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A converso (Spanish: [komˈberso]; Portuguese: [kõˈvɛɾsu]; Catalan: convers [kumˈbɛrs, komˈvɛɾs]; "a convert", from Latin conversvs, "converted, turned around") and its feminine form conversa was a Jew or Muslim who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries, or one of their descendents. Mass conversions once took place under significant government pressure. The Treaty of Granada (1491) at the last surrender of Al-Andalus issued clear protections of religious rights; the Alhambra Decree (1492) began the reversal.

New Christians of Moorish origin were known as moriscos (Galician and Portuguese: Mourisco). The term morisco may also refer to Crypto-Muslims, i.e. those who secretly continued to practice Islam. New Christians of Jewish origin were referred to as marranos. The term marrano may also refer to Crypto-Jews, i.e. those who secretly continued to practice Judaism.

Description[link]

Conversos were subject to suspicion and harassment from both the community they were leaving and that which they were joining. Both Christians and Jews called them tornadizo (renegade). James I, Alfonso X and John I passed laws forbidding the use of this epithet. This was part of a larger pattern of royal protection, as laws were promulgated to protect their property, forbid attempts to reconvert them, and regulate the behavior of the conversos themselves, preventing their cohabitation or even dining with Jews, lest they convert back.

The conversos did not enjoy legal equality. Alfonso VII prohibited the "recently converted" from holding office in Toledo. They had both supporters and bitter opponents within the Christian secular and religious leadership. Conversos could be found in various roles within the Iberian kingdoms, from bishop to royal mistress, showing a degree of general acceptance, yet they became targets of occasional pogroms during times of extreme social tension (as during an epidemic and after an earthquake). They were subject to the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions.

While pure blood (so-called limpieza de sangre) would come to be placed at a premium, particularly among the nobility, in a 15th-century defense of conversos, Bishop Lope de Barrientos would list what Roth calls "a veritable 'Who's Who' of Spanish nobility" as having converso members or being of converso descent. He pointed out that given the near-universal conversion of Iberian Jews during Visigothic times, (quoting Roth) "[W]ho among the Christians of Spain could be certain that he is not a descendant of those conversos?"

History of Al-Andalus 711–1492
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According to a widely publicised study (December 2008) published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, 19.8 percent of modern Spaniards (and Portuguese) have DNA reflecting Sephardic Jewish ancestry (compared to 10.6 percent having DNA reflecting Moorish ancestors).^[1] The Sephardic result is in contradiction ^[2][3][4] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and has been relativized by the authors themselves^[1][5][6][7] and questioned by Stephen Oppenheimer who estimates that much earlier migrations, 5,000 to 10,000 years ago from the Eastern Mediterranean, might also have accounted for the Sephardic estimates. "They are really assuming that they are looking at this migration of Jewish immigrants, but the same lineages could have been introduced in the Neolithic".^[8] The same authors in also a recent study (October 2008) attributed most of those same lineages in Iberia and the Balearic Islands as of Phoenician origin.^[9] The rest of genetic studies done in Spain estimate the Moorish contribution ranging from 2.5/3.4%^[10] to 7.7%.^[11]

See also[link]

• Anusim
• Crypto-Jew
• Crypto-Muslim

Citations[link]

References[link]

This article lacks ISBNs for the books listed in it. Please make it easier to conduct research by listing ISBNs. If the {{Cite book}} or {{citation}} templates are in use, you may add ISBNs automatically, or discuss this issue on the talk page. (March 2012)

• Gitlitz, David. 'Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews', Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2002.
• Brooks, Andrée Aelion. 'The Woman who Defied Kings: the life and times of Dona Gracia Nasi'. Paragon House, 2002.
• Roth, Norman, Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.

External links[link]

• Out of Spain educational materials
• Converso lectures and activities

http://www.andreabertolini.it/

Andrea Bertolini
Nationality	Italian
Born	(1973-12-01) December 1, 1973 (age 38) Sassuolo (Italy)
2012 FIA World Endurance Championship
Debut season	2012
Current team	AF Corse
Car no.	71
Previous series
2011 2010 2001-03, 05-09 2003, 05-07	Superstars Series FIA GT1 World Championship FIA GT Championship American Le Mans Series
Championship titles
2006, 08-09 2010 2011	FIA GT Championship GT1 FIA GT1 World Championship International Superstars Series

Andrea Bertolini (born December 1, 1973 in Sassuolo) is an Italian race car driver currently driving for AF Corse in the FIA World Endurance Championship. He is the official test driver of the Maserati factory. Bertolini began racing at a young age, working as the youngest ever test driver for Ferrari at 19, followed by work in the experimental and development department. He also participated in the development of the Maserati MC12,^[1] in which he has enjoyed racing success winning for three times the FIA GT Championship in GT1 class, and also claiming the first edition of the FIA GT1 World Championship.

Racing history[link]

Andrea Bertolini driving an MC12 at Road Atlanta in the ALMS

Andrea Bertolini began racing karts at age 11. He came second in the Italian Championship, won championships at a national level, and went on to win the CIAK Cup and place second in the Italian 125 Championship in 2000.^[1] In 2001 he drove a Porsche 996 GT3-R for Art Engineering in the GT3 division of the FIA GT.^[2] In 2002 he moved to JMB Racing driving a Ferrari 360 Modena and continued through 2003 finishing 4^th.

In 2004 he moved to the Giesse Squadra Corse team, again driving a 360 Modena. Once again, he placed 2nd overall, and was awarded the "Driver Performance of the Year".^[1][2] Part way through 2004, he was offered a position on the Maserati AF Corse team driving their new, GT1 class Maserati MC12, a car he had been involved in developing.^[2] He accepted, winning two races that year at Oschersleben, Germany and Zhuhai, China with his team mate, former Formula One driver, Mika Salo.^[3]

In 2005 he returned to JMB Racing, again driving an MC12. He finished the season tied 4th (with team mate Karl Wendlinger), within 4 points of first.^[4]

Andrea Bertolini also raced his MC12 in the American Le Mans Series (ALMS) in 2005 but without much success. He made no podium finishes and crashed out in the race at Laguna Seca.^[5]

For 2006 in the FIA GT, Bertolini moved to Vitaphone Racing Team where he again raced the MC12, with teammate Michael Bartels. Bartels and Bertolini finished first in the overall driver standings, and also their team to a 1st place finish in the team standings.^[6]

Bertolini and Bartels also won the championship again driving the same Vitaphone Maserati in 2008, 2009 and 2010.

In 2011 he won the International Superstars Series driving a Maserati Quattroporte for Swiss Team.

Bertolini became the first person to drive Ferrari's new F1 Simulator at an opening ceremony held at the Italian teams' Maranello base.^[7]

For 2012, Bertolini will compete in the FIA World Endurance Championship, driving an AF Corse Ferrari F458 Italia with Olivier Beretta.

See also[link]

• Ferrari 360 Modena
• FIA GT
• Maserati MC12
• Porsche 996

Racing record[link]

Complete GT1 World Championship results[link]

References[link]

http://www.andreabertolini.it/

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