Twelver or Imami Shīa Islam (Athnā‘ashariyyah or Ithnā‘ashariyyah, Arabic: اثنا عشرية‎) is the largest branch of Shī‘ī (Shi'a) Islam. Adherents of Twelver Shī‘ism are commonly referred to as Twelvers, which is derived from their belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve Imāms and their belief that the Mahdi will be none other than the returned Twelfth Imam that disappeared and is believed by Twelvers to be in occultation. Approximately 85% of Shī‘a are Twelvers, and the term Shi'a Muslim as commonly used in English usually refers to Twelver Shī‘a Muslims only.

Twelvers share many tenets of Shī‘ism with related sects, such as the belief in Imāms, but the Ismā‘īlī and Zaydī Shī‘ī sects each believe in a different number of Imāms and for the most part, a different path of succession regarding the Imāmate. They also differ in the role and overall definition of an Imām.

The Twelver faith is a majority in countries like Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, and Lebanon. Alevis in Turkey and Albania and Alawis of Syria also regard themselves as Twelvers, but hold significantly different beliefs from mainstream Twelver Shiites. The Twelver faith also forms a large minority in India,^{[1][2][3][4][5]} Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Tanzania, Kuwait, Qatar, UAE and Saudi Arabia.^[6] Smaller minorities of Twelver also exist in Oman, Yemen, Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Ghana, Senegal, Indonesia, Malaysia and in many other countries of the world, including Europe and the Americas.

Alternative names[link]

The Twelvers are also known by other names, each connoting some aspect of the faith.

• The Shī‘ah (or Shi'a) is commonly used as a synonym for "Twelvers" since this branch comprises the majority group of Shī‘ī Islam.
• Ja‘farī refers to Twelvers to the exclusion of the Ismā‘īlī and Zaydī ("Fivers"). This term refers to the majority Twelver school of jurisprudence (a minority school, the Akhbarī, also exists). It is attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, who the Twelvers consider to be their Sixth Imām. The founders of the Sunni Hanafi and Maliki schools of jurisprudence narrated hadith from Ja'far al-Sadiq.
• Imāmī is a reference to the Twelver belief in the infallibility of the Imāms. Though the Ismā‘īlī also accept the concept of Imāms, this term is used specifically for the Twelvers.

Overview[link]

Twelvers believe that the descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and his son-in-law ‘Alī are the best source of knowledge about the Qur'an and Islam, the most trusted carriers and protectors of Muḥammad's Sunnah (traditions) and the most worthy of emulation.

In particular, Twelvers recognize the succession of ‘Alī, Muḥammad's cousin, son-in-law and the first man to accept Islam (second only to Muḥammad's wife Khadījah), the male head of the Ahl al-Bayt or "people of the [Prophet's] house" and the father of Muḥammad's only bloodline) as opposed to that of the caliphate recognized by Sunni Muslims. Twelvers also believe that ‘Alī was appointed successor by Muḥammad's direct order on many occasions, and that he is therefore the rightful leader of the Muslim faith.

Although ‘Alī is widely accepted by Muslims in general to be the fourth successor to the Caliphate after Uthman, for the Shī‘ah, however, he is the first divinely sanctioned "Imām," or divinely appointed spiritual leader after the Prophet Muḥammad. The seminal event in Shī‘ah history is the martyrdom in 680 CE of ‘Alī's son Husayn, who led an uprising against the, illegitimate to them, caliph. For the Shī‘ah, Husayn came to symbolize resistance to tyranny.

Regardless of the dispute about the Caliphate, Twelvers recognize the religious authority of the Twelve Imams, also called Khalīfah Ilāhi.

Theology[link]

A mullah in Imāmzādeh Sayyid Hamzah, Tabriz.

Sharī'ah: Religious law[link]

The Ja'farī derive their Sharia, or religious law, from the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The difference between Sunni and Shīʻa Sharia results from a Shīʻa belief that Muhammad assigned ʻAlī to be the first ruler and the leader after him (the Khalifa or steward). Moreover, according to Shīʻa, an Imam or a Caliph can not be democratically elected and has to be nominated by God. Sunnis believe that their Caliphs were popular and had greater vote so they were made caliphs. This difference resulted in the Shīʻa:

1. Following hadith from Muħammad and his descendants the 12 Imāms.^[7]
2. Not accepting the "examples", verdicts, and ahādīth of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman ibn Affan (who are considered by Sunnīs to be the first three Caliphs).
3. Attributing the concept of the masūm "infallibility" to the Twelve Imāms or The Fourteen Infallibles (including Muhammad and his daughter Fatimah) and accepting the examples and verdicts of this special group.

Main doctrines[link]

Twelvers believe in the Five Pillars of Islam, as do Sunnis, but categorize them differently. Twelver beliefs include the following:

Principles of Faith (Usūl al-Dīn)

• Tawhid (Oneness): The Oneness of God
• ʻAdālah (Justice): The Justice of God
• Nubuwwah (Prophethood): God has appointed perfect and infallible prophets and messengers to teach mankind the religion (that is, a perfect system of how to live in "peace" ("submission to God")).
• Imāmah (Leadership): God has appointed specific leaders to lead and guide mankind — a prophet appoints a custodian of the religion before his demise.
• Qiyāmah (The Day of Judgment): God will raise mankind for Judgment - the Day of Resurrection

Ancillaries of the Faith (Furū' al-Dīn)

• Salat (Prayer) — meaning "connection", establish the five daily prayers, called namāz in Persian and Urdu
• Sawm (fast) — fasting during the holy month of Ramadhan, called rūzeh in Persian
• Hajj (Pilgrimage) – performing the pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Zakat (Poor-rate) – charity. Zakat means "to purify".
• Khums ("Fifth" of one's savings) – tax
• Jihād (Struggle) – struggling to please God. The greater, internal Jihad is the struggle against the evil within one's soul in every aspect of life, called jihād akbār. The lesser, or external, jihad is the struggle against the evil of one's environment in every aspect of life, called jihād asghār. This is not to be mistaken with the common modern misconception that this means "Holy War". Writing the truth (jihād bil qalam "struggle of the pen") and speaking truth in front of an oppressor are also forms of jihād.
• Commanding what is just
• Forbidding what is evil
• Tawalla – loving the Ahl al-Bayt and their followers
• Tabarra – dissociating oneself from the enemies of the Ahlu l-Bayt^[8]

The concept of Imams[link]

Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, Iraq, where the Battle of Karbala took place

The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad, in the Twelver or Ithna Ashariya branch of Shia Islam.^[9] According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the community with justice, but also is able to keep and interpret the Sharia and its esoteric meaning. The prophet and imams' words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree, or nass, through Muhammad.^[10][11]

It is believed in Shi'a Islam that 'Aql, a divine wisdom, was the source of the souls of the prophets and imams and gave them esoteric knowledge, called Hikmah, and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.^[9][12][13] Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation, but has close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the imam in turn guides the people. The Imamat, or belief in the divine guide is a fundamental belief in Shi'i Islam and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.^[14]

According to Twelvers, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. Ali was the first Imam of this line, and in the Twelvers' view, the rightful successor to the Prophet of Islam, followed by male descendants of Muhammad(also known as Hasnain's) through his daughter Fatimah. Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, with the exception of Husayn ibn Ali, who was the brother of Hasan ibn Ali.^[9] The twelfth and final Imam is Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed by the Twelvers to be currently alive, and in hiding.^[14]

List of Imams[link]

The Shi'a Imams are seen as infallible. It is an important aspect of Shia theology that they are not prophets (nabi) nor messengers (rasul), but instead carry out Muhammad's message. While Sunni Muslims view all religions and groups that accept prophets or messengers after Muhammad to be heathen or heretical, Shi'a Muslims do consider the Imams to be higher in rank than all the prophets and messengers except Muhammad.^[47][48][49]

The role of Imam al-Mahdi[link]

In Twelver eschatology, Muhammad ibn Hasan ibn ʻAlī, or al-Mahdi (مهدي transliteration: Mahdī, also Mehdi, "Guided One"), is the twelfth Imam and the Mahdi, the ultimate savior of mankind and prophesied redeemer of Islam. Twelvers believe that the Mahdi has been hidden by God (referred to as The Occultation) and will later emerge to change the world into a perfect and just Islamic society alongside Jesus (Isa) before the Yaum al-Qiyamah (literally "Day of the Resurrection" or "Day of the Standing").

Other Shi'a schools, such as Zaidi, Ismaili and Bohra, adhere to different Imam successions and, along with some Sunnis, do not consider Muhammad ibn Hasan the Mahdi as Imam.

Comparative jurisprudence: Twelver–Sunni[link]

Flag featuring the first Kalimah, the Shahada, used by Muslims' Army during early Islam

(This list is not exhaustive nor representative of the Sunni/Shia dispute on religious jurisprudence)

Shahada: Declaration of faith[link]

• Arabic text:

• أشهد أن] لا إله إلاَّ الله و [أشهد أن ] محمداً رسول الله ]

• Romanization:

• [ʾašhadu ʾan] lā ilāha illā l-Lāh wa [ʾašhadu ʾanna] Muḥammadan rasūlu l-Lāh

• English rendering:

• [I testify that] there is no god (ilah) but Allah and [I testify that] Muhammad is messenger of Allah.

In usage the occurrences of ʾašhadu ʾan "I testify that" are very often omitted.

Another rendering current among some English-speaking Muslims, but without a historical tradition, is "(I bear witness that) there is none worthy of worship except God, and (I testify that) Muhammad is the messenger of God."^[50] This version relies on a translation of (ilah) as being "worthy of worship", something which is correctly said in Arabic but does not translate well into English syntax.

Twelvers, along with Sunnis, agree that a single honest recitation of the shahādah in Arabic is all that is required for a person to become a Muslim according to most traditional schools.

A vast majority of Twelvers often add ʻAlīyun waliyu l-Lāh (علي ولي الله "Ali is the vicegerent of God") at the end of the Shahādah. This testifies that ʻAlī is also the Leader of the Believers along with God and Muhammad, proof of which Shi'a theologians find in the Qur'an.^{[Quran 5:55]}

Though this form of the Shahādah is recited daily by other Shīʻa sects such as the Nizari Ismailis, Twelvers view it as Mustahabb (recommended), but not Wajib (obligatory).

Taqlid: Accepting a scholar's verdict[link]

Salat / Namaz: Prayer[link]

There are minor differences between Sunnis and Shīʻa in how the prayer ritual is performed. During the purification ritual in preparation for prayer (which consists of washing the face, arms, feet, etc. and saying of some prayers), the Shīʻa view wiping the feet with wet hands as sufficient, as opposed to some of the Sunnis who consider complete washing of the feet necessary. Also, Shīʻa do not use their fingers to clean inside the ears during the ablution ritual. A prerequisite for purification is that one has to be clean before performing the purification ritual.

Notes

• Sunni often pray two Raka'ah Nafl after Dhuhr, Maghrib and Isha'a.
• ^A According to Shia Muslims, these are to be performed in sets of two raka'ah each.
• ^B Prayed daily by Muhammad (Sunnis).
• ^C Mustahab (praiseworthy) to do everyday (Shias). Wajib (almost to the level of obligatory) (Hanifiyyah). Sunnah Mu'akkadah (voluntary but highly stressed) (Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali).
• ^D Replaced by Jumu'ah on Fridays, which consists of two raka'ah.
• ^E According to Abū Ḥanīfa, "Asr starts when the shadow of an object becomes twice its height (plus the length of its shadow at the start time of Dhuhr)." For the rest of Imams, "Asr starts when the shadow of an object becomes equal to its length (plus the length of its shadow at the start time of Dhuhr)." Asr ends as the sun begins to set.
• ^F According to Shia Muslims, 'Asr prayer and 'Ishaa prayer have no set times but are performed from mid-day. Zuhr and 'Asr prayers must be performed before sunset, and the time for 'Asr prayer starts after Zuhr has been performed. Maghrib and 'Ishaa prayers must be performed before midnight, and the time for 'Ishaa prayer can start after Maghrib has been performed, as long as no more light remains in the western sky signifying the arrival of the true night.
• ^G According to Shia Muslims, this prayer is termed nawafil.

During prayer, it is the Jaʻfarī view that it is preferable to prostrate on earth, leaves that are not edible or wood, as these three things are considered purest by Muhammad in Hadith specifically mentioning Tayammum. Hence many Shīʻa use a small tablet of soil (a mixture of earth and water, and often taken from the ground of a holy site) or wood during their daily prayers upon which they prostrate.

In the Jaʻfarī view, the hands are to be left hanging straight down the side during the standing position of the prayer, while the Sunni schools of thought (except for the majority of Malikis) hold that they should be folded. The Jaʻfarī consider the five daily prayers to be compulsory, though the Jaʻfarī consider it acceptable to pray the second and third prayer, and the fourth and fifth prayer, one after the other during the parts of the day where they believe the timings for these prayers to overlap. The other three Sunni schools allow this consolidation of daily prayers only while travelling or under some other constraint.

Khums: One-fifth tax[link]

Khums (خمس) is the Arabic word for one fifth (1/5). In Islamic legal terminology, it means "one-fifth of certain items which a person acquires as wealth, and which must be paid as an Islamic tax".^[51] According to Shi'a, the items eligible for khums are referred to as Ghanima (الْغَنيمَة) in the Quran. The Arabic word Ghanima has two meanings

• "spoils of war" or "war booty"
• gain or profit

The Sunni translate this word exclusively as "war booty" or "spoils of war".^[52] The Twelvers hold the view that the word Ghanima has two meanings as mentioned above, the second meaning is illustrated by the common use of the Islamic banking term al-ghunm bil-ghurm meaning "gains accompany liability for loss or risk".^[53][54]

Also, in a famous supplication, the supplication after the noon prayer, the person asks God to bestow on him His favors, one of those favors which the person asks is the benefit or gain from every act of righteousness, the word used here is al-ghanima (وَالْغَنيمَةَ مِنْ كُلِّ بِر ) this is in accordance with the second meaning of the word.^[55]

Mut'ah: Temporary marriage[link]

Nikāḥ al-Mut‘ah, Nikah el Mut'a (Arabic: نكاح المتعة‎, also Nikah Mut‘ah literally, "marriage of pleasure"),^[56] or sighah, is a fixed-time marriage which, according to the Usuli Shia schools of Shari‘a (Islamic law), is a marriage with a preset duration, after which the marriage is automatically dissolved. It has many conditions that can be considered as pre-requisite, similar to that of permanent marriage. It is the second form of Islamic marriage (Nikah). However, it is regarded as haram (prohibited) by Sunnis. This is a highly controversial fiqh topic; Sunnis and Shi‘a hold diametrically opposed views on its permissibility.

Calendar[link]

Twelver Shi'a, celebrate the following annual holidays:

• Eid ul-Fitr (عيد الفطر), which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan and falls on the first day of Shawwal.
• Eid al-Adha, which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca, starts on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah.

The following holidays are observed by Twelvers Shi'as, unless otherwise noted:

• The Mourning of Muharram or Remembrance of Muharram and Ashurah (عاشوراء) for Shia commemorates Imam Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala. Imam Husayn was grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah,the second Caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate (and the first one by heredity).One group of Sunni Scholars have deemed Yazeed to be a kaafir(e.g. Sunni Scholar Ibn Jauzi in Wafa al-Wafa), another has stated he was a fasiq (transgressor), a fajir (one that commits debauchery) and a drunkard.Yazeed considered nikah (marriage) with mothers and sisters to be permissible and drank alcohol". Ashurah is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram. Sunnis also commemorates Imam Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom, but little different from Shi'as.
• Arba'een (Arabic word for forty(40)) commemorates on 40th day of Imam Husain's martydom( 40th day is an auspious day for any deceased as per Islam) remembering the suffering of Imam Husayn and his household, the women and children. After Husayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arba'een occurs on the 20th of Safar, 40 days after Ashurah.
• Milad al-Nabi, Muhammad's birth date, is celebrated by the Shia on the 17th of Rabi' al-awwal, which coincides with the birth date of the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq.
• Mid-Sha'aban is the birth date of the 12th and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Twelvers on the 15th of Sha'aban. Many Shia fast on this day to show gratitude.
• Eid al-Ghadeer celebrates Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's imamate before a multitude of Muslims. Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
• Al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the Ahl al-Bayt (household of Muhammad) and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al-Hijjah.

Martyrdom of Imam Husayn[link]

The death of the grandson of Muhammad and the son of Ali, Husayn ibn Ali on the Tenth of Muharram - known as Ashura - plays a significant role in Twelver theology. This day is annually commemorated with grief and sorrow; some participate in ritual beating of their chests, as some believe this is a form of expressing the helplessness that comes from a practical inability to have helped Husayn and his small troop of 72 family and supporters. Some hit themselves as a form of emotional and love for the ahlulbayt and their sacrifice and martyrdom. In most nations with significant Shia populations, one can observe large crowds in processions grieving over Husayn's death. The events of Ashura tell a story of a leader fighting against an oppressive tyrant, Yazid, whom seized power and had committed atrocities against the people of the empire that he had inherited.

Notable scholars[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Historical[link]

Contemporary[link]

Guardianship of the Jurisprudent[link]

Traditionally Twelver Shi'a Muslims consider ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and the subsequent further eleven Imams not only religious guides but political leaders, based on a crucial hadith where Muhammad passes on his power to command Muslims to Ali. Since the last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, went into "occultation" in 939 and is not expected back until end times, this left Shi'a without religiously sanctioned governance. In contrast, the Ismaili Imams did successfully gain political power with the Fatimid Caliphate. After the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate Ismaili Shi'asm started to lean towards secular thought.

The first Shi'a regime, the Safavid dynasty in Iran, propagated the Twelver faith, made Twelver's law the law of the land, and patronized Twelver scholarship. For this, Twelver ulema "crafted a new theory of government" which held that while "not truly legitimate", the Safavid monarchy would be "blessed as the most desirable form of government during the period of awaiting" for Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth imam.^[57]

In general, the Shi'a adhere to one of three approaches towards the state: either full participation in government, i.e. attempting to influence policies by becoming active in politics, or passive cooperation with it, i.e. minimal participation, or else most commonly, mere toleration of it, i.e. remaining aloof from it.^[58] Historically, Zaidi and Ismaili Shi'a imams functioned as both religious and political leaders, but later after the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate the Ismaili imamate became a secular institution. In general, Twelver Shi'a historically remained secular.

This changed with Iranian Revolution where the Twelver Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters established a new theory of governance for the Islamic Republic of Iran. It is based on Khomeini's theory of guardianship of the Islamic jurist as rule of the Islamic jurist, and jurists as "legatees" of Muhammad.

While not all Twelver Shi'a accept this theory, it is uniquely Twelver and the basis of the constitution of Iran, the largest Shi'a Muslim country, where the Supreme Leader must be an Islamic jurist.

Criticism[link]

See also[link]

• Persecution of Shia Muslims
• Bada'
• Ismailism

Footnotes[link]

More References[link]

1. The book "Durr-e-Mansoor dar Halaat-e-Ulama-e-Zangipur"
2. The book "MATLA-e-ANWAR" (By Maulana Murtaza Husain Sadrul-Afazil)
3. The book "KHURSHEED-e-KHAWAR" (By Maulan Saeed Akhtar Gopalpuri)
4. The thesis on "Life of Jawad-ul-Ulama" research work of Dr.Inayet Ali (Aligarh Muslim University)
5. The booklet "Haqnuma" published Jamia-Imania,Banaras.

References[link]

• Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. 
• Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1-56859-050-4. 
• Martin, Richard C.. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0-02-865604-0. 
• Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa. Gale Group. 2004. ISBN 978-0-02-865769-1. 
• Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0-7103-0416-1. 
• Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelve. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03531-4. 
• Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1988). The Just Ruler (al-sultān Al-ʻādil) in Shīʻite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511915-0. 
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. SUNY press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. 

External links[link]

• A brief introduction of Twelve Imams
• A Brief History Of The Lives Of The Twelve Imams a chapter of Shi'a Islam (book) by Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei
• The Twelve Imams Taken From "A Shi'ite Anthology" by Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei
• A Short History of the Lives of The Twelve Imams
• Ithna 'Ashariyah An article by Encyclopædia Britannica online
• al-Islam.org - Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project
• Twelver Media Source
• Imamia Mission Shia Organisation in United Kingdom

Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah शेख़ मुहम्मद अब्‍दुल्‍ला شيخ محمد عبدالله
Sheikh Abdullah addressing crowd at Lal Chowk Sringar in 1975
Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
In office 5 March 1948 – 9 August 1953
Preceded by	Mehr Chand Mahajan
Succeeded by	Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad
Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
In office 25 February 1975 – 26 March 1977
Preceded by	Syed Mir Qasim
Succeeded by	President's Rule
In office 9 July 1977 – 8 September 1982
Preceded by	President's Rule
Succeeded by	Farooq Abdullah
Personal details
Born	(1905-12-05)5 December 1905 Soura, Kashmir, British India
Died	8 September 1982(1982-09-08) (aged 76) Srinagar, Kashmir, India
Nationality	Indian
Political party	Jammu & Kashmir National Conference
Spouse(s)	Begum Akbar Jahan Abdullah
Children	Farooq Abdullah
Alma mater	Islamia College Lahore, Aligarh Muslim University
Religion	Islam

Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah (Kashmiri: शेख़ मुहम्मद अब्‍दुल्‍ला (Devanagari), شيخ محمد عبدالله (Nastaleeq)), Sher-e-Kashmir (the Lion of Kashmir) (December 5, 1905, Soura, Kashmir – September 8, 1982, Srinagar), was the leader of the National Conference, Kashmir's largest political party, and one of the most important political figures in the modern history of Jammu and Kashmir. In 1933 he married Akbar Jahan, the daughter of Michael Harry Nedou, the eldest son of the European proprietor of a chain of hotels in India including Nedous Hotel in Srinagar, and his Kashmiri wife Mirjan. Michael Harry Nedou was himself the proprietor of a hotel at the tourist resort of Gulmarg^[1] (The writer Tariq Ali claims that Akbar Jehan was previously married in 1928 to an Arab Karam Shah who disappeared after a Calcutta newspaper Liberty reported that he was actually T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia)^[2] a British Intelligence officer. He claims that Akbar Jehan was divorced by her first husband in 1929.)^[3] He agitated against the rule of the Maharaja Hari Singh, and urged self-rule for Kashmir. He was the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir State after its provisional accession to India in 1947, and was later jailed and exiled. He again became the Chief Minister of the state following the 1974 Indira-Sheikh accord and remained in the top slot till his death on September 8, 1982.