The nitrate ion is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula NO₃⁻ and a molecular mass of 62.0049 g/mol.

Structure[link]

It is the conjugate base of nitric acid, consisting of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identically-bonded oxygen atoms in a trigonal planar arrangement. The nitrate ion carries a formal charge of -1. This results from a combination formal charge in which each of the three oxygens carries a −²⁄₃ charge, whereas the nitrogen carries a +1 charge, all these adding up to formal charge of the polyatomic nitrate ion.

The nitrate ion. The net charge of the whole ion is 1⁻.

This arrangement is commonly used as an example of resonance. Like the isoelectronic carbonate ion, the nitrate ion can be represented by resonance structures:

Properties[link]

Almost all inorganic nitrate salts are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure. A common example of an inorganic nitrate salt is potassium nitrate (saltpetre).

In organic chemistry a nitrate (not to be confused with Nitro or Nitrite) is a relatively rare functional group with general chemical formula RONO₂ where R stands for any organic residue. They are the esters of nitric acid and alcohols formed by nitroxylation. Examples are methyl nitrate formed by reaction of methanol and nitric acid,^[1] the nitrate of tartaric acid,^[2] and the inaccurately-named nitroglycerin (which is actually an organic nitrate compound, not a nitro compound).

Like organic nitro compounds (see below) both organic and inorganic nitrates can be used as propellants and explosives. In these uses. the thermal decomposition of the nitrate yields molecular nitrogen N₂ gas plus considerable chemical energy, due to the high strength of the bond in molecular nitrogen. Especially in inorganic nitrate reactions, oxidation from the nitrate oxygens is also an important energy-releasing process.

Occurrence[link]

Nitrate compounds are found naturally on earth as large deposits, particularly of Chile saltpetre a major source of sodium nitrate.

Uses[link]

Nitrates are mainly produced for use as fertilizers in agriculture because of their high solubility and biodegradability. The main nitrates are ammonium, sodium, potassium, and calcium salts. Several million kilograms are produced annually for this purpose.^[3]

Other uses[link]

The second major application of nitrates as oxidising agents, most notably in explosives where the rapid oxidation of carbon compounds liberates large volumes of gases (see Gunpowder for an example). Sodium nitrate is used to remove air bubbles from molten glass and some ceramics. Mixtures of the molten salt are used to harden some metals.

Detection[link]

Free nitrate ions in solution can be detected by a nitrate ion selective electrode. Such electroders analogously to the pH selective electrode. This response is partially described by the Nernst equation.

Toxicity[link]

Toxicosis[link]

Nitrate toxicosis can occur through enterohepatic metabolism of nitrate to nitrite being an intermediate.^[4] Nitrites oxidize the iron atoms in hemoglobin from ferrous iron (2+) to ferric iron (3+), rendering it unable to carry oxygen.^[5] This process can lead to generalized lack of oxygen in organ tissue and a dangerous condition called methemoglobinemia. Although nitrite converts to ammonia, if there is more nitrite than can be converted, the animal slowly suffers from a lack of oxygen.^[6]

Human health effects[link]

Humans are subject to nitrate toxicity, with infants being especially vulnerable to methemoglobinemia due to nitrate metabolizing triglycerides present at higher concentrations than at other stages of development. Methemoglobinemia in infants is known as blue baby syndrome. Although nitrates in drinking water were once thought to be a contributing factor, there are now significant scientific doubts as to whether there is a causal link.^[7][8] Blue baby syndrome is now thought to be the product of a number of factors, which can include any factor which causes gastric upset, such as diarrhoeal infection, protein intolerance, heavy metal toxicity etc., with nitrates playing a minor role. Nitrates, if a factor in a specific case, would most often be ingested by infants in high nitrate drinking water. However, nitrate exposure may also occur if eating, for instance, vegetables containing high levels of nitrate. Lettuce may contain elevated nitrate under growth conditions such as reduced sunlight, undersupply of the essential micronutrients molybdenum (Mo) and iron (Fe), or high concentrations of nitrate due to reduced assimilation of nitrate in the plant. High levels of nitrate fertilization also contribute to elevated levels of nitrate in the harvested plant.^[9]

Some adults can be more susceptible to the effects of nitrate than others. The methemoglobin reductase enzyme may be under-produced or absent in certain people that have an inherited mutation.^[10] Such individuals cannot break down methemoglobin as rapidly as those that do have the enzyme, leading to increased circulating levels of methemoglobin (the implication being that their blood is not as oxygen-rich). Those with insufficient stomach acid^[10] (including some vegetarians and vegans) may also be at risk. It is the increased consumption of green, leafy vegetables that typically accompany these types of diets may lead to increased nitrate intake. A wide variety of medical conditions, including food allergies, asthma,^[11] hepatitis, and gallstones may be linked with low stomach acid; these individuals may also be highly sensitive to the effects of nitrate.

Methemoglobinemia can be treated with methylene blue, which reduces ferric iron (3+) in affected blood cells back to ferrous iron (2+).^{[citation needed]}

Marine toxicity[link]

Sea surface nitrate from the World Ocean Atlas.

In freshwater or estuarine systems close to land, nitrate can reach high levels that can potentially cause the death of fish. While nitrate is much less toxic than ammonia or nitrite,^[12] levels over 30 ppm of nitrate can inhibit growth, impair the immune system and cause stress in some aquatic species.^[13] However, in light of inherent problems with past protocols on acute nitrate toxicity experiments, the extent of nitrate toxicity has been the subject of recent debate.^[14]

In most cases of excess nitrate concentrations in aquatic systems, the primary source is surface runoff from agricultural or landscaped areas that have received excess nitrate fertilizer. This is called eutrophication and can lead to algae blooms. As well as leading to water anoxia and dead zones, these blooms may cause other changes to ecosystem function, favouring some groups of organisms over others. As a consequence, as nitrate forms a component of total dissolved solids, they are widely used as an indicator of water quality.

Nitrate also is a by-product of septic systems. To be specific, it is a naturally occurring chemical that is left after the breakdown or decomposition of animal or human waste. Water quality may also be affected through ground water resources that have a high number of septic systems in a watershed. Septics leach down into ground water resources or aquifers and supply nearby bodies of water. Lakes that rely on ground water are often affected by nitrification through this process.

Nitrate in drinking water at levels above the national standard poses an immediate threat to young children. Excessive levels can result in a condition known as "blue baby syndrome". If untreated, the condition can be fatal. Boiling water contaminated with nitrate increases the nitrate concentration and the potential risk.

Nitrate toxicity in livestock[link]

Nitrate poisoning is a concern for cattle producers primarily, but also for other ruminant growers. Nitrate is naturally consumed by growing plants; however when growth is interrupted, the roots of plants will continue to take up nitrate from soil, and unless new plant growth occurs, the nitrate will accumulate. Thus, harvesting after nitrate buildup results in a crop that is high in nitrates. Factors that can cause nitrate buildup in plants are frost, hail damage, drought, hot dry winds, pesticide damage, herbicide damage and any other plant stunting environmental causes.^[15]

Symptoms of nitrate poisoning include increased heart rate and respiration; in advanced cases blood and tissue may turn a blue or brown color. Feed can be tested for nitrate; treatment consists of supplementing or substituting existing supplies with lower nitrate material. Safe levels of nitrate for various types of livestock are as follows:^[16]

The values above are on a dry (moisture free) basis.

Nitrate overview[link]

See also[link]

• Ammonium
• f-ratio
• Nitrification
• Nitratine
• Peroxynitrate

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: nitrates

• ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine - Nitrate/Nitrite Toxicity

Barbara Hammer (born May 15, 1939) is an American filmmaker in the genre of experimental films and a professor at European Graduate School in Saas-Fee.^[1]

Biography[link]

Hammer was born in Hollywood, California. She is a graduate of the University of California at Los Angeles with a Bachelor's degree in psychology. She also holds two Master's degrees from San Francisco State University, one in English literature and one in film. She also took postgraduate classes in the field of digital media.

In her early thirties, Hammer was married and teaching at a community college in Santa Rosa, California. Around this time she came out as a lesbian, after talking with another student in a Feminist group.

Hammer is known for creating groundbreaking experimental films dealing with women's issues such as gender roles, lesbian relationships and coping with aging and family. Hammer is responsible for some of the first lesbian-made films in history, including Dyketactics (1974) and Women I Love (1976).

She received the first Shirley Clarke Avant-Garde Filmmaker Award in October 2006, the Women In Film Award from the St. Louis International Film Festival in 2006, and in 2009 Barbara Hammer received the Teddy Award for the best short film for her film 'A Horse Is Not A Metaphor' at The International Berlin Film Festival.^[1]

There have been two "re-makes" or "re-interpretations" of Hammer's film Dyketactics:

1. Untitled ( Dyketatics Revisited) (Liz Rosenfeld, 2005)
2. Fagtactics (Scott Berry, 2002)

In 2010, Hammer published her autobiography, HAMMER! Making Movies Out of Sex and Life,^[2] which addresses her personal history and her philosophies on art.^[3]

Partial Filmography[link]

• A Gay Day (1973)
• Dyketactics (1974)
• Lesbian Humor:Collection of short films" (1980–1987)
• Nitrate Kisses (1992)
• Tender Fictions (1996)
• The Female Closet (1998)
• Resisting Paradise (2003)
• Love Other (2006)
• Fucking Different New York (2007) (segment "Villa Serbolloni")
• A Horse is not a Metaphor (2009) (Teddy Award)
• Maya Deren's Sink (2011)
• Generations

References[link]

1. ^ ^{a b} Barbara Hammer Faculty page at European Graduate School (Accessed June 2, 2010)
2. ^ Hammer, Barbara (2010). HAMMER! Making Movies Out of Sex and Life. New York: The Feminist Press at CUNY. ISBN 978-1-55861-612-7. 
3. ^ Katterjohn, Anna; Barbara Hammer (15 February 2010). "Filmic Herstory". Library Journal 135 (3): 29. ISSN 0363-0277. 

• Alexandra Juhasz, editor (2001). Women of Vision: Histories in Feminist Film and Video. University of Minnesota Press.

External links[link]

• Official site
• Barbara Hammer Faculty page at European Graduate School (Biography, bibliography, photos and videos)
• Barbara Hammer at the Internet Movie Database