Fukuoka 福岡
—  Designated city  —
福岡市 · Fukuoka City
From top left: Yatai in Nakasu Fukuoka Castle, Hakozaki Shrine Tenjin, Hakata Gion Yamakasa Seaside Momochi and Fukuoka Tower
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Location of Fukuoka in Fukuoka
Fukuoka
Coordinates: 33°35′N 130°24′E / 33.583°N 130.4°E / 33.583; 130.4Coordinates: 33°35′N 130°24′E / 33.583°N 130.4°E / 33.583; 130.4
Country	Japan
Region	Kyushu
Prefecture	Fukuoka
Government
• Mayor	Soichiro Takashima (since December 2010)
Area
• Total	340.03 km2 (131.29 sq mi)
Population (September 1, 2010)
• Total	1,461,631
• Density	4,253.83/km2 (11,017.4/sq mi)
Time zone	Japan Standard Time (UTC+9)
City Symbols
- Tree	Camphor laurel
- Flower	Camellia
- Bird	Black-headed Gull
Website	www.city.fukuoka.lg.jp/english/index.html

Fukuoka (福岡市, Fukuoka-shi^?) is the capital city of Fukuoka Prefecture and is situated on the northern shore of the island of Kyushu in Japan.

Ranked as the 14th of the world's most livable cities in the magazine Monocle in 2010, Fukuoka was praised for its green spaces in a metropolitan setting.^[1] It is the most populous city in Kyushu, followed by Kitakyushu. It is the largest city and metropolitan area west of Keihanshin. The city was designated on April 1, 1972 by government ordinance. Greater Fukuoka (福岡都市圏), with 2.5 million people (2005 census), is part of the heavily industrialized Fukuoka-Kitakyushu zone, as well as Northern Kyushu.

As of June 2011, Fukuoka is Japan's 7th largest city, having passed the population of Kyoto, and the first time a city west of the Kinki region has a larger population since Kyoto was established in the 7th century. However, in ancient times, the area near Fukuoka was thought to be perhaps even more influential than the Yamato region.

History[link]

Fukuoka (the area of Kashii, Hakata, Sawara and Imazu) is said to be the oldest city in Japan, because it is the nearest city to China and Korea^{[citation needed]}. The area around Fukuoka is among the oldest non-Jōmon settlements in Japan^{[citation needed]}. Dazaifu was an administrative capital in 663 A.D., but a historian proposed that a prehistoric capital was in the area.^[2] Ancient texts, such as the Kojiki, and archaeology confirm this was a very critical place in the founding of Japan. Some scholars^[3] even go as far as to claim it was the first place outsiders and the Imperial Family set foot, but like many early Japan origin theories, it remains contested. See History of Japan. Fukuoka is sometimes still referred to as Hakata, the central ward of the city.

In 923, the Hakozaki-gū was established at Fukuoka as a branch of the Usa Shrine.^[4]

Mongol invasions (1274–1281)[link]

Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire turned his attention towards Japan starting in 1268, exerting a new external pressure on Japan with which it had no experience. Kublai Khan first sent an envoy to Japan to make the Shogunate acknowledge Khan's suzerainty. The Kamakura shogunate refused. Mongolia repeatedly sent envoys thereafter, each time urging the Shogunate to accept their proposal, but to no avail.

In 1274 Kublai Khan mounted an invasion of the northern part of Kyushu with a fleet of 900 ships and 33,000 troops, which included troops from Goryeo on the Korean peninsula. This first invasion was compromised by a combination of incompetence and storms. After the first invasion of 1274, Japanese samurai built a stone barrier 20 kilometers in length bordering the coast of Hakata Bay in what is now Fukuoka city. The wall, between 2–3 metres in height and having a base width of 3 metres, was constructed between 1276 and 1277 and was excavated again in the 1930s.

Kublai sent another envoy to Japan in 1279. At that time, Hōjō Tokimune of the Hōjō clan (1251–1284) was the Eighth Regent. Not only did he decline the offer, but he beheaded the five Mongolian emissaries after summoning them to Kamakura. Infuriated, Kublai made another attack on Fukuoka Prefecture in 1281, mobilizing 140,000 soldiers and 4,000 ships. The Japanese defenders, numbering around 40,000, were no match for the Mongols and the invasion force made it as far as Dazaifu, 15 kilometers south of the city of Fukuoka. However, the Japanese were aided by another typhoon which struck a crushing blow to the Mongolian troops, and the invasion was thwarted.

It was this typhoon that came to be called the Kamikaze (Divine Wind).

Formation of the modern city (1889)[link]

The Tenjin area

Canal City Hakata

Fukuoka Tower

Fukuoka was formerly the residence of the powerful daimyo of Chikuzen Province, and played an important part in the medieval history of Japan. The renowned temple of Tokugawa Ieyasu in the district was destroyed by fire during the Boshin war of 1868.

The modern city was formed on April 1, 1889, with the merger of the former cities of Hakata and Fukuoka. Historically, Hakata was the port and merchant district, and was more associated with the area's culture and remains the main commercial area today. On the other hand, the Fukuoka area was home to many samurai, and its name has been used since Kuroda Nagamasa, the first daimyo of Chikuzen Province, named it after his birthplace in Okayama Prefecture and the “old Fukuoka” is the main shopping area and now called Tenjin.

When Hakata and Fukuoka decided to merge, a meeting was held to decide the name for the new city. Hakata was initially chosen, but a group of samurai crashed the meeting and forced those present to choose Fukuoka as the name for the merged city. However, Hakata is still used to reference to the Hakata area of the city and, most famously, to refer to the city's train station, Hakata Station, and dialect, Hakata-ben.

20th century[link]

JR Kyushu's Hakata Station

Tenjin Underground City

• 1903: Fukuoka Medical College, a campus associated with Kyoto Imperial University, is founded. In 1911, the college is renamed to Kyushu Imperial University and established as a separate entity.
• 1910: Fukuoka streetcar service begins. (The service ran until 1979.)
• 1929: Flights commence along the Fukuoka-Osaka-Tokyo route.
• 1945: Saturation bombing of Japanese cities commences on Honshū with Fukuoka one of the targets. Vivisections of American POWs are performed at Kyushu Imperial University Hospital.
• 1947: First Fukuoka Marathon.
• 1951: Fukuoka airport opens.
• 1953: Fukuoka Zoo opens.
• 1975: The city absorbed the town of Sawara.
• 1981: Subway commences service.
• 1988: Osaka's pro baseball team, the Nankai Hawks, are moved to Fukuoka and renamed the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks. (Renamed the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks in 2004).

21st century[link]

• 2005: Fukuoka city subway Nanakuma Line started operation.

Geography[link]

Fukuoka is bordered on three sides by mountains and opens, on the north, to the Sea of Genkai. Much of the city is now built on reclaimed land, with ongoing developments in Higashi-ku building more artificial islands.^{[citation needed]}

It is located 1,100 km from Tokyo.

Climate[link]

Fukouka has a humid subtropical climate and it has hot humid summers and relatively mild winters. The city also sees on average about 1600 mm of precipitation per year, with a stretch of more intense precipitation between the months of June and September. Along with much of the prefecture, Fukuoka City has a moderate climate with an annual average temperature of 16.3 °C (61 °F), average humidity of 70% and 1,811 annual daylight hours. Roughly 40% of the year is cloudy.

Winter temperatures rarely drop below 0 °C (32 °F) and it rarely snows, though light rain does fall on most days if not as consistently as on the Sea of Japan side of Honshu.^[5] Spring is warm and sunnier, with cherry blossoms appearing in late March or early April. The rainy season (tsuyu) lasts for approximately six weeks through June and July, during which time the humidity is very high and temperatures hover between 25 °C (77 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F). Summers are humid and hot, with temperatures peaking around 37 °C (99 °F). Autumn, often considered to be Fukuoka's best season, is mild and dry, though the typhoon season runs between August and September.

Earthquakes[link]

Fukuoka is not as seismically active as many other parts of Japan, but does experience occasional earthquakes. The most powerful recent earthquake registered a lower 6 of maximum 7 of the Japanese intensity scale and hit at 10:53 am local time on March 20, 2005, killing one person and injuring more than 400. The epicentre of the earthquake was in the Sea of Genkai, along a yet-undiscovered extension of the Kego fault that runs through the centre of Fukuoka. Genkai island, a part of Nishi-ku, was the most severely damaged by the earthquake and almost all island residents were forced to evacuate. Aftershocks continued intermittently throughout the following weeks as construction crews worked to rebuild damaged buildings throughout the city. Traditional Japanese houses, particularly in the areas of Daimyo and Imaizumi, were the most heavily damaged and many were marked for demolition, along with several apartment buildings. Insurance payments for damages were estimated at approximately 15.8 billion yen.^[7]

A similar quake, with an intensity of 5+, also occurred one month later on April 20, 2005.

Fukuoka's major Kego fault, runs northwest to southeast, roughly parallel to Nishitetsu's Ōmuta train line, and was previously thought to be 22 km long. It is estimated to produce earthquakes as strong as magnitude 7 at the focus approximately once every 15,000 years. If the focus were located at a depth of 10 km, this would translate to an earthquake of a lower-6 magnitude (similar to the March 20, 2005 earthquake) in downtown Fukuoka if it were the epicenter. The probability of an earthquake along the known length of the Kego fault occurring within 30 years was estimated at 0.4% prior to the March 20, 2005 earthquake, but this probability has been revised upwards since. Including the new extension out into the Sea of Genkai, the Kego fault is now thought to be 40 km long.

Following reports that the city has only prepared for earthquakes up to a magnitude of 6.5, several strong aftershock renewed fears that the quakes might cause the portion of the Kego fault that lies under the city to become active again, leading to an earthquake as big as, or bigger than, the March 20 quake.

Wards[link]

Fukuoka has 7 wards (ku):	Ward	Population	Land area	Pop. density
		as of August 1, 2010	km²	per km²
	Higashi-ku	291 749	66.68	4 375.36
	Hakata-ku	212 108	31.47	6 740.01
	Chūō-ku (administrative center)	176 739	15.16	11,658.24
	Minami-ku	248 901	30.98	8 034.25
	Jonan-ku	128 883	16.02	8 045.13
	Sawara-ku	211 889	95.88	2 209.42
	Nishi-ku	190 288	83.81	2 270.47

Demographics[link]

As of May 2007^[update], the city had an estimated population of 1,422,836 and a density of 4,184.07 persons per km². The total area is 340.60 km². With an average age of 38.6 years, Fukuoka is Japan's second youngest major city and with a growth rate of 4.4%, is also Japan's second-fastest growing city (based on 2000 census data^[update]).

According to local magazine Fukuoka Now, a recent government survey found Fukuoka has over 1200 homeless, the 4th highest number for any city in Japan.^[8]

Economy[link]

Fukuoka is the economic center of the Kyushu region, with an economy largely focused on the service sector. Large companies headquartered in the city include Iwataya and Kyushu Electric Power. Fukuoka is also the home of many small firms playing a supportive role in the logistics, IT and high-tech manufacturing sectors. Most of the region's heavy manufacturing takes place in the nearby city of Kitakyushu.

Several regional broadcasters are based in the city, including Fukuoka Broadcasting System, Kyushu Asahi Broadcasting, Love FM, RKB Mainichi Broadcasting and Television Nishinippon Corporation.

The port of Hakata and Fukuoka Airport also make the city a key regional transportation hub. Fukuoka houses the headquarters of Kyushu Railway Company (JR Kyushu) and Nishi-Nippon Railroad. Air Next, a subsidiary of All Nippon Airways, is headquartered in Hakata-ku;^[9] prior to its dissolution, Harlequin Air was also headquartered in Hakata-ku.^[10]

Fukuoka has its own stock exchange, founded in 1949. It is one of 6 in Japan.^[11]

Culture[link]

Fukuoka was selected as one of Newsweek's 10 "Most Dynamic Cities" in its July 2006 issue.^[12] It was chosen for its central Asian location, increasing tourism and trade, and a large increase in volume at its sea and airport. Fukuoka has a diverse culture and a wide range of cultural attractions.

In its July/August 2008 issue, Monocle selected Fukuoka as number 17 of the "Top 25 liveable cities".^[13] It was chosen for excellent shopping, outstanding food, good transport links, good museums, "a feeling of openness in its sea air", green spaces and because it's friendly, safe, clean and close to the rest of East Asia.^[14]

Tourism[link]

Sky Dream Fukuoka, located in Fukuoka City's western ward, was one of the world's largest ferris wheels at a height of 120 meters. It was closed on September 2009. Fukuoka Castle located adjacent to Ohori Park features the remaining stone walls and ramparts left after a devastating fire during the upheaval of the Meiji Restoration. It has now been preserved along with some reconstructed prefabricate concrete towers constructed during the 1950s and 1960s, when there was a trend across Japan to rebuild damaged castles as tourist attractions. Ohori Park is also the location of one of Fukuoka City's major art galleries. There is a newly opened Kyushu National Museum in nearby Dazaifu.

Hakata Ramen

The Marine Park Uminonakamichi is located on a narrow cape on the northern side of the Bay of Hakata. The park has an amusement park, petting zoo, gardens, beaches, a hotel, and a large marine aquarium. For tourists from other parts of Japan, local foods such as mentaiko, Hakata ramen and motsunabe are associated with Fukuoka. Yatai (street stalls) serving ramen can be found in Tenjin and Nakasu most evenings. Fukuoka Tower is near the beach in Momochi.

Museums[link]

Fukuoka City Museum

• Fukuoka Art Museum - In Ohori Park; contains a wide selection of contemporary and other art from around the world, including works by Mark Rothko, Roy Lichtenstein, and Salvador Dalí
• Fukuoka Asian Art Museum - contains art from various countries of Asia.
• Fukuoka City Museum - displays a broad range of items from the region's history, including a spectacular gold seal.
• Genko Historical Museum (元寇史料館; Museum of the Mongol Invasion) - In Higashi Koen (East Park); displays Japanese and Mongolian arms and armor from the 13th century as well as paintings on historical subjects. Open on weekends.
• Hakata Machiya Folk Museum - Dedicated to displaying the traditional ways of life, speech, and culture of the Fukuoka region.

The Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize was established to honor the outstanding work of individuals or organizations in Asia.

Festivals[link]

Hakata Gion Yamakasa

Fukuoka is home to many festivals (matsuri) that are held throughout the year. Of these, the most famous are Hakata Dontaku and Hakata Gion Yamakasa.

Yamakasa (山笠), held for two weeks each July,^[15] is Fukuoka's oldest festival with a history of over 700 years. The festival dates back to 1241 when a priest called Shioichu Kokushi saved Hakata from a terrible plague by being carried around the city on a movable shrine and throwing water.^[16][17] Teams of men (no women, except small girls, are allowed), representing different districts in the city, commemorate the priest's route by racing against the clock around a set course carrying on their shoulders floats weighing several thousand pounds. Participants all wear shimekomi (called fundoshi in other parts of Japan), which are traditional loincloths. Each day of the two-week festival period is marked by special events and practice runs, culminating in the official race that takes place the last morning before dawn. Tens of thousands line the streets to cheer on the teams. During the festival period, men can be seen walking around many parts Fukuoka in long happi coats bearing the distinctive mark of their team affiliation and traditional geta sandals. The costumes are worn with pride and are considered appropriate wear for even formal occasions, such as weddings and cocktail parties, during the festival period.

• 

  The uniform used during the ceremonies and preparation.

• 

  The uniform used during the competition.

Hakata Dontaku (博多どんたく) is held in Fukuoka City on May 3 and 4. Boasting over 800 years of history, Dontaku is attended by more than 2 million people, making it the Japanese festival with the highest attendance during Japan's Golden Week holidays. During the festival, stages are erected throughout downtown for traditional performances and a parade of floats is held. The full name is Hakata Dontaku Minato Matsuri.^[18]

The festival was stopped for seven years during the Meiji era, and since it was restarted in the 12th year of the Meiji era it has been known as Hakata Dontaku.

Music[link]

Notable musical names in J-pop include Ayumi Hamasaki (allegedly Japan's richest woman), singer/songwriter Ringo Shiina, hugely popular singer/songwriter duo Chage & Aska, singer-songwriter Nobuchika Eri, Misia and Yui. During the 1970s, local musicians prided themselves on their origins and dubbed their sound, Mentai Rock.

Morning Musume 6th generation member Reina Tanaka was also born here in 1989 along with 9th generation member Erina Ikuta in 1997.

Dominican songwriter and singer Juan Luis Guerra pays homage to the city in his bachata song Bachata en Fukuoka (2010).

Transport[link]

International terminal of Fukuoka Airport

Bayside Place Hakata Port

Fukuoka is served by Fukuoka Airport, the Sanyō Shinkansen and the Kyushu Shinkansen high speed rail line and other JR Kyushu trains at Hakata Station and by ferry. JR Kyushu and a Korean company operate hydrofoil ferries (named Beetle and Kobee) between Hakata and Busan, South Korea. The city has three subway lines, and the newest one, Subway Nanakuma Line, opened on February 2, 2005.

Sports[link]

Fukuoka is the home of the Fukuoka Softbank Hawks, one of Japan's top professional baseball teams. Threatened with bankruptcy and forced by its creditors to restructure, in 2004 former owner Daiei sold the Hawks to Softbank Capital.

Fukuoka Yahoo! Japan Dome

Level-5 Stadium

Fukuoka is home to a professional soccer team, Avispa Fukuoka.

Annual sporting events include:

• The All Japan Judo Category Championships is held in early April.
• The Kyushu Ekiden, beginning in Nagasaki and ending in Fukuoka, the world's longest relay race, held in October.
• The November tournament of professional Sumo is held at the Fukuoka Kokusai Center
• Fukuoka International Open Marathon Championships, with start/finish at Heiwadai Athletic Stadium, held on the 1st Sunday of December.

Fukuoka has hosted the following sporting events.

• 1995 Summer Universiade
• 2001 World Aquatics Championships.
• 2006 IAAF World Cross Country Championships.
• Fukuoka International Women’s Judo Championships from 1983 to 2006.

Sports teams and facilities[link]

Education[link]

Fukuoka City operates all public elementary and junior high schools, while the prefecture operates the high schools.

National Universities

• Kyushu University (九州大学, Kyushu Daigaku^?)
  • Kyushu Institute of Design (九州芸術工科大学, Kyushu Geijutsu Kōka Daigaku^?) - merged with Kyushu University on October 2003

Prefectural University

• Fukuoka Women's University (福岡女子大学, Fukuoka Joshi Daigaku^?)

Private Universities

• Daiichi University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences (第一薬科大学, Daiichi Yakka Daigaku^?)
• Fukuoka Institute of Technology (福岡工業大学, Fukuoka Kōgyō Daigaku^?)
• Fukuoka Jo Gakuin University (福岡女学院大学, Fukuoka Jogakuin Daigaku^?)
• Fukuoka University (福岡大学, Fukuoka Daigaku^?)
• Kyushu Sangyo University (九州産業大学, Kyushu Sangyō Daigaku^?)
• Nakamura Gakuen University (中村学園大学, Nakamura Gakuen Daigaku^?)
• Seinan Gakuin University (西南学院大学, Seinan Gakuin Daigaku^?)

Colleges

• Fukuoka College of Health Sciences (福岡医療短期大学, Fukuoka Iryō Tanki Daigaku^?)
• Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Junior College (福岡工業大学短期大学部|Fukuoka Kōgyō Daigaku Tanki Daigakubu)
• Junshin Junior College (純真短期大学, Junshin Tanki Daigaku^?)
• Koran Women's Junior College (香蘭女子短期大学, Kōran Joshi Tanki Daigaku^?)
• Kyushu Zokei Art College (九州造形短期大学, Kyushu Zōkei Tanki Daigaku^?)
• Nakamura Gakuen Junior College (中村学園大学短期大学部, Nakamura Gakuen Daigaku Tanki Daigakubu^?)
• Nishinihon Junior College (西日本短期大学, Nishi Nihon Tanki Daigaku^?)
• Seika Women's Junior College (精華女子短期大学, Seika Joshi Tanki Daigaku^?)

Catholic schools

• Sophia Fukuoka Junior and Senior High School

International relations[link]

Fukuoka has seven sister cities.^[19]

Fukuoka City established the Asian Pacific City Summit in 1994. It consists of 26 Asian-Pacific Cities.

Notable people from Fukuoka[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fukuoka, Fukuoka

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Fukuoka.

• Official website (Japanese)
• Official Tourism Site of Fukuoka city
• Fukuoka City page of Fukuoka Tourism Association website
• Fukuoka Talk
• Fukuoka Now
• Fukuoka travel guide from Wikitravel

v t e Fukuoka Prefecture Kitakyūshū Wards Moji-ku Wakamatsu-ku Tobata-ku Kokurakita-ku Kokuraminami-ku Yahatahigashi-ku Yahatanishi-ku Fukuoka (capital city) Wards Higashi-ku Hakata-ku Chūō-ku Minami-ku Nishi-ku Jōnan-ku Sawara-ku Cities Asakura Buzen Chikugo Chikushino Dazaifu Fukuoka (capital) Fukutsu Iizuka Itoshima Kasuga Kama Kitakyūshū Koga Kurume Miyama Miyawaka Munakata Nakama Nōgata Ogōri Ōkawa Ōmuta Ōnojō Tagawa Ukiha Yame Yanagawa Yukuhashi Districts Asakura Chikujō Chikushi Kaho Kasuya Kurate Mii Miyako Mizuma Onga Tagawa Yame See also: Towns and villages by district

Masanobu Fukuoka, originator of the natural farming method

Natural farming is an ecological farming approach established by Masanobu Fukuoka (1913–2008), a Japanese farmer and philosopher who described his agricultural philosophy as shizen nōhō (自然農法^?) in Japanese.^[1] It is also referred to as "the Fukuoka Method", "the natural way of farming" or "do-nothing farming". The title refers not to lack of labor, but to the avoidance of manufactured inputs and equipment. Natural farming can also be described as ecological farming and is related to organic farming, sustainable agriculture, agroforestry, ecoagriculture and permaculture but should be distinguished from biodynamic agriculture.

The system exploits the complexity of living organisms that shape each particular ecosystem. Fukuoka saw farming not just as a means of producing food but as an aesthetic or spiritual approach to life,^[2] the ultimate goal of which was, "the cultivation and perfection of human beings".^[3] He suggested that farmers could benefit from closely observing local conditions.^[4] Natural farming is a closed system, one that demands no inputs and mimics nature.^[5]

Fukuoka's ideas challenged conventions that are core to modern agro-industries, instead promoting an environmental approach.^[6] Natural farming also differs from conventional organic farming^[7], which Fukuoka considered to be another modern technique that disturbs nature.^[8]

Fukuoka claimed that his approach prevents water pollution, biodiversity loss and soil erosion while still providing ample amounts of food.^[9]

Principles[link]

Fukuoka distilled natural farming into five principles:^[10]

1. No tillage
2. No fertilizer
3. No pesticides (or herbicides)
4. No weeding
5. No pruning

Though many of his plant varieties and practices relate specifically to Japan, and even to local conditions in subtropical western Shikoku, his philosophy and the governing principles of his farming systems have been applied from Africa to the temperate northern hemisphere. In India, natural farming is often referred to as "Rishi Kheti".^[11][12]

Principally, natural farming minimises human labour and adopts, as closely as practical, nature's production of foods such as rice, barley, daikon or citrus in biodiverse agricultural ecosystems. Without plowing, seeds germinate well on the surface if site conditions meet the needs of the seeds planted there. Fukuoka used the presence of spiders in his fields as a key performance indicator of sustainability.^{[citation needed]}}

The ground always remains covered by weeds, white clover, alfalfa, herbaceous legumes, and sometimes deliberately sown herbaceous plants. Ground cover is present along with grain, vegetable crops and orchards. Chickens run free in orchards and ducks and carp populate rice fields.^[13]

Periodically ground layer plants including weeds may be cut and left on the surface, returning their nutrients to the soil, while suppressing weed growth. This also facilitates the sowing of more seeds in the same area.^[why?]

For summer rice and winter barley grain crops, ground cover enhances nitrogen fixation. Straw from the previous crop mulches the topsoil. Each grain crop is sown before the previous one is harvested by broadcasting the seed among the standing crop. The result is a denser crop of smaller but highly productive and stronger plants.

Fukuoka's practice and philosophy emphasised small scale operation and challenged the need for mechanised farming techniques for high productivity, efficiency and economies of scale. While his family's farm was larger than the Japanese average, he used one field of grain crops as a small-scale example of his system.

Climax ecosystems[link]

Ladybirds consume aphids and are considered beneficial by natural farmers that apply biological control.

In ecology, climax ecosystems are mature ecosystems that have reached a high degree of stability, productivity and diversity (see old-growth forest). Natural farmers attempt to mimic those virtues, thus creating a comparable ecosystem, and employ such advanced techniques as intercropping, companion planting and integrated pest management.^{[citation needed]}

No-till[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012)

Natural farming recognizes soils as a fundamental natural asset. Ancient soils possess physical and chemical attributes which render them capable of generating and supporting life abundance. It can be argued that tilling actually degrades the delicate balance of a climax soil in the following ways:

1. Tilling may destroy crucial physical characteristics of a soil such as water suction, its ability to send moisture upwards, even during dry spells. The effect is due to pressure differences between soil areas. For more on this subject see water potential. Furthermore, tilling most certainly destroys soil horizons and hence disrupts the established flow of nutrients.

2. Tilling over-pumps oxygen to local soil residents, such as bacteria and fungi. As a result, the chemistry of the soil changes. Biological decomposition accelerates and the microbiota mass increases at the expense of other organic matter, adversely affecting most plants, including trees and vegetables. It is well-known to gardeners and farmers that for plants to thrive, a certain quantity of organic matter (around 5%) must be present in the soil.

3. Tilling uproots all the plants in the area, turning their roots into food for bacteria and fungi. This damages their ability to aerate the soil. Living roots drill millions of tiny holes in the soil and thus provide oxygen. They also create room for beneficial insects and annelids (the phylum of worms). Some types of roots contribute directly to soil fertility by funding a mutualistic relationship with certain kinds of bacteria (most famously the rhizobium) that can fix nitrogen.

Nature farming[link]

Another Japanese farmer and philosopher Mokichi Okada, conceived of a "no fertilizer" farming system in the 1930s which predated Fukuoka. Okada used the same Japanese characters,^[14] which are generally translated in English as "nature farming". Agriculture researcher Hu-lian Xu claiming that "nature farming" is the correct literal translation of the Japanese term.^[14]

See also[link]

	Sustainable development portal
	Systems science portal
	Ecology portal

References[link]

Masanobu Fukuoka
Fukuoka throwing a seedball at a 2002 workshop at Navdanya
Born	(1913-02-02)2 February 1913 Iyo, Japan
Died	16 August 2008(2008-08-16) (aged 95)
Nationality	Japanese
Occupation	Agricultural scientist, farmer, philosopher
Known for	Philosophy, Natural farming
Notable work(s)	The One-Straw Revolution
Awards	Ramon Magsaysay Award, Desikottam Award, Earth Council Award

Masanobu Fukuoka (福岡 正信, Fukuoka Masanobu^?, 2 February 1913 – 16 August 2008) was a Japanese farmer and philosopher celebrated for his natural farming and re-vegetation of desertified lands. He was a proponent of no-till, no-herbicide grain cultivation farming methods traditional to many indigenous cultures,^[1] from which he created a particular method of farming, commonly referred to as "Natural Farming" or "Do-Nothing Farming".^[2][3][4]

He was the author of several Japanese books, scientific papers and other publications, and was featured in television documentaries and interviews from the 1970s onwards.^[5] His influences went beyond farming to inspire individuals within the natural food and lifestyle movements. He was an outspoken advocate of the value of observing nature's principles.^[6]

Life[link]

Fukuoka was born on 2 February 1913 in Iyo, Ehime, Japan, the second son of Kameichi Fukuoka, an educated and wealthy land owner and local leader. He attended Gifu Prefecture Agricultural College and trained as a microbiologist and agricultural scientist, beginning a career as a research scientist specialising in plant pathology. He worked at the Plant Inspection Division of the Yokohama Customs Bureau in 1934 as an agricultural customs inspector. In 1937 he was hospitalised with pneumonia, and while recovering he stated that he had a profound spiritual experience that transformed his world view^[7][8][9] and led him to doubt the practices of modern "Western" agricultural science. He immediately resigned from his post as a research scientist, returning to his family's farm on the island of Shikoku in southern Japan.

From 1938, Fukuoka began to practise and experiment with new techniques on organic citrus orchards and used the observations gained to develop the idea of "Natural Farming". Among other practices, he abandoned pruning an area of the citrus trees, which caused the trees to become affected by insects and tangled branches. He stated that the experience taught him the difference between nature and non-intervention.^[10][11] His efforts were interrupted by World War II, during which he worked at the Kōchi Prefecture agricultural experiment station on subjects including farming research and food production.

Iyo, Ehime. Place of Fukuoka's family home seen middle right.

In 1940, Fukuoka married his wife Ayako, and over his life they had five children together. After the war, his father lost most of the family lands due to forced redistribution by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers and was left with only three-eighths of an acre of rice land and the hillside citrus orchards his son had taken over before the war. Despite these setbacks, in 1947 he took up natural farming again with success, using no-till farming methods to raise rice and barley. He wrote his first book Mu: The God Revolution, or Mu: Kami no Kakumei (無　神の革命) in Japanese, during the same year, and worked to spread word of the benefits of his methods and philosophy. His later book, The One-Straw Revolution was published in 1975 and translated into English in 1978.

From 1979, Fukuoka travelled the world extensively, giving lectures, working directly to plant seeds and re-vegetate areas, and receiving a number of awards in various countries in recognition of his work and achievements. By the 1980s, Fukuoka recorded that he and his family shipped some 6,000 crates of citrus to Tokyo each year totalling about 90 tonnes.^[9]

During his first journey overseas, Fukuoka was accompanied by his wife Ayako, met macrobiotic diet leaders Michio Kushi and Herman Aihara,^[12]:63 and was guided by his leading supporter and translation editor Larry Korn. They sowed seeds in desertified land, visited the University of California in Berkley and Los Angeles, the Green Gulch Farm Zen Center, the Lundberg Family Farms, and met with United Nations UNCCD representatives including Maurice Strong, who encouraged Fukuoka's practical involvement in the "Plan of Action to Combat Desertification". He also travelled to New York and surrounding areas such as Boston and Amherst College in Massachusetts.

In 1983, he travelled to Europe for 50 days holding workshops, educating farmers and sowing seeds. In 1985, he spent 40 days in Somalia and Ethiopia, sowing seeds to re-vegetate desert areas, including working in remote villages and a refugee camp. The following year he returned to the United States, speaking at three international conferences on natural farming^[12]:343 in Washington state, San Francisco and at the Agriculture Department of the University of California, Santa Cruz. Fukuoka also took the opportunity to visit farms, forests and cities giving lectures and meeting people. In 1988, he lectured at the Indian Science Congress, state agricultural universities and other venues.

Fukuoka went to Thailand in 1990 and 1991, visiting farms and collecting seeds for re-vegetating deserts in India which he returned to during November and December that year to sow seeds in the deserts^[where?] for two months in an attempt to re-vegetate them. The next year saw him participate in official meetings in Japan associated with the Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil, and in 1996 he returned to Africa, sowing seeds in desert areas of Tanzania, observing Baobab trees and jungle country. He taught the making and sowing of clay seed balls in Vietnam during 1995 and attended the World Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture, Japan.^[13]

He travelled to the Philippines in 1998, carrying out Natural Farming research, and visited Greece later that year to assist plans to re-vegetate 10,000 hectares around the Lake Vegoritis area in the Pella Prefecture and to produce a film of the major seed ball effort. The next year he returned to Europe, visiting Mallorca.

He visited China in 2001, and in 2002 he returned again to India to speak at the "Nature as Teacher" workshop at Navdanya Farm and at Bija Vidyapeeth Earth University in Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand in northern India. On Gandhi's Day, he gave the third annual Albert Howard Memorial Lecture to attendees from all six continents. That autumn he was to visit Afghanistan with Yuko Honma but was unable to attend, shipping eight tons of seed in his stead. In 2006, he appeared in an hour long interview on Japanese television network NHK.^[14]

Masanobu Fukuoka died on 16 August 2008, at the age of 95, after a period of confinement in bed and in a wheelchair.

Natural Farming[link]

Fukuoka called his agricultural philosophy shizen nōhō (自然農法^?), most commonly translated into English as "natural farming".^[15] It is also referred to as "the Fukuoka Method", "the natural way of farming" or "Do-Nothing Farming", despite being labor intensive.

The system is based on the recognition of the complexity of living organisms that shape an ecosystem and deliberately exploiting it. Fukuoka saw farming not just as a means of producing food but as an aesthetic and spiritual approach to life,^[16] the ultimate goal of which was "the cultivation and perfection of human beings".^[17]

The five principles of Natural Farming^[18] are that:

• human cultivation of soil, plowing or tilling are unnecessary, as is the use of powered machines
• prepared fertilizers are unnecessary, as is the process of preparing compost
• weeding, either by cultivation or by herbicides, is unnecessary. Instead only minimal weed suppression with minimal disturbance
• applications of pesticides or herbicides are unnecessary
• pruning of fruit trees is unnecessary^[19]

Clay seed balls[link]

Fukuoka re-invented and advanced the use of clay seed balls. Clay seeds balls were originally an ancient practice in which seeds for the next season's crops are mixed together, sometimes with humus or compost for microbial inoculants, and then are rolled within clay to form into small balls. This method is now commonly used in guerilla gardening to rapidly seed restricted or private areas.^[20]

Awards[link]

In 1988, Fukuoka received India's most prestigious award, the Desikottam Award^[21] as well as the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Public Service in the Philippines',^[22] often considered "Asia's Nobel Prize".^[23]

In March 1997, the Earth Summit+5 forum in Rio de Janeiro elected to award him with the Earth Council Award,^{[citation needed]} which he received in person at a ceremony in Tokyo on May 26 that year,^[24] honoring him for his contributions to sustainable development.^[21]

In 1998, Fukuoka received a grant of US$10,000 from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund but the grant was returned because his advanced age prevented him from completing the project.^[25]

Influence[link]

In the preface to The One Straw Revolution, Wendell Berry wrote that the Natural Farming system would not be directly applicable to most American farms. In fact, Fukuoka’s techniques have proved difficult to apply, even on most Japanese farms, and is too technically demanding for most people to follow.^[26] Despite this, in the international development of the organic farming movement, Fukuoka is considered to be amongst the "five giant personalities who inspired the movement"^[27] along with Austrian Rudolf Steiner, German-Swiss Hans Müller, Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom and J.I. Rodale in the United States.

One Straw Revolution has been translated into over 20 languages and sold more than one million copies^[28] and Fukuoka has been widely influential, inspiring an international movement of individuals investigating and applying his principles to varying degrees,^[4] such as Akinori Kimura,^[26][29] David Mas Masumoto,^[30] Yoshikazu Kawaguchi, and has significantly influenced alternative movements in the West, such as permaculture.^[31][32]

His books are considered both farming compendiums and guides to a way of life.^[33] His influence likened to that of a "strict and authoritarian grandfather figure" having a tendency to "theorize in a grand way" but not always be practical.^[26] Fukuoka theorized that any ecological system forms an extremely complex "network of relationality" and is a "holistic system", and this included farms themselves. His ideology disregarded causal associations in farming systems, believing that attention should not be on the crops but on the system as a whole. For example, he did not focus on the idea of "harmful insects" requiring to be dealt with, in his system the crops in the farm had to become strong enough to resist insects.^[34]

In Northern Thailand, his visit organized by a former student was influential in the rapid and widespread adoption of organic and chemical-free rice agriculture.^[35]

Criticisms[link]

In some applications, Fukuoka’s famous ‘do-nothing’ techniques have been criticized as “grow-nothing” techniques, leading to crop failures and requiring many years of adaption to make them work.^{[citation needed]} Despite its simple appearance, his technique has been described as sophisticated^[26] and in the initial years of transition from conventional, there is some loss in crop yield, estimated by Fukuoka himself to be about 10%.^{[citation needed]}

Critics argue that he was too focused on the "inner world" and its connection with nature, and did not give attention to the realm of interpersonal relationships or society which are also an essential part of living, and his rejection of mechanization was not justifiable for modern agricultural production.^[36] Fukuoka had few followers or associates in his own native country of Japan.^[6]

Family farm recent developments[link]

Family farm hill, Iyo, Ehime

His farm in Shikoku changed hands to his son and daughter-in-law gradually during the late 1980s, as Fukuoka reached an advanced age^[37] and his grandson now also farms. The family orchards of iyo-kan, amanatsu mikan and related varieties of citrus, and many more fruit and other trees remain.^[28] Many of his iyo-kan and amanatsu mikan trees are still growing, although some old iyo-kan were replaced by new varieties of fruit due to old age. Woodlands remain along with orchards, including some areas of wild vegetables still growing amongst them. Some areas of straw-mulched cropping continue to produce grains and vegetables.

The farm now also features an orchard area of ginko trees, shiitake mushroom crops grow on tree logs in shady woodland, and recent new plantings of limes, grapefruits, feijoas, avocados and mangos exist.^[38][39][40]

Some new experimentation is taking place but, for the most part, the family does not adhere strictly to Fukuoka's method.^{[citation needed]}

Bibliography[link]

• 1947 (Japanese) Mu: Kami no Kakumei (無　神の革命^?); First edition self-published in 1947 and re-published in 1973 as Mu I: Kami no Kakumei (無 I　神の革命^?), 280pp., 21 cm; New publishing by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?) in 1985 July ISBN 978-4-393-74111-5 and 2004 Aug ISBN 978-4-393-74143-6; (Religion (volume) (宗教編, Shūkyō Hen^?)).
  • 1994^[when?] "Mu 1: The God Revolution" Translator Alfred Birnbaum. Japan.^[41]
• 1958 (Japanese) Hyakushō Yawa・「fu*」Shizen Nōhō (百姓夜話・「付」自然農法^?); Self-published in 1958.
• 1969 (Japanese) Mu: Mu no Tetsugaku (無　無の哲学^?); First edition self-published in 1969; re-published in 1985 July as Mu II: Mu no Tetsugaku (無 II　無の哲学^?) by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?) ISBN 978-4-393-74112-2; again in 2004 Sept ISBN 978-4-393-74144-3; (Philosophy (volume) (哲学編, Tetsugaku Hen^?)).
• 1972 (Japanese) Mu: Shizen Nōhō (無　自然農法^?) - first edition self-published in 1972. Publication issued by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?) in 1985 Oct as Mu III: Shizen Nōhō (無 III　自然農法^?) ISBN 978-4-393-74113-9 and again in 2004 Sept ISBN 978-4-393-74145-0; (Doing-practise (volume) (実践編, Jissen Hen^?)).
• 1975 (Japanese) Shizen Nōhō - Wara Ippon no Kakumei (自然農法　わら一本の革命^?); Published by Hakujusha (柏樹社^?) Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan ISBN?; New publishing by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?) in 1983 May ISBN 978-4-393-74103-0 and again in 2004 Aug ISBN 978-4-393-74141-2.
  • 1978 "The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming" translators Chris Pearce, Tsune Kurosawa & Larry Korn. Preface Wendell Berry. Rodale Press. 1984– Indian Eng. edns. 30 yr anniv. 2009 republishing NYRB.
• 1975 (Japanese) Shizen Nōhō - Midori no Tetsugaku no Riron to Jissen (自然農法　緑の哲学の理論と実践^?); Published by Jiji Tsūshinsha (時事通信社^?, Jiji Press Co.), Tōkyō, in 1975 Dec, 310pp. ISBN 978-4-7887-7626-5.13-3.
  • 1985 "The Natural Way Of Farming - The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy" translator Frederic P. Metreaud. Japan Publications. Out of print. ISBN 978-0-87040-613-3.
• 1984 (Japanese) Shizen ni Kaeru (自然に還る^?); Published by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?), 362 pp., in 1984 Aug ISBN 978-4-393-74104-7. An enlarged and revised edition, 458 pp., in 1993 April ISBN 978-4-393-74114-6. Re-published in 2004 Sept ISBN 978-4-393-74146-7.
  • 1987 "The Road Back to Nature - Regaining the Paradise Lost" translator Frederic P. Metreaud. Japan Publications. Out of print. ISBN 978-0-87040-673-7.
• 1992 (Japanese) Wara Ippon no Kakumei・Sōkatsuhen「Kami to Shizen to Hito no Kakumei」 (わら一本の革命・総括編「神と自然と人の革命」^?); Self-published by Shizenjuen (Shou Shin Sha) (自然樹園 (小心舎)^?, One of Fukuoka Masanobu's own self-publishing publisher names) in 1992 Dec, 230 pp., 26×26 cm ISBN 978-4-938743-01-7; ISBN 4-938743-01-9.
  • 1996 "The Ultimatium [sic] of God Nature The One-Straw Revolution A Recapitulation" - English retranslation, less than 100 copies, no ISBN. Publisher: "Shou Shin Sha (小心舎)".
• 1997 (Japanese) "shizen" o ikiru (「自然」を生きる^?), includes an interview with Kanamitsu Toshio (金光寿郎^?); Published by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?) in 1997 Feb ISBN 978-4-393-74115-3 and again in 2004 Aug ISBN 978-4-393-74147-4.
• 2001 (Japanese) Wara Ippon no Kakumei Sōkatsuhen -Nendo Dango no Tabi- (わら一本の革命　総括編　—粘土団子の旅—^?); Self-published by Shizenjuen (Shou Shin Sha) (自然樹園 (小心舎)^?, Self-published), 2001 May. ISBN 978-4-938743-02-4; ISBN 4-938743-02-7; Re-published in 2010 April by Shunjūsha (春秋社^?) ISBN 978-4-393-74151-1.
• 2009 (bilingual) Iroha Revolutionary Verses (いろは革命歌, Iroha Kakumei Uta^?), Fukuoka, Masanobu's hand-written classical song-verses and drawings. Bilingual Japanese and English. ISBN 978-4-938743-03-1; ISBN 4-938743-03-5.