Genealogy (from Greek: γενεά, genea, "generation"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral traditions, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees of its members. The results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives.
The pursuit of family history tends to be shaped by several motivations, including the desire to carve out a place for one's family in the larger historical picture, a sense of responsibility to preserve the past for future generations, and a sense of self-satisfaction in accurate storytelling.[1]
Hobbyist genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses. Professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases. They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to hobbyist and other professional genealogists. Both try to understand not just where and when people lived, but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, and historical socioeconomic or religious conditions.
Genealogists sometimes specialize in a particular group, e.g. a Scottish clan; a particular surname, such as in a one-name study; a small community, e.g. a single village or parish, such as in a one-place study; or a particular, often famous, person. Bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members who are able to prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who choose simply to support the group.
Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies, where novices can learn from more experienced researchers. Such societies may also index records to make them more accessible, and engage in advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries.
Historically, in Western societies the focus of genealogy was on the kinship and descent of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with heraldry, in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in their coats of arms. Modern scholars consider many claimed noble ancestries to be fabrications, such as the Anglo-Saxon chronicles that traced the ancestry of several English kings to the god Woden.
Genealogical research in the United States was first systematized in the early 19th century, especially by John Farmer (1789–1838).[citation needed] Before Farmer's efforts, tracing one's genealogy was seen as an attempt by colonists to secure a measure of social standing within the British Empire, an aim that was counter to the new republic's egalitarian, future-oriented ethos.[citation needed] As Fourth of July celebrations commemorating the Founding Fathers and the heroes of the Revolutionary War became increasingly popular, however, the pursuit of 'antiquarianism,' which focused on local history, became acceptable as a way to honor the achievements of early Americans.[citation needed] Farmer capitalized on the acceptability of antiquarianism to frame genealogy within the early republic's ideological framework of pride in one's American ancestors. He corresponded with other antiquarians in New England, where antiquarianism and genealogy were well established, and became a coordinator, booster, and contributor to the growing movement. In the 1820s, he and fellow antiquarians began to produce genealogical and antiquarian tracts in earnest, slowly gaining a devoted audience among the American people. Though Farmer died in 1839, his efforts led to the creation of the New England Historic Genealogical Society (NEHGS), one of New England's oldest and most prominent organizations dedicated to the preservation of public records.[2] NEHGS publishes the New England Historical and Genealogical Register.
The Genealogical Society of Utah, founded in 1894, later became the Family History Department of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS). The department's research facility, the Family History Library, which has developed the most extensive genealogical record-gathering program in the world,[citation needed] was established to assist in tracing family lineages for special religious ceremonies that Mormons believe will seal family units together for eternity. Mormons believe that this fulfilled a biblical prophecy stating that the prophet Elijah would return to 'turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers.'[3]
In modern times, genealogy became more widespread, with commoners as well as nobility researching and maintaining their family trees.[4] Genealogy received a boost in the late 1970s with the television broadcast of Roots: The Saga of an American Family, Alex Haley's account of his family line.[5] With the advent of the Internet, the number of resources readily accessible by genealogists has vastly increased, resulting in an explosion of interest in the topic.[6] According to some sources, genealogy is one of the most popular topics on the Internet.[7] The Internet has become not only a major source of data for genealogists, but also of education and communication.
Genealogical research is a complex process that uses historical records and sometimes genetic analysis to demonstrate kinship. Reliable conclusions are based on the quality of sources, ideally original records, the information within those sources, ideally primary or firsthand information, and the evidence that can be drawn, directly or indirectly, from that information. In many instances, genealogists must skillfully assemble indirect or circumstantial evidence to build a case for identity and kinship. All evidence and conclusions, together with the documentation that supports them, is then assembled to create a cohesive genealogy or family history.[8]
Genealogists begin their research by collecting family documents and stories. This creates a foundation for documentary research, which involves examining and evaluating historical records for evidence about ancestors and other relatives, their kinship ties, and the events that occurred in their lives. As a rule, genealogists begin with the present and work backward in time. Historical, social, and family context is essential to achieving correct identification of individuals and relationships. Source citation is also important when conducting genealogical research.[9] To keep track of collected material, family group sheets and pedigree charts are used. Formerly handwritten, these can now be generated by genealogical software.
Because a person's DNA contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA is sometimes used for genealogical research. Three DNA types are of particular interest: mitochondrial DNA that we all possess and that is passed down with only minor mutations through the matrilineal (direct female) line; the Y-chromosome, present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the patrilineal (direct male) line; and the Autosomal DNA, which is found in the 22 non-gender specific chromosomes (autosomes) inherited from both parents, which can uncover relatives from any branch of the family.
A genealogical DNA test allows two individuals to find the probability that they are, or are not, related within an estimated number of generations. Individual genetic test results are collected in databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor. See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project. These tests are limited to either the patrilineal or the matrilineal line.
Most genealogy software programs can export information about persons and their relationships in a standardized format called "GEDCOM" In that format it can be shared with other genealogists, added to online databases, or converted into family web sites. Social networking service (SNS) websites allow genealogists to share data and build their family trees online. Members can upload their family trees and contact other family historians to fill in gaps in their research.
Volunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy.[10] These range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.
On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards such as Rootschat and mailing lists on particular surnames, regions, and other topics. These forums can be used to try to find relatives, request record lookups, obtain research advice, and much more.
Many genealogists participate in loosely organized projects, both online and off. These collaborations take numerous forms. Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate cases, and publish the indexes, either off- or online. These indexes can be used as finding aids to locate original records. Other projects transcribe or abstract records. Offering record lookups for particular geographic areas is another common service. Volunteers, such as those involved in Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness (RAOGK), do record lookups or take photos in their home areas for researchers who are unable to travel.
Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies worldwide. Most societies have a unique area of focus, such as a particular surname, ethnicity, geographic area, or descendancy from participants in a given historical event. Genealogical societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers and may offer a broad range of services, including maintaining libraries for members' use, publishing newsletters, providing research assistance to the public, offering classes or seminars, and organizing record preservation or transcription projects.
Genealogists use a wide variety of records in their research. To effectively conduct genealogical research, it is important to understand how the records were created, what information is included in them, and how and where to access them.
Records that are used in genealogy research include:
To keep track of their citizens, governments began keeping records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility. In England and Germany, for example, such record keeping started with parish registers in the 16th century.[12] As more of the population was recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family. Major life events, such as births, marriages, and deaths, were often documented with a license, permit, or report. Genealogists locate these records in local, regional or national offices or archives and extract information about family relationships and recreate timelines of persons' lives.
In China, India and other Asian countries, genealogy books are used to record the names, occupations, and other information about family members, with some books dating back hundreds or even thousands of years. In the eastern Indian state of Bihar, there is a written tradition of genealogical records among Maithil Brahmins and Karna Kayasthas called "Panjis", dating to the 12th century CE. Even today these records are consulted prior to marriages.[13][14][15]
In Ireland, genealogical records were recorded by professional families of senchaidh (historians) until as late as the mid-17th century, when Gaelic civilization died out. Perhaps the most outstanding example of this genre is Leabhar na nGenealach/The Great Book of Irish Genealogies, by Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (d. 1671), published in 2004.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has engaged in large-scale microfilming of records of genealogical value. Their Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, houses over 2 million microfiche and microfilms of genealogically relevant material, which are also available for on-site research at over 4500 Family History Centers worldwide.[16]
The LDS Church has also compiled indexes of the submissions of its members, resulting in several large databases: the International Genealogical Index, or IGI, which includes both data extracted from filmed civil and ecclesiastic records from various worldwide locales and member-submitted information; the Ancestral File, or AF, which includes the contributions of church members; and the Pedigree Resource File, or PRF, compiled from member and non-member submissions. The IGI contains indexes to millions of records of individuals who lived between 1500 and 1900, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. Although independent of the IGI, the AF and PRF often contain duplications of IGI records. All three of these indexes are available free on their website, FamilySearch. FamilySearch also includes an 1880 United States federal census index, an 1881 British census index, an 1881 Canadian census index, and the U.S. Social Security Death Index, as well as research guides and genealogical word lists.
Genealogists who seek to reconstruct the lives of each ancestor consider all historical information to be "genealogical" information. Traditionally, the basic information needed to ensure correct identification of each person are place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates. However, modern genealogists greatly expand this list, recognizing the need to place this information in its historical context in order to properly evaluate genealogical evidence and distinguish between same-name individuals. A great deal of information is available for British ancestry[17] with growing resources for other ethnic groups.[18]
Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.[19]
In many cultures, the name of a person refers to the family to which he or she belongs. This is called the family name, surname, or last name. Patronymics are names that identify an individual based on the father's name. For example, Marga Olafsdottir is Marga, daughter of Olaf, and Olaf Thorsson is Olaf, son of Thor. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage.[20] In Iceland, patronymics are used by a majority of the population.[21] In Denmark and Norway patronymics and farm names were generally in use through the 19th century and beyond, though surnames began to come into fashion toward the end of the 19th century in some parts of the country. Not until 1856 in Denmark[22] and 1923 in Norway[23] were there laws requiring surnames.
The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigration may cause difficulty in genealogical research. For instance, women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names. Her birth name (maiden name) may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely.[24] Children may sometimes assume stepparent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Because official records may reflect many kinds of surname change, without explaining the underlying reason for the change, the correct identification of a person recorded identified with more than one name is challenging. Immigrants to America often Americanized their names.[25]
Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death, and marriage records.
Genealogical data regarding given names (first names) is subject to many of the same problems as are family names and place names. Additionally, the use of nicknames is very common. For example Beth, Lizzie or Betty are all common for Elizabeth, and Jack, John and Jonathan may be interchanged.
Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, follow naming customs, or be treated as part of the family name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children.
Historically, naming traditions existed in some places and cultures. Even in areas that tended to use naming conventions, however, they were by no means universal. Families may have used them some of the time, among some of their children, or not at all. A pattern might also be broken to name a newborn after a recently deceased sibling, aunt or uncle.
An example of a naming tradition from England, Scotland and Ireland:
| Child |
Namesake |
| 1st son |
paternal grandfather |
| 2nd son |
maternal grandfather |
| 3rd son |
father |
| 4th son |
father's oldest brother |
| 1st daughter |
maternal grandmother |
| 2nd daughter |
paternal grandmother |
| 3rd daughter |
mother |
| 4th daughter |
mother's oldest sister |
Another example is in some areas of Germany, where siblings were given the same first name, often of a favourite saint or local nobility, but different second names by which they were known (Rufname). If a child died, the next child of the same gender that was born may have been given the same name. It is not uncommon that a list of a particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated.
Personal names have periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly named people in a generation, and even similarly named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John".
Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Others may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).
While the locations of ancestors' residences and life events are core elements of the genealogist's quest, they can often be confusing. Place names may be subject to variant spellings by partially literate scribes. Locations may have identical or very similar names. For example, the village name Brockton occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire. Shifts in political borders must also be understood. Parish, county and national borders have frequently been modified. Old records may contain references to farms and villages that have ceased to exist. When working with older records from Poland, where borders and place names have changed frequently in past centuries, a source with maps and sample records such as A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents can be invaluable.
Available sources may include vital records (civil or church registration), censuses, and tax assessments. Oral tradition is also an important source, although it must be used with caution. When no source information is available for a location, circumstantial evidence may provide a probable answer based on a person's or a family's place of residence at the time of the event.
Maps and gazetteers are important sources for understanding the places researched. They show the relationship of an area to neighboring communities and may be of help in understanding migration patterns. Family tree mapping using online mapping tools such as Google Earth (particularly when used with Historical Map overlays such as those from the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection) assist in the process of understanding the significance of geographical locations.
It is wise to exercise extreme caution with dates. Dates are more difficult to recall years after an event, and are more easily mistranscribed than other types of genealogical data.[26] Therefore, one should determine whether the date was recorded at the time of the event or at a later date. Dates of birth in vital records or civil registrations and in church records at baptism are generally accurate because they were usually recorded near the time of the event. Family Bibles are often a source for dates, but can be written from memory long after the event. When the same ink and handwriting is used for all entries, the dates were probably written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable since the earlier dates were probably recorded well after the event. The publication date of the Bible also provides a clue about when the dates were recorded since they could not have been recorded at any earlier date.
People sometimes reduce their age on marriage, and those under "full age" may increase their age in order to marry or to join the armed forces. Census returns are notoriously unreliable for ages or for assuming an approximate death date. Ages over 15 in the 1841 census in the UK are rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years.
Although baptismal dates are often used to approximate birth dates, some families waited years before baptizing children, and adult baptisms are the norm in some religions. Both birth and marriage dates may have been adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies.
Calendar changes must also be considered. In 1752, England and her American colonies changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. In the same year, the date the new year began was changed. Prior to 1752 it was 25 March; this was changed to 1 January. Many other European countries had already made the calendar changes before England had, sometimes centuries earlier. By 1751 there was an 11 day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries.
For further detail on the changes involved in moving from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, see: Gregorian calendar.
The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days in 1871 in Paris. Dates in official records at this time use the revolutionary calendar and need "translating" into the Gregorian calendar for calculating ages etc. There are various websites which do this.[27]
Occupational information may be important to understanding an ancestor’s life and for distinguishing two people with the same name. A person’s occupation may have been related to his or her social status, political interest, and migration pattern. Since skilled trades are often passed from father to son, occupation may also be indirect evidence of a family relationship.
It is important to remember that a person may change occupations, and that titles change over time as well. Some workers no longer fit for their primary trade often took less prestigious jobs later in life, while others moved upwards in prestige.[28] Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements. Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from labourer to mason, or from journeyman to master craftsman. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regionally preferred terms. For example, "shoemaker" and "cordwainer" have the same meaning. Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.
Occupational data may be reported in occupational licenses, tax assessments, membership records of professional organizations, trade directories, census returns, and vital records (civil registration). Occupational dictionaries are available to explain many obscure and archaic trades.[29]
Information found in historical or genealogical sources can be unreliable and it is good practice to evaluate all sources with a critical eye. Factors influencing the reliability of genealogical information include: the knowledge of the informant (or writer); the bias and mental state of the informant (or writer); the passage of time and the potential for copying and compiling errors.
The quality of census data has been of special interest to historians, who have investigated reliability issues.[26][30]
The informant is the individual who provided the recorded information. Genealogists must carefully consider who provided the information and what he or she knew. In many cases the informant is identified in the record itself. For example, a death certificate usually has two informants: a physician who provides information about the time and cause of death and a family member who provides the birth date, names of parents, etc.
When the informant is not identified, one can sometimes deduce information about the identity of the person by careful examination of the source. One should first consider who was alive (and nearby) when the record was created. When the informant is also the person recording the information, the handwriting can be compared to other handwriting samples.
When a source does not provide clues about the informant, genealogists should treat the source with caution. These sources can be useful if they can be compared with independent sources. For example, a census record by itself cannot be given much weight because the informant is unknown. However, when censuses for several years concur on a piece of information that would not likely be guessed by a neighbor, it is likely that the information in these censuses was provided by a family member or other informed person. On the other hand, information in a single census cannot be confirmed by information in an undocumented compiled genealogy since the genealogy may have used the census record as its source and might therefore be dependent on the same misinformed individual.
Even individuals who had knowledge of the fact, sometimes intentionally or unintentionally provided false or misleading information. A person may have lied in order to obtain a government benefit (such as a military pension), avoid taxation, or cover up an embarrassing situation (such as the existence of a non-marital child). A person with a distressed state of mind may not be able to accurately recall information. Many genealogical records were recorded at the time of a loved one's death, and so genealogists should consider the effect that grief may have had on the informant of these records.
The passage of time often affects a person's ability to recall information. Therefore, as a general rule, data recorded soon after the event is usually more reliable than data recorded many years later. However, some types of data are more difficult to recall after many years than others. One type especially prone to recollection errors is dates. Also the ability to recall is affected by the significance that the event had to the individual. These values may have been affected by cultural or individual preferences.
Genealogists must consider the effects that copying and compiling errors may have had on the information in a source. For this reason, sources are generally categorized in two categories: original and derivative. An original source is one that is not based on another source. A derivative source is information taken from another source. This distinction is important because each time a source is copied, information about the record may be lost and errors may result from the copyist misreading, mistyping, or miswriting the information. Genealogists should consider the number of times information has been copied and the types of derivation a piece of information has undergone. The types of derivatives include: photocopies, transcriptions, abstracts, translations, extractions, and compilations.
In addition to copying errors, compiled sources (such as published genealogies and online pedigree databases) are susceptible to misidentification errors and incorrect conclusions based on circumstantial evidence. Identity errors usually occur when two or more individuals are assumed to be the same person. Circumstantial or indirect evidence does not explicitly answer a genealogical question, but either may be used with other sources to answer the question, suggest a probable answer, or eliminate certain possibilities. Compilers sometimes draw hasty conclusions from circumstantial evidence without sufficiently examining all available sources, without properly understanding the evidence, and without appropriately indicating the level of uncertainty.
GRAMPS is an example of genealogy software
Genealogy software is used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software accommodates basic information about individuals, including births, marriages, and deaths. Many programs allow for additional biographical information, including occupation, residence, and notes, and most also offer a method for keeping track of the sources for each piece of evidence.
Most programs can generate basic kinship charts and reports, allow for the import of digital photographs and the export of data in the GEDCOM format so that data can be shared with those using other genealogy software. More advanced features include the ability to restrict the information that is shared, usually by removing information about living people out of privacy concerns; the import of sound files; the generation of family history books, web pages and other publications; the ability to handle same sex marriages and children born out of wedlock; searching the Internet for data; and the provision of research guidance.
Programs may be geared toward a specific religion, with fields relevant to that religion, or to specific nationalities or ethnic groups, with source types relevant for those groups.
The family tree of Confucius has been maintained for over 2,500 years and is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest extant family tree. The fifth edition of the Confucius Genealogy was printed in 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC).[31][32]
- ^ Ronald Bishop, "In the Grand Scheme of Things: An Exploration of the Meaning of Genealogical Research," Journal Of Popular Culture 2008 41(3): 393–412.
- ^ François Weil, "John Farmer and the Making of American Genealogy," New England Quarterly 2007 80(3): 408–434.
- ^ James B. Allen at al. "Hearts Turned To The Fathers," BYU Studies 1994–1995 34(2): 4–392
- ^ Elizabeth Shown Mills, "Genealogy in the 'Information Age': History's New Frontier?" National Genealogical Society Quarterly 91 (December 2003): 260–77.
- ^ Michelle Hudson, "The Effect of 'Roots' and the Bicentennial on Genealogical Interest among Patrons of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History," Journal of Mississippi History 1991 53(4): 321–336
- ^ Grow Your Family Tree in Salt Lake City – Genealogy is the Fastest Growing Hobby in North America
- ^ Genealogy.com: Recent Maritz Poll Shows Explosion in Popularity of Genealogy
- ^ Board for Certification of Genealogists. The BCG Genealogical Standards Manual (Provo, Utah: Ancestry, 2000); National Genealogical Society. American Genealogy (Arlington, Virginia: 2005); Val D. Greenwood. The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy, 3d ed. (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2000)"
- ^ Mills, Elizabeth Shown. Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2007).
- ^ Peter Wayner (2004-04-22). "From Shared Resources, Your Personal History". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9807E3D8163AF931A15757C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
- ^ Peter R. Knights, "City Directories as Aids to Ante-Bellum Urban Studies: A Research Note," Historical Methods Newsletter, Sept. 1969 2:1–9
- ^ Thea Miller, "The German registry: The evolution of a recordkeeping model," Archival Science Volume 3, Number 1 / March, 2003 pp 43–62; Michael Drake, "An Elementary Exercise in Parish Register Demography," Economic History Review Vol. 14, No. 3 (1962), pp. 427–445 in JSTOR
- ^ Verma, Binod Bihari (1973). Maithili Karna Kayasthak Panjik Sarvekshan (A Survey of the Panji of the Karan Kayasthas of Mithila). Madhepura: Krānti Bihārī Varmā. OCLC 20044508.
- ^ Carolyn Brown Heinz. "Fieldnotes: !st lesson with the....Genealogist". Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico. http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/mithila/genealogist2.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
- ^ Pranava K Chaudhary (3 April 2007). "Family records of Maithil Brahmins lost". India Times. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1848092.cms. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
- ^ Donald Harman Akenson. Some Family: The Mormons and How Humanity Keeps Track of Itself Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2007; Johni Cerny and Wendy Elliot. The Library: A Guide to the LDS Family History Library. Salt Lake City: Ancestry Pub., 1988.
- ^ Mark D. Herber, Ancestral Trails: The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History 2nd ed. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 2006; David Hey, Family History and Local History in England. London: Longman, 1987; Sherry Irvine, Scottish Ancestry: Research Methods for Family Historians, 2nd ed. Provo, UT: Ancestry, 2003; David Moody, Scottish Family History. Baltimore: Genealogical Pub. Co., 1990.
- ^ Trafford R. Cole, Italian Genealogical Records: How to Use Italian Civil, Ecclesiastical & Other Records in Family History Research Salt Lake City, Utah: Ancestry, 1995; Cruise, M. T. W., Guidelines For Ancestry Research With an Emphasis on African-American Genealogy Dublin, VA: Author, 2007; Jessie Carney Smith, Ethnic Genealogy: A Research Guide, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983.
- ^ G. J. A. Guth. "Surname Spellings and Computerised Record Linkage," Historical Methods Newsletter, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 10–19, 1976.
- ^ Lorine McGinnis Schulze. "Dutch Patronymics of the 1600s". Olive Tree Genealogy. http://olivetreegenealogy.com/nn/pat.shtml. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
- ^ Surnames made their way into the language in the 19th and 20th century, but are not widely used. In order to protect the patronymics system, in Iceland it is forbidden by law to introduce a new surname."Lög um Mannanöfn" (in Icelandic). http://www.althingi.is/lagasofn/nuna/1996045.html. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
- ^ An earlier law was in effect in 1828, but was largely ignored in the rural areas.
- ^ "Lov av 9. februar 1923 nr. 2 om personnavn (Norwegian Name Law of 1923)" (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 2007-06-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070610181013/http://www.geocities.com/dagtho/act19230209-002.html. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
- ^ E. A. Wrigley, English population history from family reconstitution, 1580–1837 (1997); Catherine Quantin et al, "Which are the best identifiers for record linkage?," Informatics for Health and Social Care 2004, Vol. 29, No. 3-4, Pages 221–227
- ^ Marc Picard, "Genealogical Evidence and the Americanization of European Family Names," Names: American Name Society 2009 57(1): 30–51
- ^ a b Peter R. Knights, "The Accuracy of Age Reporting in the Manuscript Federal Census of 1850 and 1860," Historical Methods Newsletter, 4 (1971), 79–83; Karen Oppenheim Mason and Lisa G. Cope. "Sources of Age and Date-of-Birth Misreporting in the 1900 U.S. Census," Demography vol. 24, no. 4 (Nov., 1987), pp. 563–573.
- ^ http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/calendar/
- ^ Robert M. Hauser, "Occupational status in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries" Historical Methods Newsletter (1982) vol. 15, no. 3, 111–126.
- ^ For example, United States Bureau of Employment Security, The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1939)
- ^ Richard H. Steckel, "The Quality of Census Data for Historical Inquiry: A Research Agenda," Social Science History, vol. 15, no. 4 (Winter, 1991), pp. 579–599.
- ^ "New Confucius Genealogy out next year". China Internet Information Center. 2008. http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
- ^ "Updated Confucius family tree has two million members". Xinhua News Agency. February 16, 2008. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-02/16/content_7616027.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
- Adams, Suzanne Russo. Finding Your Italian Ancestors: A Beginner's Guide. Provo, UT: Ancestry, 2008.
- Ching, Frank. Ancestors: 900 Years in the Life of a Chinese Family. (1988).
- Chorzempa, Rosemary A. Polish roots = Korzenie polskie. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1993.
- Christian, Peter. The Genealogist's Internet. 4th ed. Kew, England: National Archives, 2009. ISBN 978-1-905615-39-1
- Durie, Bruce. Scottish Genealogy. Stroud, England: History Press, 2009.
- Eales, Anne Bruner & Robert M. Kvasnicka, eds. Guide to Genealogical Research in the National Archives of the United States. Washington, DC: National Archives, 2000.
- Greenwood, Val. D. The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2000.
- Grenham, John. Tracing Your Irish Ancestors. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2006.
- Herber, Mark D. Ancestral Trails: The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History. 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2004.
- Hey, David. The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
- McClure, Rhonda (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Online Genealogy (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Alpha. ISBN 0-02-864267-8.
- Malka, Jeffrey S. Sephardic Genealogy: Discovering Your Sephardic Ancestors and Their World. 2nd ed. Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2009.
- Merriman, Brenda Dougall. Genealogical Standards of Evidence: A Guide for Family Historians. 2nd ed. Toronto: Ontario Genealogical Society, 2010.
- Morgan, George G. How to Do Everything: Genealogy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
- Riemer, Shirley J. & Roger Minert. The German Research Companion. 3rd ed. Sacramento, CA: Lorelei Press, 2010.
- Rose, Christine. Courthouse Research for Family Historians: Your Guide to Genealogical Treasures. San Jose, CA: CR Publications, 2004. ISBN 0-929626-16-8
- Ryan, James G. Irish Records: Sources for Family and Local History. Salt Lake City, UT: Ancestry, 1997.
- Simpson, Jack. Basics of Genealogy Reference: A Librarian's Guide. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, 2008. ISBN 978-1-59158-514-5
- Smith, Marian L. "American Names: Declaring Independence" – article on immigrant name changes by the former senior historian for the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (now CIS)
- Szucs, Loretto Dennis, & Luebking, Sandra Hargreaves. The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy. 3rd rev. ed. Provo, UT: Ancestry, 2006.
- Taylor, Robert M., and Ralph S. Crandall. Generations and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History. Mercer University Press, 1986.
- Association of Professional Genealogists, Non-profit striving to promote the highest standard of ethics and professionalism among genealogists.
- Board for Certification of Genealogists, certification body for genealogists
- Cyndi's List, a directory of genealogy links, with links to resources about dozens of nations.
- FamilySearch, a collection of databases and research guidance provided by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
- Genealogy at the Open Directory Project
- Genealogy and Family History at Library and Archives of Canada
- GENUKI, a portal for genealogical information in the British Isles
- Guide to Family History Resources at the National Archives of the UK, information about records of interest to genealogists
- Resources for Genealogists at the National Archives of the USA, information about federal records of interest to genealogists
- RootsWeb, free genealogy resources, including WorldConnect, a database with over 480,000,000 surnames
- Royal Genealogy, a site that presents genealogy of various monarchs of Europe
- WorldGenWeb Project, a directory of genealogy websites maintained by volunteers covering genealogical research worldwide
