Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA insignia Motto: For the Benefit of All[1]
Agency overview
Formed	July 29, 1958 (1958-07-29) (53 years ago)
Preceding agency	NACA (1915–1958)[2]
Jurisdiction	United States government
Headquarters	Washington, D.C. 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
Employees	18,800+[3]
Annual budget	US$17.8 billion (FY 2012)[4] See also NASA Budget
Agency executives	Charles Bolden, administrator Lori Garver, deputy administrator
Website
nasa.gov

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." ^[5] On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.^[6][7][8]

NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958.^[9][10] U.S. space exploration efforts have since been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System,^[11] advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program,^[12] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic missions such as New Horizons,^[13] and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs.^[14] NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite.

Creation[link]

At launch control for the May 28, 1964, SA-6 launch. Von Braun is at center.

From 1946, the NACA had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1.^[15] In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was also created at this time to develop space technology for military application.^{[citation needed]}

On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (LaRC, ARC, and LFPL) and two small test facilities.^[16] A NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.^[17] Elements of the ABMA and the NRL were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program (led by Wernher von Braun, who was now working for ABMA) which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works.^[18] Earlier research efforts within the U.S. Air Force^[16] and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.^[19] In December 1958, NASA gained control of the JPL, a contractor facility operated by the Caltech.^[16]

NASA missions[link]

The most important part of NASA's activities are its missions; they can be divided into manned and unmanned. The latter can be either independent, carrying scientific equipment, or supportive, testing equipment for manned flights. In the beginning, NASA’s missions focused on the spacerace with the Soviet Union, which won the first round, but later USA took the initiative and won the final race to the Moon. The unmanned missions have until now explored most of the solar system. They have also brought telescopes for deep space exploration into orbit around the Earth together with satellites for studying Earth itself.

Manned missions[link]

The rocket planes experiments started by NACA was taken a step further by NASA which used them as support for spaceflights, the first of which was one-manned and launched by military rockets. When the attention turned to reaching the Moon, the solution chosen was complicated but also the most economical. Supportive projects, both manned and unmanned were introduced and bigger rockets together with spacecraft and moonlander developed. The Moon landing and end of the space race meant a reduction of NASA’s activities. Space stations of a more or less permanent nature, suggested already during the spacerace, were built and an international cooperation was introduced in an attempt to both bring nations together and at the same time share the high costs of space missions. In all, more than 100 manned missions have been made by NASA since 1958.^[20]

X-15A-2 leaving B-52, 1967

X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)[link]

The NACA XS-1 (Bell X-1) was followed by additional experimental vehicles, including the X-15 in cooperation with the US Air Force and US Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.^[21] When the spacerace began the main objective was to get a person into space as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. This led to the choice of a small capsule spacecraft while rocket plane proposals like a modified X-15^[22] were turned down.^[23] Instead X-15 was used for development of techniques and equipment of value for the space missions. This included jets for changing the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits for astronauts and horizon definition for navigation.^[24] Nearly 200 flights were made between 1959 and 1968 allowing NASA to collect data vital not only to the spacerace but also the design of the Space Shuttle.^[21] The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).^[24]

Project Mercury (1959–1963, manned missions from 1961)[link]

Freedom 7, the first manned mission by NASA

Launch on May 5, 1961. The spacecraft is the black cone on top

Flight, left to right: launch, summit (117 miles^[25]), reentry and landing in water (recovery by aircraft carrier)

Project Mercury was initiated in 1958 and started NASA down the path of human space exploration with missions designed to discover if man could survive in space. Representatives from the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force were selected to provide assistance to NASA. Pilot selections were facilitated through coordination with U.S. defense research, contracting, and military test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space when he piloted Mercury-Redstone 3, called Freedom 7, on a 15-minute suborbital flight.^[26] John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on February 20, 1962 during the flight of Friendship 7.^[27]

At that time the Soviet Union had taken the lead in the space race. In April 1961, one month before Alan Shepard, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space when he orbited the Earth once in Vostok 1.^[28] Further in August the same year, the follower Vostok 2 made a day long orbital flight^[29] which led to canceling of additional American suborbital missions; they were no longer enough.^[30] Three more orbital flights were made by the Mercury project after Friendship 7, the last in 1963.^[31] Three additional orbital flights were cancelled since it was clear that the Mercury spacecraft had reached its limit of staying in space.^[30]

The defeat in the first round of the spacerace led to the introduction of the Moon race program, Apollo, in 1961 just after the flight of Freedom 7. However, it was estimated that this could not be done in one step and that further projects in Earth orbit were needed.^[32]

Project Gemini (1962–1966, manned missions from 1965)[link]

Rendezvous of Gemini 6 and 7

Project Gemini focused on conducting experiments and developing and practicing techniques required for lunar missions. The first Gemini flight with astronauts on board, Gemini 3, was flown by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965.^[33] Nine missions followed, showing that long-duration human space flight and rendezvous and docking with another vehicle in space were possible, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.^[34][35] Together with that, Gemini missions also included the first American spacewalks.

Even though the Gemini project managed to make a docking a year before the Soviet space program,^[36] it was too early to call it a victory. The maneuvers practiced by Gemini could be used in two ways: a spacecraft could dock with a rocket stage in orbit around the Earth and use it for going to the Moon or a spacecraft together with a Moon lander could be sent to the Moon by a single rocket and then separate and dock again after the lander had been down on the surface. However, there was a third and more direct way of going to the Moon; the Soviet Union could just build a big rocket and land the top of it on the Moon. That again could take itself back to Earth without using rendezvous or docking. In that case the Gemini project would have been a waste of time.^[37]

Spacecraft and rocket comparison including Apollo (biggest), Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-Redstone rockets are left out

Apollo program (1961–1972, manned missions from 1968)[link]

The Apollo (Moon) program was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It is estimated to have cost $202 billion in present day US$.^[38][39] In comparison the Manhattan (atom bomb) project cost roughly today-US$25.8 billion.^[38][40] It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets build for previous projects.^[41] The spacecraft was also bigger as can be seen on the picture; it had two main parts: the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the astronauts would eventually return to Earth.

Buzz Aldrin on the moon, 1969

The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon. This happened in December 1968.^[42] Shortly before, the Soviet had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon^[43]. On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced^[44][45] and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.^[46] In 1961 President Kennedy had introduced the Apollo Program and set the deadline for a successful Moon landing at the end of the same decade. It was done by a narrow margin.^[47]

The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong and after him Buzz Aldrin while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six Apollo spaceflights twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7 kilograms (842 lb) of lunar samples. Experiments included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismic, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind experiments.^[48] The Moon landing marked the end of the space race and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind^[49] when he stepped down on the Moon.

Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body.^[50] Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.

Skylab (1973–1979)[link]

Skylab space station, 1974

Skylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station.^[51] The 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was launched on May 14, 1973, into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974.^[51] It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.^[51] NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979.^[52]

After canceling the remaining three missions to the moon, due a mixture of low public support and rising price tags, NASA would used the leftover Saturn V rockets to carry out it new Skylab program. One of the rockets final stage was in fact used as the labs basic structure. Apollo spacecraft were also used for bringing astronauts to and from the Skylab. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 319.8 cubic meters (11,290 cu ft), which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.^[52]

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1975–1981)[link]

Apollo-Soyuz crews with models of spacecraft, 1975

In the 1970s the cold war was thawing and as a consequence the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was introduced. It was the first joint flight of the U.S. and Soviet space programs. The mission took place in July 1975. For the United States, it was the last Apollo flight, as well as the last manned space launch until the flight of the first Space Shuttle in April 1981.^[53] Manned Skylab and ASTP missions used the smaller Saturn IB with Apollo CSM, not the Saturn V.

The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program^[54] and the International Space Station.

Space Shuttle program (1981–2011)[link]

Discovery liftoff, 2008

Mission profile. Left: launch, top: orbit (cargo bay open), right: reentry and landing

The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981,^[55] the 20th anniversary of the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin.^[56]

Its major components were a rocket plane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid fuel launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185 – 643 km (115 – 400 miles)^[57] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb).^[58] Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.^[57]

On 20 missions (1983–1998) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, a space laboratory designed in cooperation with the ESA. Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an airlock.^[59] Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble space telescope 1990 and 1993^[60]

In 1995 Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle-Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued to 2011, with Russia and the United States the two biggest partners in the largest space station ever built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

The shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003.^[61] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss.^[61] NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.^[62]

International Space Station (1998–)[link]

The International Space Station, 2011

The ISS combines the Japanese Kibō laboratory with three space station projects, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the American Freedom, and the European Columbus.^[63] Budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in the 1990s. The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and US Space Shuttles.^[63] It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The construction began in 1998 and construction of the US Orbital Segment was completed in 2011; operations are expected to continue until at least 2020.^[64] The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2011^[update], is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume larger than that of any previous space station.^[65]

As mentioned it is a joint project between the five participating space agencies, NASA, the Russian RKA, the Japanese JAXA, the European ESA, and the Canadian CSA.^[66][67] The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements^[68] which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment,^[69] with the US Segment allocated between the other international partners.^[68] The station is serviced by Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, the Automated Transfer Vehicle, and the H-II Transfer Vehicle^[67] and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.^[70] The Space Shuttle, before its retirement was also used for cargo and crew transfer.

In 2012, it is expected that the American Commercial Resupply Service vehicles, the SpaceX Dragon and the Orbital Sciences' Cygnus, will begin to service the space station with cargo.^[71]

On February 1, 2010, the American Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated with the purpose of creating commercially operated spacecraft capable of delivering crew to the ISS.^[72] These spacecraft are expected to become operational in the mid 2010s.^[73]

Unmanned missions (1958–)[link]

Deep space mission deployed by shuttle, 1989

More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the earth and parts of the solar system.^[74] Apart from exploration also communication satellites have been launched by NASA.^[75] The missions have been launched directly from earth or by space shuttle, which again could launch the satellite itself or a vehicle containing the satellite.

The first mission was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early space race. It was launched in January 1958, two month after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA it was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day (2011). Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun measuring among others magnetic fields and solar wind.^[76] A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.^[77]

The closest planets Mars, Venus and Mercury have been the goal of at least 4 programs. The first was Mariner in the 1960s and ‘70s, which visited all three of them. Mariner was also the first to make a planetary flyby, to take the first pictures from another planet, the first planetary orbiter, and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver. This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.^[78]

The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking I in 1976. 20 years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.^[79]

Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planets’ atmosphere.^[80] The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983.^[81] At a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it is now passed by Voyager 2.^[82]

Both the Pioneer and the Voyager program carries messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.^[83][84] A problem with far space travel is communication. For instance, at present it takes about 3 hours for a radio signal to reach the New Horizon spacecraft at a point more than half way to Pluto.^[85] Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003.^[86]

On 26 November 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. The mission is scheduled to land the robotic "Curiosity" rover on the surface of Mars in August 2012, whereupon the rover will search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.^[87][88]

Recent and planned activities[link]

The SpaceX Dragon is one the CCDev 2 winners, it is shown here during a COTS demonstration mission		The Orion spacecraft is intended to be used for beyond low Earth orbit missions, shown here is the ground test article

NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are MESSENGER for Mercury, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini, and Juno (2011–).

The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and aiming for Pluto flyby in 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the fly-by. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.^[89]

On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent moon base.^[90] The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However in 2009, the Augustine Committee found the program to be on a "unsustainable trajectory."^[91] In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.^[92]

On April 18, 2011, NASA awarded nearly $270 million to four companies to develop U.S. vehicles that could fly astronauts to the ISS as part of the CCDev 2 program.^[93]

In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars.^[94] The Orion MPCV is planned for an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket around late 2013.^[95]

NASA science[link]

Medicine in space[link]

A variety of large-scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study, in which astronauts (including former ISS Commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. Usually there is no physician onboard the International Space Station, and diagnosis of medical conditions is challenging. Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, orthostatic intolerance due to volume loss, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. Ultrasound offers a unique opportunity to monitor these conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in populations such as medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.^[96][97][98]

Ozone depletion[link]

In the middle of the 20th century^{[clarification needed]} NASA augmented its mission of Earth’s observation and redirected it toward environmental quality. The result was the launch of Earth Observing System (EOS) in 1980s, which was able to monitor one of the global environmental problems—ozone depletion.^[99] The first comprehensive worldwide measurements were obtained in 1978 with the Nimbus-7 satellite and NASA scientists at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.^[100]

Salt evaporation and energy management[link]

In one of the nation's largest restoration projects, NASA technology helps state and federal government reclaim 15,100 acres (61 km²) of salt evaporation ponds in South San Francisco Bay. Satellite sensors are used by scientists to study the effect of salt evaporation on local ecology.^[101]

NASA has started Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation Program as an agency-wide program directed to prevent pollution and reduce energy and water utilization. It helps to ensure that NASA meets its federal stewardship responsibilities for the environment.^[102]

Earth Science Enterprise[link]

Understanding of natural and human-induced changes on the global environment is the main objective of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise. NASA currently has more than a dozen Earth science spacecraft/instruments in orbit studying all aspects of the Earth system (oceans, land, atmosphere, biosphere, cyrosphere), with several more planned for launch in the next few years.^[103]

NASA is working in cooperation with National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). The goal is to produce worldwide solar resource maps with great local detail.^[104] NASA was also one of the main participants in the evaluation innovative technologies for the clean up of the sources for dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs). On April 6, 1999, the agency signed The Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) along with the United States Environmental Protection Agency, DOE, and USAF authorizing all the above organizations to conduct necessary tests at the John F. Kennedy Space center. The main purpose was to evaluate two innovative in-situ remediation technologies, thermal removal and oxidation destruction of DNAPLs.^[105] National Space Agency made a partnership with Military Services and Defense Contract Management Agency named the “Joint Group on Pollution Prevention”. The group is working on reduction or elimination of hazardous materials or processes.^[106]

On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.^[107]

Facilities[link]

Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California

Vehicle Assembly and Launch Control at Kennedy Space Center

NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at the Kennedy Space Center and own special aircraft for instance two Boeing 747 which were used for transport of the Space Shuttle orbiter.

John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.

Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed.^[108] The JPL, mentioned above, was together with ABMA one of the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.

Charles F. Bolden, Jr., Administrator

Lori Garver, Deputy Administrator

Leadership[link]

The administrator is the highest-ranking NASA official and serves as the senior space science adviser to the President of the United States. The administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction to the agency.^[109]

The first Administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan; during his term he brought together the disparate projects in space development research in the US.^[110]

Some administrators like Richard H. Truly (administrator 1989–1992) have been astronauts themselves. Among others he piloted Space Shuttle Columbia in 1981 on its second flight and later supervised the rebuilding of the shuttle program after the disaster of Challenger in 1986^[111]

NASA's budget 1962–2014 as % of federal budget peaking 1966

On May 24, 2009, President Obama announced the nomination of Charles Bolden as NASA administrator, and Lori Garver as deputy administrator.^[112] Bolden was confirmed by the US Senate on July 15, 2009 as the twelfth administrator of NASA. Lori Garver was confirmed as NASA's deputy administrator.^[113]

Budget[link]

Public perception of the NASA budget may be very different from reality and has been the subject of controversy since the agency's creation.

A 1997 poll reported that Americans had an average estimate of 20% for NASA's share of the federal budget. In reality, NASA's budget has been between 0.5% and 1% from the late 1960s on.

NASA budget briefly peaked at over 4% of the federal budget in the mid-1960s during the build up to the Apollo program.^[114]

See also[link]

	Government of the United States portal
	Spaceflight portal

References[link]

External links[link]

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General

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• NASA Documents relating to the Space Program, 1953–62, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
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• NASA records available for research at the National Archives at Atlanta
• Historic technical reports from NASA (and other Federal agencies) are available in the Technical Reports Archive and Image Library (TRAIL)

Further reading

• How NASA works on howstuffworks.com
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• NASA History Division
• Monthly look at Exploration events
• NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System
• NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server
• NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past
• "Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly"

v t e National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Policy and history NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General: Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Budget Spin-off technologies NASA TV Robotic programs Past Hitchhiker Mariner Mariner Mark II MESUR Mars Surveyor '98 New Millennium Lunar Orbiter Pioneer Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Viking Project Prometheus Current Living With a Star Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Earth Observing System Great Observatories program Explorer Small explorer Voyager (Sounds of the Cosmos) Discovery New Frontiers Mars Exploration Rover Mars Scout Human spaceflight programs Past X-15 (suborbital) Mercury Gemini Apollo Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (with USSR) Skylab Shuttle–Mir (with Russia) Space Shuttle program Constellation program Current International Space Station program Future/planned Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) Individual featured missions (human and robotic) Past COBE Apollo 11 Mercury 3 Mercury 6 Magellan Pioneer 10/11 Voyager 1/2 Galileo WMAP WISE Space Shuttle Currently operating MRO Mars Odyssey MESSENGER Dawn New Horizons Kepler International Space Station Hubble Space Telescope Spitzer RHESSI SWIFT GALEX THEMIS Mars Exploration Rover Cassini GOES 14 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter GOES 15 SDO Aquarius Juno GRAIL MSL Future NuSTAR NPP James Webb Space Telescope MAVEN WFIRST RBSP Space Comm and Nav (SCaN) Space Network Near Earth Network Deep Space Network (Goldstone Madrid Canberra) NASA categories and lists NASA personnel NASA programs NASA probes NASA images NASA Tweetup NASA List of NASA Astronaut Groups List of astronauts by selection List of NASA aircraft List of NASA missions List of NASA contractors

Akshay Kumar
Akshay Kumar in 2009
Born	Rajiv Hari Om Bhatia (1967-09-09) 9 September 1967 (age 44) Amritsar, Punjab, India
Occupation	actor, producer, presenter
Years active	1991–present
Spouse	Twinkle Khanna (2001–present)

Akshay Kumar (born Rajiv Hari Om Bhatia^[1] on 9 September 1967^[1]) is an Indian film actor, producer, comedian and martial artist who has appeared in over a hundred Hindi films. He has nominated for Filmfare Award several times and won two times. When he began his acting career in the 1990s, he primarily starred in action films and was particularly known for his appearances in feature films commonly called the "Khiladi series", which included Khiladi (1992), Main Khiladi Tu Anari (1994), Sabse Bada Khiladi (1995), Khiladiyon Ka Khiladi (1996), Mr. and Mrs. Khiladi (1997), International Khiladi (1999), and Khiladi 420 (2000), as well as other action films such as Waqt Hamara Hai (1993), Mohra (1994), Elaan (1994) and Suhaag (1994).^[2]

Later he also gained fame for his drama, romance and comic roles.^[3] He started becoming known for his performances in romance films like Yeh Dillagi (1994) and Dhadkan (2000) as well as drama films such as Ek Rishtaa (2001). His comic performances in comedy films such as Hera Pheri (2000), Mujhse Shaadi Karogi (2004), and Garam Masala (2005) met with acclaim. His success further rose in 2007, when he starred in four consecutive commercial hits. He has thus established himself as one of the leading actors in Hindi cinema.

Apart from acting, Kumar worked as a stunt actor; he often performed many dangerous stunts in his films,^[4] which earned him a reputation as the "Indian Jackie Chan".^[2] 2008 marked his television debut as the host of the show Fear Factor – Khatron Ke Khiladi. In 2009, Kumar founded the Hari Om Entertainment production company.^[5] In 2008, the University of Windsor conferred an Honorary Doctorate of Law on Kumar in recognition of his contribution to Indian cinema. The following year he was awarded the Padma Shri by the Government of India. In 2011 Asian Film Awards honored Kumar for his outstanding achievement in Cinema.^[3]

Early life[link]

Akshay Kumar was born in Amritsar, Punjab.^[1] His father was an army officer. His mother's name is Aruna Bhatia. From a very young age, he was recognised as a performer, particularly as a dancer. Kumar was raised in Delhi's Chandni Chowk neighbourhood before moving to Mumbai.^[6] In Mumbai, he lived in Koliwada, which was another Punjabi dominated area.^[6] He studied at Don Bosco School and then Guru Nanak Khalsa College (King's Circle), where he participated in sports with Janpal Singh.^[6]

After having obtained a black belt in Taekwondo while in India,^[7] he studied martial arts in Bangkok, Thailand,^[6] where he learned Muay Thai^[7] and worked as a chef^[6] and waiter.^[7] He then came back to Mumbai, where he started teaching martial arts. One of his students happened to be a photographer and recommended him to do modelling. The student gave him a modelling assignment for a small company. For his two hours posing in front of the camera, Kumar got Rs. 5,000, compared to his previous monthly salary of Rs. 4,000. That was one of the main reasons why he chose to be a model. After a couple of months of modelling, Kumar was offered a lead role by producer Pramod Chakravarthy for the movie Deedar.^[6]

Career[link]

1990s[link]

Kumar made his Bollywood acting debut with the 1991 film Saugandh, which was followed by the 1992 thriller film Khiladi. In 1994, his action films Main Khiladi Tu Anari and Mohra were among the highest grossing films of the year.^[8] Later that year, Yash Chopra signed him for the romantic film Yeh Dillagi which was also a success.^[8] He received appreciation for his performance in this film, where he played a romantic role which was different compared to his action roles. He would consequently receive his first nominations for Best Actor award at the Filmfare and Star Screen ceremonies. During the same year, Kumar also had success with films like Suhaag and the low budget action film Elaan. All these achievements, promoted Kumar as one of the most successful actors of the year.^[9]

In 1995, along with his share of unsuccessful movies, he starred in the third film in his Khiladi series Sabse Bada Khiladi, which was a hit.^[10] He proved to have success with the Khiladi series, as in the next year he starred in the fourth successful film with Khiladi in the title, Khiladiyon Ka Khiladi opposite Rekha and Raveena Tandon. The film became one of the highest grossing films of the year.^[11]

In 1997, Kumar was seen in a supporting role in Yash Chopra's hit film Dil To Pagal Hai, co-starring Shahrukh Khan, Madhuri Dixit and Karisma Kapoor, for which he received a Filmfare Best Supporting Actor Award nomination. In the same year, he attempted a comedy role with the fifth film in the Khiladi series, Mr and Mrs Khiladi. Unlike his previous films with Khiladi in the title, the film failed commercially.^[12] In the same way as this film, his next Khiladi releases in the following years went on to fail at the box office. In 1999, Kumar received critical acclaim for his roles in the films Sangharsh and Jaanwar. Whilst the former did not make a profit at the box office, the latter turned out to be a success.^[13]

2000s[link]

Kumar on the sets of Heyy Babyy

In 2000, he starred in the comedy Hera Pheri (2000) which was a commercial success.^[14] He also starred in the romantic film Dhadkan later that same year which performed moderately at the box office.^[14] That same year, he performed some of his most dangerous stunts in Khiladi 420, where he climbed a running plane, stood on top of the plane flying a thousand feet in the air, and jumped from the plane onto a hot air balloon.^[4] In a later scene, he is also seen being chased by a car, dodging bullets, jumping off buildings, and climbing walls.^[15] In 2001, Kumar played a negative role in the film Ajnabee. The film won him much acclaim as well as his first Filmfare Award for Best Villain.^[1] Kumar played a role as role as a blind man in Aankhen.

Following Hera Pheri, Kumar starred in a number of comedy films, including Awara Paagal Deewana (2002) and Mujhse Shaadi Karogi (2004).^[16] and Garam Masala (2005). The films succeeded at the box office^[17][18] and his performance in the latter earned him his second Filmfare Award, for Best Comedian.^[1] Apart from his action, comedy and romantic roles, Kumar displayed a flair for dramatic roles in films such as Ek Rishtaa (2001), Aankhen (2002), Bewafaa (2005) and Waqt: The Race Against Time (2005).^[1] n

In 2004 he starred in Rajkumar Santoshi's Khakee alongside Amitabh Bachchan, Ajay Devgn and Aishwarya Rai. In 2006 he starred in a sequel to Hera Pheri titled Phir Hera Pheri. As was the former, the sequel became a huge success at the box office.^[19] Later that year he starred alongside Salman Khan in the romantic musical Jaan-E-Mann. The film was a well anticipated release, and despite receiving positive reviews from critics, did not do as well as expected at the box office.^[19] Though the film under-performed, his role as a shy, lovable nerd was praised.^[20] He ended the year with the comedy Bhagam Bhag, which was a success.^[19] In that same year, he led the Heat 2006 world tour along with fellow stars Saif Ali Khan, Preity Zinta, Sushmita Sen and Celina Jaitley.^[21]

2007 proved to be Kumar's most successful year during his career in the industry, and as described by box office analysts, "probably the best ever recorded by an actor, with four outright hits and no flops."^[22] His first release, Namastey London, was critically and commercially successful, and his performance earned him a Best Actor nomination at the Filmfare. Critic Taran Adarsh wrote of his performance in the film, "he's sure to win the hearts of millions of moviegoers with a terrific portrayal in this film."^[23] His next two releases, Heyy Babyy and Bhool Bhulaiyaa, were box office successes as well.^[24][25] Kumar's last release of the year, Welcome, did extremely well at the box office, receiving a blockbuster status and simultaneously becoming his fifth successive hit.^[26] All of Kumar's films which released that year did well in the overseas market as well.^[27]

Kumar's first film of 2008, Tashan, marked his comeback to the Yash Raj Films banner after 11 years. Although much anticipated by the public,^[28] the film was a critical and commercial failure. His second film, Singh Is Kinng was a huge success at the box office and broke the first-week worldwide record of Om Shanti Om, the previous highest figure.^[29] His next film was the animated film Jumbo. The year also saw Kumar making his small screen debut as the host of the successful show Fear Factor – Khatron Ke Khiladi. He later returned to host the show's second season in 2009.

In 2009, Kumar featured opposite Deepika Padukone in the Warner Bros.-Rohan Sippy production Chandni Chowk to China. Directed by Nikhil Advani, the film was a critical and commercial failure at the box office.^[30] Kumar's next release was 8 x 10 Tasveer. Directed by Nagesh Kukunoor, the film was a critical and commercial failure. His next release was Kambakkht Ishq. Kumar's film Blue was released on 16 October 2009. Blue collected about Rs. 42 crores at the box-office.^[31] His last release in 2009 was Priyadarshan's De Dana Dan.

2010s[link]

Akshay Kumar, Sonakshi Sinha and Prabhudeva at the first look launch of the movie 'Rowdy Rathore'.

He then appeared in the 2010 comedy, Housefull, directed by Sajid Khan which garnered the second-highest opening weekend collection of all time.^[32] Kumar's next release was Khatta Meetha, directed by Priyadarshan which was an average grosser. He also appeared in Vipul Shah's Action Replayy, which was a box office failure.^[33] His last film of 2010 was Tees Maar Khan. In 2011 he starred in Patiala House and Thank You.

He also co-produced a film with Russell Peters titled Breakaway (dubbed into Hindi as Speedy Singhs) which is reminiscent of his own Patiala House.^[34] Breakaway has become the highest-grossing English movie in Canadian history.^[35] Akshay Kumar, recently dubbed for the Hindi version of Hollywood, action blockbuster, Transformers: Dark of the Moon. Akshay dubbed for the role of 'Optimus Prime', which is one of the key characters in the film. He took the dubbing role for his son, Aarav, and did so for free.^[36]

His latest film is Rohit Dhawan's Desi Boyz (2011), which co-starred John Abraham, Chitrangada Singh and Deepika Padukone. His first release of 2012 was Housefull 2 which is a sequel to his 2010 successful film Housefull. The film received mixed reviews from critics and was declared Super Hit collecting 181.25 crore (US$36.16 million) at Box Office in 5 weeks. It was also a huge hit in overseas and the biggest Bollywood grosser in New Zealand. Akshay's Rowdy Rathore released on Ist June 2012.^[37] It marks the returns of him in action genre after 7 years.

Personal life[link]

Kumar earlier dated several of his colleagues, such as Shilpa Shetty and Raveena Tandon. After being engaged twice to actress Twinkle Khanna, the daughter of actors Rajesh Khanna and Dimple Kapadia, he married her on 17 January 2001. Their son named Aarav was born in September 2002.^[1] He stays in shape with a combination of kickboxing, basketball, swimming and other sports, as well as working out at the gym. In the year 2004, he was honoured with the Rajiv Gandhi Award for his outstanding achievements in Bollywood. In 2008 the University of Windsor in Ontario, Canada awarded him with Honorary Doctrate of Law for his outstanding work in the film industry and contribution to social work. The same year he was named the "Sexiest Man Alive" by People (India) magazine. The following year he was awarded the highest Japanese honour of "Katana" and a sixth degree Black Belt in Kuyukai Gojuryu Karate. He was one of the 15 international celebrities invited for the Olympics torch-bearer rally to Canada.^[38]

Awards and honors[link]

Filmography[link]

Actor[link]