five defectors and three civilians.^[143] On 4 December, heavy fighting raged in Homs during which at least five FSA insurgents were killed and one wounded.^[144] Defected soldiers killed four members of the security forces, including an officer, at the southern city of Deal in Daraa province on 5 December.^[145] On 7 December, there were clashes between the Syrian regular army and groups of army defectors near the radio broadcasting centre in the town of Saraqeb, in Idib district. An armoured personnel carrier (APC) of the regular army was destroyed during the clashes. Meanwhile, joint security and military forces raided the houses at the edges of Saraqeb and arrested three activists, at dawn time. This was according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.^{[citation needed]} Between 1 December and 7 December, the Syrian state news agency SANA reported the deaths of 48 members of the state security forces.^{[146][147][148][149][150][151]}

Escalating clashes in Daraa[link]

A military tank was destroyed in Homs on 9 December.^[152] Four defected soldiers also apparently died in fighting on 9 December.^[153] On 10 December, activists say clashes between Syrian troops and army defectors killed at least two people. The British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights says two army armoured carriers were burned in the pre-dawn clash in the northwestern town of Kfar Takharim.^[154] On 11 December, it was reported that a battle was fought between defectors and the Syrian army in Busra al-Harir and Lujah. Troops, mainly from the 12th Armoured Brigade, based in Isra, 40 km from the border with Jordan, stormed the nearby town of Busra al-Harir, the Reuters news agency reported. It was apparently the largest battle to take place in the conflict so far.^[155][156] At least five soldiers, including a military officer, are reported to have been killed the same day in an unspecified location.^[157] In one of Sunday’s clashes, which took place before dawn in the northwestern town of Kfar Takharim, two of the military’s armored vehicles were set ablaze, said the British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.^[158] Three other vehicles were burned in another clash near the southern village of Busra al-Harir, the group said. Similar battles took place in several other parts of the south, said the Observatory and another activist group called the Local Coordination Committees.^[158]

Urban fighting in Homs[link]

Syrian army defectors, who operate under the banner of the Free Syrian Army, say that a senior army officer was killed on 11 December after refusing to fire on civilians in Homs. Maher al-Nueimi, a spokesman for the FSA, said that Brigadier-General Salman al-Awaja was given instructions to fire on residents of al-Quseir in Homs. When he refused, Nueimi said, he was killed. The FSA says that a large number of defections took place after the killing, as clashes broke out between al-Awaja's supporters in the army and the other soldiers who killed him.^[159] The Observatory said two people were killed in the clash with defectors in Kfar Takharim and two armoured vehicles were destroyed.^[160] On 12 December, three civilians and two defectors were killed during clashes in Idlib province.^[161] Fighting in Ebita, in the northwestern province of Idlib, continued throughout the night and into the early hours on 12 December. At least one fighter was killed and another injured in the assault.^[162] The FSA killed ten troops in an ambush on a convoy in Idlib, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. This attack was allegedly done to avenge the deaths of 11 civilians previously killed. A Syrian officer was also killed in a revenge attack.^[163][164] Loyalist soldiers reportedly fired upon a civilian car near Homs on 14 December, killing five people, in response, the Free Syrian Army staged an ambush against a loyalist convoy consisting of four jeeps, killing eight soldiers.^[165] The same day, three anti-regime military defectors were wounded in clashes with Syrian security forces in the village of Hirak in Daraa province. ^[166] The FSA engaged loyalist army units and security service agents south of Damascus on 15 December, leading to 27 loyalist deaths and an unknown number of FSA casualties. The clashes broke out at three separate checkpoints in Daraa province around dawn^[167] Between 8 December and 15 December, the Syrian state news agency SANA reported the deaths of 68 members of the state security forces.^{[168][169][170][171][172][173][174][175]} A lieutenant colonel of the FSA was killed by the Syrian army on 17 December according to Local Committee, and opposition source.^[176]

Unsuccessful defection in Idlib[link]

On 19 December, the FSA suffered its largest loss of life when new defectors tried to abandon their positions and bases between the villages of Kensafra and Kefer Quaid in Idlib province. Activist groups, specifically the Syrian Observatory for Human rights, reported that 72 defectors were killed as they were gunned down during their attempted escape. The Syrian Army lost three soldiers during the clashes.^[177] The next day, S.O.H.R. stated that in all 100 defectors were killed or wounded.^[178] The clashes continued into the next day, and another report, by Lebanese human rights activist Wissam Tarif, put the death toll even higher with 163 defectors, 97 government troops and nine civilians killed on the second day alone as the military tracked down the soldiers and civilian that managed to initially escape.^[179] On 21 December, it was reported that the FSA had taken control over large swathes of Idlib province including some towns and villages.^[180] It was also reported on 24 December that the FSA stronghold in the Bab Amr neighbourhood of Homs was under attack by security forces, with two FSA soldiers killed.^[181] A week later, a minute long fire fight erupted between FSA forces and government security forces, on a road near the village of Deal in Daraa province. Four government soldiers were killed in the ambush.^[182]

Armed Action in 2012[link]

January[link]

Clashes around Damascus[link]

Syrian forces clashed with army deserters in an area near the capital Damascus, opposition activists said. The town of Reef Damascus saw fighting on 1 January as the government forces were hunting for suspected defectors, according to the activists. There were no immediate reports of casualties.^[183] According to the London based Syrian Observatory for Human rights, despite a self-declared ceasefire, Free Syrian Army soldiers in Idlib, on 2 January, overran two checkpoints belonging to security forces and captured dozens of loyalist troops, and launched an attack on a third checkpoint killing and wounding several loyalists.^[184] More than a dozen people, including 11 soldiers, were killed in clashes between defectors and loyalists in Basr al-Harir, a town in southern Daraa Governorate, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.^[185] Shelling and gunfire were also reported in Deir ez-Zor by the LCC.^[186] On 14 January, the Syrian Observatory For Human Rights said there was fighting between deserters and loyalist troops in Hula, Homs province, after the defectors destroyed a barricade and a number of security forces were killed or wounded.^[187]

Battle of Zabadani[link]

In mid January, the FSA managed to take control over the border town of Zabadani, just 14 miles away from the capital, Damascus. Regular army forces tried to assault the town several times but as of 16 January all attacks were repelled.^[188]

Battle for the Damascus suburbs[link]

By 26 January, the Damascus suburb of Douma had fallen under control of the Free Syrian Army, with occasional raids by security forces failing to dislodge the rebels, mainly made of armed civilians, and some army defectors, mostly armed with assault rifles and hand grenades.^[189] Because of the growing number of defectors, some defectors managed to take their tanks with them. A spokesman for the Free Syrian Army said that more than 100 soldiers defected on 28 January 2012, bringing three tanks along with them.^[51] By the end of January and the beginning of February, videos surfaced showing BMP-2 armoured personnel carriers in Homs carrying the Syrian independence flag firing at government forces, supported by FSA soldiers.^[190]

Between the 29 and 30 January, government forces massed over 2,000 troops and at least 50 tanks and launched a major offensive to reclaim the northern suburbs – held by the FSA – and drive them from the city. By the end of 30 January, it appeared that the operation had been mostly successful, and the FSA had made a tactical withdrawal.^[191] 10 FSA fighters and eight government soldiers were killed during the day in the whole country. Two of the defectors died in the Damascus suburb of Rankus, which had been retaken by the military.^[192] Another report put the day's death toll in the suburbs at 19 civilians and 6 FSA fighters, while the overall number of those killed in the previous three days, since the fighting in the area started, was 100.^[193] The same day, it was reported by opposition activists that one of the original founders of the FSA, Colonel Hussein Harmush, who was captured in late August by Syrian special forces, was executed several weeks earlier.^[192]

On 31 January, the Syrian army continued to advance in order to remove the last FSA pockets.^[194] The army fired into the air, as they advanced with tanks even beyond the positions from where the FSA withdrew. Activists told that the suburbs were on unannounced curfew while others were allowed to flee. The army was conducting arrests on suspected people in the district of Irbin.^{[195][Need quotation to verify]} In some instances, curfews were defied by some citizens, who put up a large opposition flag in the centre of Damascus.^[196]

February[link]

Second battle of Rastan[link]

The FSA retook complete control of the city of Rastan around early February.

Damascus suburbs[link]

On 1 February, the Syrian army extended their operations around Damascus, with more troops moving into the mountainous area of Qaramoun, north of Damascus. Further north, the troops which took the control of Rankous, started to extand their control into farmland surrounding the city. In the eastern suburbs of Mesraba, activist reported that army snipers were positioned and that tanks were in the streets.^[197] Initially, 12 people, including six FSA rebels, were killed in fighting in Wadi Barada, located north-west of Damascus in the Rif Damashk governorate, according to the Local Committee of Coordination.^[198] Later, the death toll of FSA fighters in the area was raised to 14.^[199] The town of Deir Kanoun and Ein al Fija were also under army assaults according to the London based SOHR.^[200] At the same time, SANA reported that, further south in the suburbs Deraa, security forces killed 11 armed fighters and wounded two when they attacked a military bus killing one Army sergeant and wounding two others.^[201] Also, the Al-Watan newspaper reported that 37 rebel fighters were killed in fighting in Homs and 15 in Rastan, while four soldiers died in Bab Dreib and two in Rastan.^[202]

According to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, troops and army defectors clashed in the northwestern province of Idlib and the southern province of Daraa on 5 February. They report two civilians and nine soldiers killed in Idlib.^[203] The FSA seems to have taken over another checkpoint in Homs on 2 February.^[204] Five government troops were shot in clashes with rebel fighters in Qalaat al-Madyaq town in restive Hama area, on 14 February.^[205]

Homs bombardment[link]

FSA fighter prepares to fire an RPG at a Syrian Army position.

On the night of 3 February and in the early hours of 4 February, government forces launched a major offensive against Homs, leading to over 200 deaths and 800 injuries. FSA forces engaged loyalist forces and threatened reprisals particularly in Damascus.^[206][207] On 10 February, Sky News reported that the FSA had taken full control of the northern city of Idlib. However, Syrian tanks were surrounding Idlib, and citizens and defected soldiers feared a new offensive. Renewed fighting in the Idlib province was reported on 11 February.^[85]

Battle of Al-Qusayr[link]

Heavy fighting had taken place in the town of Al-Qusayr in Homs since 13 February, when the FSA captured the headquarters of the secret service in Homs, killing five agents in the process. Remaining government troops retreated to the town hall and hospital in the city. Four tanks came to reinforce them.^[208] However, 1 of the 4 tanks as well as 30 soldiers defected to the opposition, where the tank, aided by tractors and trucks, took out remaining government positions and the other 3 tanks. During the Battle of Al-Qusayr, FSA fighters were able to establish full control of the city. They said 20 government soldiers had been killed and 80 had fled. FSA fighters said 1 of their men had been killed and another 6 wounded during the battle.^[209]

Battle of Baba Amr[link]

Baba Amr district in Homs fell to government forces on the morning of 1 March, as the Free Syrian Army claimed they had made a "tactical retreat" from the area, after running low on weapons and ammunition. They made the decision to withdraw from Baba Amr and into other parts of Homs because "worsening humanitarian conditions, lack of food and medicine and water, electricity and communication cuts as well as shortages in weapons."^[210]

March[link]

Second unsuccessful defection in Idlib[link]

Shortly after their retreat from Baba Amr in Homs, the FSA suffered another setback on 3 March, when a defection of 50 soldiers from the Abu Athuhoor Military Airport in Idlib province was foiled after their plans were discovered. 47 of the soldiers were executed^[211] and only three managed to escape. Their bodies were reportedly dumped in a lake.^[212]

Raid in Mezze[link]

A raid was held in the Mezze area of Damascus, involving machine-gun fire and rocket propelled grenades. A defecting general was escorted from the area. A military helicopter flew over the area leading to the detection and deaths of 7 FSA fighters. ^[60] Also, 80 elements of the security forces including pro-government militia were reportedly killed and 200 wounded during the clashes. The deputy commander of the Free Syrian Army also said that two military tanks were destroyed during the operation.^[213][214] However, neither the opposition-affiliated SOHR activist group or any independent media confirmed the high number of government casualties in the clashes.

April[link]

Homs situation[link]

By late April 2012, despite a cease-fire being declared in the whole country, heavy fighting continued in Al-Qusayr, where rebel forces controlled the northern part of the city, while the military held the southern part. FSA forces were holding onto Al-Qusayr, due to it being the last major transit point toward the Lebanese border. A rebel commander from the Farouq Brigade in the town reported that 2,000 Farouq fighters had been killed in Homs province since August 2011. At this point, there were talks among the rebels in Al-Qusayr, where many of the retreating rebels from Homs city's Baba Amr district had gone, of Homs being abandoned completely.^[215][216]

May[link]

Command structure[link]

Leadership[link]

The Free Syrian Army operates its command and headquarters from Turkey's southern Hatay province close to the Syrian border, and its field command from inside Syria.^[73][217] The army is led by Colonel Riad al-Asaad who is the Commander-in-Chief, Colonel Malik Kurdi is his deputy, and Colonel Ahmed Hijazi is the Chief of Staff.^[12][218] The army's strategic planning and arms procurement is handled by its military council which is headed by General Mustafa al-Sheikh and 10 other generals.^[219]

The Free Syrian Army has field units located across the country. The field units are under the direct command of five regional commanders which are based in the flash point provinces of Homs, Hama, Idlib, Deir al-Zor and Damascus. The regional commanders include Colonel Qasim Saad al-Din who directs military operations in Homs province and Colonel Khaled al-Haboush who directs military operations in the capital. The regional commanders are under the direct operational command of Colonel Riad Asaad.^[220][221] The FSA appears to have for internal communication and operations an extensive internet based communication network that state security has been trying to penetrate.^[222][223] As of March 2012, the FSA had launched coordinated attacks in the northern, southern and eastern parts of the country to relieve pressure on Homs.^[224]

Some of the Free Syrian Army's local field commanders are listed below:^[225][226]

Damascus

Rif Dimashq

Quneitra

Daraa

As-Suwayda

Homs

Tartus

Latakia

Hama

Idlib

Aleppo

Ar-Raqqah

Deir ez-Zor

Al-Hasakah

Battalion units[link]

The Free Syrian Army has adopted the configuration and tactics of a guerrilla force. A typical battalion unit such as the Tel Kalakh Martyrs’ Brigade numbers between 300 to 400 fighters split into combat units of six to 10 men. Each man in the unit is armed with a light weapon, such as an AK-47, and the combat unit as a whole is equipped with an RPG launcher and a light machine gun. Communication inside the battalion unit is carried out by walkie talkie.^[232] The FSA battalion units work closely with the local population and defectors typically join units from the region or town that they come.^[223] The FSA is closely interlinked with ad hoc activist networks and it works closely with the civilian formed local councils.^[233][234] Around key population centers, such as Damascus, Aleppo, Deraa and Hama, the FSA operates military councils that coordinate operations in the area.^[235][236]

The army's command and control is exercised through a variety of means, including mobile phones, voice over IP, email, couriers and social media.^[23] In November, the free army spent $2-million to improve communication links between opposition fighters in Syria.^[67] The regime has captured a number of sophisticated communications devices from opposition fighters, including Thuraya mobile satellite phones, very high and ultra-high frequency (VHF/UHF) devices, and Inmarsat mobile communication satellite systems.^[23] In February, it was reported that Qatar had supplied the army with 3,000 satellite phones.^[237]

Free Syrian Army units specialize in different tasks. Units close to the borders are involved with logistics and the transport of injured soldiers out of the country and also with the transport medical equipment, material supplies and weapons into the country.^[238] Other units such as the Farouq Brigade which is based in the city of Homs are involved in protecting civilians and fending off the Syrian army. The Farouq Brigade is one of the more active FSA battalion units. It is led by Lieutenant Abdul-Razzaq Tlass, the nephew of former Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass.^[38] Lieutenant Tlass was one of the first defectors and is one of the key figures in the Syrian uprising. His unit of 500-2,000 soldiers has actively engaged the Syrian army in Homs and raided Syrian checkpoints and command centers.^{[63][239][240]}

As of the January 2012, the army had around 37 named battalion units, 17–23 of which appeared to be actively engaged in combat.^[225][241] Some of the FSA battalions and their locations are:^{[12][225][228]}

International[link]

Support[link]

The Libyan National Transitional Council announced in November 2011 that it had been in talks with the Syrian National Council and was considering supplying weapons and volunteer fighters of the National Liberation Army to the Free Syrian Army, and that international intervention may only be weeks away. According to people with links to the National Council, the Libyans were offering money, weapons and training forces loyal to the Syrian National Council.^[252][253] At the end of the month, it was reported that at least 600 fighters of the National Liberation Army from Libya had been dispatched to support the Free Syrian Army and had entered Syria through Turkey.^[254] The presence of Tunisian volunteers was also reported in April 2012, with three Tunisian FSA fighters being confirmed to have died in combat.^[255]

In February 2012, British foreign secretary William Hague said that Britain was prepared to send advanced communications equipment to the FSA to help them coordinate their forces, but did not mention supplying weapons.^[256] A week later the Saudi Gazette reported that the Gulf Cooperation Council was thinking of recognising the Free Syrian Army "as the sole and legitimate representative of the Syrian people", citing an unnamed Bahraini official who requested anonymity.^[257]

By the end of February 2012, there was extensive talk by Gulf States of arming the Free Syrian Army. The FSA leadership, however, reported in March that it had not yet received any funds, weapons, or equipment from any government despite recent pledges to help support their armed struggle. In an interview with the Wall Street Journal, FSA leader Riad Asaad said that: "There is no practical support from the international community," and that "It's been all talk."^[258] The Free Syrian Army for now planned on relying on itself and raids on arms depots, however, it still hoped for outside arms support.^[222]

On 1 March, Kuwait's parliament had declared support for the FSA.^[259]

Criticism[link]

On 20 March 2012, Human Rights Watch released an open letter to the opposition, criticizing the opposition including the Free Syrian Army for incidents of kidnappings, torture and executions and it called on opposition forces to refrain from engaging in these unlawful practices. The FSA confirmed that there had been a few incidents of human rights abuses by its soldiers which it did not support, and that these incidents were a drop in the bucket in comparison to what the regime is committing. Lt. Riad Ahmed reaffirmed the FSA's commitment to the Geneva Conventions for armed conflict.^[260]

Position towards SNC[link]

At the beginning of December 2011, the Free Syrian Army agreed to coordinate its activities with the Syrian National Council.^[1] On 6 February 2012, Riad al-Asaad voiced his concern about the Syrian National Council's lack of political and material support for the Free Syrian Army and stated that if differences could not be resolved the Free Syrian Army would break off its relations with the Syrian National Council.^[261]

In late February 2012, the Syrian National Council established a military bureau to oversee the military operations. This initiative was met with criticism by Free Syrian Army leaders who said that they had not been informed.^[262] Defected General Mustafa Al Sheikh created a similar discord in the army when he established a rival group called the Higher Military Revolutionary Council which was rejected by the FSA leadership and field units.^[238] Earlier the Muslim Brotherhood had also tried to coopt the FSA but the leadership rejected their attempt.^[262] Colonel Al Kurdi, the deputy leader of the FSA, dismissed the internal disputes and said that despite disagreements, the opposition remained united against the regime and in their call for arms.^[262]

Presence of Islamist elements[link]

The number of foreign Sunni militants active within the Free Syrian Army is hard to assess. A leader of the FSA told an AFP correspondent that five Libyan combatants have been killed in clashes with the Syrian Armed Forces. The same leader, while denying the presence of many foreign fighters, said that there are few of different nationalities. Peter Harling, from the International Crisis Group, told the AFP that the proportion of foreign fighters is currently very small, but might grow after Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced their support for militarising the revolt.^[263]

The leader of Al Qaeda, Ayman al-Zawahiri has voiced his support for the Syrian rebels and called upon the Syrians to retaliate against the government. He also called on militants in neighbouring countries to help those in Syria.^[264] In one video a group of masked individuals proclaim the establishment of al-Bara' ibn Malik Martyrs Brigade. The brigade holds the same name of another brigade of the al-Qaeda in Iraq. The group was seen raising al-Qaeda banners in the same video.^[265] There have been reports that Saudi Arabia had provided the Free Syrian Army with weapons.^[266]

According to Vatican City-controlled state media outlet Agenzia Fides, 90% of the Christian population of Homs, around 10,000 people, were expelled from their homes by members of the al-Faruq Brigade.^[267][268] Some local Christian families confirmed that they were expelled from Homs because they were "considered close to the regime".^[269] Jesuits in Homs disputed the cause of the exodus, and stated that Christians were not targeted specifically, but fled the city on their own initiative because of fear of the ongoing armed conflict.^[270] Per interviews made by McClatchy Newspapers of refugees in Lebanon, there was no targeting of Christians because of their religion, rather a number of government-affiliated Christians were seized by the FSA Farouq Brigade, which led to some Christians fleeing the area. This was confirmed by Farouq members.^[271]

In late May 2012, based on interviews with FSA fighters, it was reported that 300 Lebanese had joined the Free Syrian Army with the purpose of conducting jihad against the Syrian government. The presence of Algerians, Tunisians, Jordanians and fighters from Saudi Arabia was also confirmed. The Lebanese volunteers were training in a militant camp in the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon before crossing the border into Syria.^[272]

See also[link]

• Alliance of Yemeni Tribes
• National Liberation Army (Libya)

References[link]