The Mandinka

Some West Africans from the Mandinka ethnic group: Samory Touré · Sekou Touré · Lansana Kouyaté Salif Keita · Modibo Sidibé · Toumani Diabaté  · Kolo Touré · Mohamed Sissoko
Total population
13 million[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
The Gambia 714,000 (42%) [1]  Guinea 3,063,431 (30%) [2]  Mali 2,638 988 (22%)[citation needed]  Côte d'Ivoire 3,123,420 (20%) [3]  Burkina Faso 1,984,200 (15%)[citation needed]  Niger 1,900,901 (15%)[citation needed]  Guinea-Bissau 208,180 (13%) [4]  Mauritania 306 900 (10%)[citation needed]  Sierra Leone 465,813 (8%)[citation needed]  Liberia 245,300 (7.4%)[citation needed]  Senegal 687,822 (7%) [5]  Chad 461,785 (5%)[citation needed]
Languages
Mandinka language Eastern Maninka Western Maninka Kita Maninka
Religion
Islam
Related ethnic groups
Mandé peoples, especially the Dyula, Khassonké and Bambara

The Mandinka, Malinke (also known as Mandinko or Mandingo) are one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa with an estimated population of eleven million (the other 3 major ethnic groups in the region being the non-related Fula, Hausa and Songhai).

They are the descendants of the Mali Empire, which rose to power under the rule of the great Mandinka king Sundiata Keita. The Mandinka in turn belong to West Africa's largest ethnolinguistic group, the Mandé, who account for more than twenty million people (including the Dyula, Bozo, Bissa and Bambara). Today, over 99% of Mandinka in Africa are Muslim.^[1][2]

The Mandinka live primarily in West Africa, particularly in The Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Niger, Mauritania and even small communities in the central African nation of Chad. Although widespread, the Mandinka do not form the largest ethnic group in any of the countries in which they live except The Gambia.

Most Mandinkas live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Mandinka villages are fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a chief and group of elders. Mandinkas live in an oral society. Learning is traditionally done through stories, songs and proverbs. Western education's impact is minimal; the literacy rate in Latin script overall among the Mandinka is quite low. However, more than half the adult population can read the local Arabic script; small Quranic schools for children where Arabic is taught are more common.

Originally from Mali, the Mandinka gained their independence from previous empires in the thirteenth century, and founded an empire which stretched across West Africa. They migrated west from the Niger River in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fula-led Kingdom of Fouta Djallon, about half of the Mandinka population converted from indigenous beliefs to Islam. During the 16th, 17th and 18th century as many as a third of the Mandinka population were shipped to the Americas as slaves through capture in conflict and therefore a significant portion of the African-Americans in the United States are descended from the Mandinka people.^[3]

History[link]

The Mandinka migrated west from the Niger River basin in search of better agricultural lovely lands and more opportunities for conquest. During this expansion, they established their rule from modern-day Gambia to Guinea. They were probably one of the original groups that inhabited the ancient city of Jenné-Jeno. The Mandés founded the empire of Kaabu, comprising twenty small kingdoms. Some upper-class or urban Mandinkas converted to Islam during the reign of the great Mansa Musa (1312–1337 AD).

The majority of the Mandinka were still animists at the beginning of the 18th century. Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fula-led Kingdom of Fouta Djallon and amongst sub-states of the Kaabu, about half of the Senegambian Mandinka were converted to Islam while as many as a third were sold into slavery to the Americas through capture in conflict. Today, the majority of Mandinka are Muslim. A significant portion of African-Americans in North America are descended from Mandinka people.^[3]

In eastern areas (northern Cote d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Southern Mali), Mandinka communities are often built around long distance trade routes. These people, often called Dyula after the Mandé word for "merchant", built communities in trading centers, spaced along trade routes, and near mining and agricultural centers, beginning during the Mali Empire. These merchant networks formed the lynchpin of trade between the desert-side upper Niger River cities (Djenné and Timbuktu, for example), highland production areas (the goldfields of Bambouk or agricultural centre of Kankan), and the coast. This last link became more important with the advent of Portuguese and other European trading posts in the 17th century, and much of the overland trade connecting the coast and interior (including the African slave trade) was controlled by Dyula merchants.

Economy[link]

Mandinka are rural subsistence farmers in the Sahel who rely on peanuts, rice, millet, maize and small-scale husbandry for their livelihood. During the wet season, men plant peanuts as their main cash crop. Women work in the rice fields, tending the plants by hand. This is extremely labour-intensive and physically demanding work. Only about 50% of the rice consumption needs are met by local planting; the rest is imported from Asia and the United States.

The oldest male is the head of the family and marriages are commonly arranged. Small mud houses with conical thatch or tin roofs make up their villages, which are organized on the basis of the clan groups. While farming is the predominant profession among the Mandinka, men also work as tailors, butchers, taxi drivers, woodworkers, metalworkers, soldiers, nurses, and extension workers for aid agencies. However, most women, probably 95%, tend to the home, children, and animals as well as work alongside the men in the fields.

Mandinka culture[link]

Mandinka Griot Al-Haji Papa Susso performing songs from the oral tradition of The Gambia on the kora

Mandinka culture is rich in tradition, music, and spiritual ritual. Mandinkas continue a long oral history tradition through stories, songs and proverbs. In rural areas, western education's impact is minimal; the literacy rate in Latin script among these Mandinka is quite low. However, more than half the adult population can read the local Arabic script (including Mandinka Ajami); small Qur'anic schools for children where this is taught are quite more common. Mandinka children are given their name on the eighth day after their birth, and their children are almost always named after a very important person in their family.

The Mandinka have a rich oral history that is passed down through griots. This passing down of oral history through music has made music one of the most distinctive traits of the Mandinka. They have long been known for their drumming and also for their unique musical instrument, the kora. The kora is a twenty-one-stringed guitar-like instrument made out of a halved, dried, hollowed-out gourd covered with cow or goat skin. The strings are made of fishing line (these were originally made from muscles of cow). It is played to accompany a griot's singing or simply on its own.

A Mandinka religious and cultural site under consideration for World Heritage status is located in Guinea at Gberedou/Hamana.^[4]

Customs of the Mandinka[link]

Most Mandinkas live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Mandinka villages are fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a council of upper class elders and a chief who functions as a first among equals.

Marriage[link]

Marriages are traditionally arranged by family members rather than either the bride or groom. This practice is particularly prevalent in the rural areas. Kola nuts, a bitter nut from a tree, are formally sent by the suitor's family to the male elders of the bride-to-be, and if accepted, the courtship begins.

Polygamy has been practiced among the Mandinka since pre-Islamic days. A Mandinka man is legally allowed to have up to four wives, as long as he is able to care for each of them equally. Mandinka believe the crowning glory of any woman is the ability to produce children, especially sons. The first wife has authority over any subsequent wives. The husband has complete control over his wives and is responsible for feeding and clothing them. He also helps the wives' parents when necessary. Wives are expected to live together in harmony, at least superficially. They share work responsibilities of the compound, cooking, laundry, etc.

Passage into adulthood[link]

The Mandinka practice a right of passage which marks the beginning of adulthood for their children. At an age between four and fourteen, the youngsters have their genitalia ritually cut (see articles on male and female genital cutting), in separate groups according to their sex. In years past, the children spent up to a year in the bush, but that has been reduced now to coincide with their physical healing time, between three and four weeks.

During this time, they learn about their adult social responsibilities and rules of behavior.

Preparation is made in the village or compound for the return of the children. A celebration marks the return of these new adults to their families.

As a result of these traditional teachings, in marriage a woman's loyalty remains to her parents and her family; a man's to his.

Religious and spiritual beliefs[link]

Today, over 99% of Mandinka are Muslim.^[1][2] Mandinkas will recite chapters of the Qu'ran in Arabic. Most Mandinka practice a mix of Islam and traditional African religions, which includes a belief in the existence of spirits. These spirits can be controlled mainly through the power of a marabout, who knows the protective formulas. In most cases, no important decision is made without first consulting a marabout. Marabouts, who have Islamic training, write Qu'ranic verses on slips of paper and sew them into leather pouches; these are worn as protective amulets by men, women, and children.

The Kora[link]

The Kora has become the hallmark of traditional Mandinka musicians". The kora with its 21 strings is made from half a calabash, covered with cow's hide fastened on by decorative tacks. The kora has sound holes in the side which are used to store coins offered to the praise singers, in appreciation of their performance. The praise singers are called "jalibaa" in Mandinka. According to "The Kora" (2002): as [the kora] is played, it begins to take on a life of its own and it is believed that the singer and the instrument become one". The kora was traditionally used as "storage for historical facts, to memorize the genealogy of patron families and sing their praises, to act as messengers and intermediaries in disputes between families, to serve as guardians of traditional culture, and to entertain". Today, however, the kora is losing its importance. Although it is a skill passed down from father to son, it is primarily used to entertain people, most especially tourists.^{[citation needed]}

Mandinka in literature and other media[link]

One Mandinka outside Africa is Kunta Kinte, a main figure in Alex Haley's book Roots and a subsequent TV mini-series. Haley claimed he was descended from Kinte, though this familial link has been criticized by many professional historians and at least one genealogist as highly improbable (see D. Wright's The World And A Very Small Place). Martin R. Delany, a 19th century abolitionist, military leader, politician and physician in the United States, was of partial Mandinka descent.

Sinéad O'Connor's 1988 hit Mandinka (song) was inspired by Alex Haley's book.

Mr. T, of American television fame, once claimed that his distinctive hairstyle was modeled after a Mandinka warrior that he saw in National Geographic magazine.^[5] In his motivational video Be Somebody... or Be Somebody's Fool!, he states that "My folks came from Africa. They were from the Mandinka tribe. They wore their hair like this. These gold chains I wear symbolize the fact that my ancestors were brought over here as slaves."^[6]

Many early works by Malian author Massa Makan Diabaté are retellings of Mandinka legends, including Janjon, which won the 1971 Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire. His novels The Lieutenant of Kouta, The Barber of Kouta, and The Butcher of Kouta attempt to capture the proverbs and customs of the Mandinka people in novelistic form.

Mandinka people by country[link]

Sierra Leone[link]

• Alhaji Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, President of Sierra Leone from 1996–2007
• Haja Afsatu Kabba, Former Sierra Leone's Minister of Marine Resources and Fisheries
• Alhaji Mohamed Kemoh Fadika, current Sierra Leone's ambassador to Iran
• Mabinty Daramy, current Sierra Leone's Deputy Minister of Trade and Industry
• Fode Dabo, current Sierra Leone Ambassador to Belgium; he is also Sierra Leone's permanent representative to France, Netherlands, Luxemburg and Italy
• Alhaji Shekuba Saccoh, current Sierra Leone's ambassador to Guinea
• Ibrahim Jaffa Condeh, Sierra Leonean journalist and news anchor
• Neneh Dabo, Director of the Sierra Leone Anti Corruption Commission (ACC).
• Mohamed Kakay, member of parliament of Sierra Leone from Koinadugu District (SLPP)
• Mohamed B. Daramy, Sierra Leone minister of Development and Economic Planning from 2002–2007
• Alhaji A. B. Sheriff, member of Parliament from Koinadugu District (SLPP)
• Tejan Amadu Mansaray, member of parliament of Sierra Leone representing Koinadugu District (APC)
• Kadijatu Kebbay, Sierra Leonean model; Miss University Sierra Leone 2006 winner and represent Sierra Leone at the Miss World 2006 contest.
• Sheka Tarawallie, Sierra Leonean journalist and the current Sierra Leone State House Press Secretary to president Koroma
• Alhaji Bomba Jawara, member of parliament of Sierra Leone from Koinadugu District (SLPP)
• Kanji Daramy, Sierra Leonean journalist and spokesman for former Sierra Leone's president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah. He is also the former Chairman of Sierra Leone National Telecommunications Commission.
• Brima Dawson Kuyateh, Sierra Leonean journalist and the current president of the Sierra Leone Reporters Union
• Karamoh Kabba, Sierra Leonean author, writer and journalist
• Sitta Umaru Turay, Sierra Leonean journalist
• K-Man (born Mohamed Saccoh), Sierra Leonean musician
• Alhaji Lansana Fadika, Sierra Leonean businessman and the SLPP current chairman for the Western Area. He is the younger brother of Kemoh Fadika.
• Sidique Mansaray, Sierra Leonean footballer
• Lansana Baryoh, Sierra Leonean footballer
• Brima Keita, Sierra Leonean football manager

Guinea[link]

• Samory Toure, founder of the Wassoulou Empire, an Islamic military state that resisted French rule in West Africa
• Sekou Toure, President of Guinea from 1958–1984; was also the grandson of Samory Toure
• Alpha Conde, current Guinean President
• Sekouba Konate, Guinean Military leader
• Lansana Kouyate, former prime minister of Guinea
• Kabine Komara, current Prime Minister of Guinea
• Sekouba Bambino, Guinean musician
• Sona Tata Conde, Guinean musician
• Fode Mansare, Guinean footballer
• Daouda Jabi, Guinean footballer
• Mamadi Kaba, Guinean footballer
• N'Faly Kouyate, Guinean musician
• Kaba Diawara, Guinean footballer
• Mamady Keïta, Guinean musician
• Mory Kante, Guinean kora musician
• Mamady Conde, Guinean foreign minister from 2004–2007
• Alhassane Keita, Guinean footballer
• Djeli Moussa Diawara, Guinean musician (also known as Jali Musa Jawara - 32-stringed Kora player)

Liberia[link]

• Sekou Conneh, Liberian politician.
• Momolu Dukuly, former Liberian foreign minister.
• Edward Beyan Kesselly, former government Minister.

Gambia[link]

• Alhajj Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara, first President of the Gambia.
• Sheriff Mustapha Dibba, Veteran politician and the First vice President of the Gambia.
• Ousainou Darboe, Gambian opposition leader.
• Sidia Jatta, opposition politician.
• Jatto Ceesay, Footballer
• Foday Musa Suso, international musician.
• Kunta Kinte, one of the most famous first-generation African slaves.

Mali[link]

• Mansa Musa, the most famous and celebrated of all the Malian emperors
• Sundiata Keita, founder of the Mali Empire
• Modibo Sidibé, current Prime Minister of Mali
• Modibo Keita, President of Mali from 1960–1968
• Yoro Diakité, former Malian Prime Minister
• Salif Keita, Malian musician
• Daba Diawara, Malian politician
• Toumani Diabaté, Malian musician
• Massa Makan Diabaté, Malian historian, writer and playwright
• Moussa Kouyate, Malian musician
• Saidu Keita, Malian footballer
• Baba Sissoko, Malian musician
• Aoua Kéita, Malian politician and activist
• Mamady Sidibe, Malian footballer
• Mohamed Sissoko, Malian footballer
• Soumaila Coulibaly, Malian footballer
• Amadou Toumani Toure, current President of Mali

Ivory Coast[link]

• Henriette Diabaté, Ivorian politician, former government Minister
• Kolo Touré, Ivorian footballer
• Arouna Koné, Ivorian footballer
• Abdul Kader Keïta, Ivorian footballer
• Bakari Koné, Ivorian footballer
• Alpha Blondy, Ivorian (Reggae) musician.
• Yaya Toure, Ivorian footballer

Senegal[link]

• Seckou Keita, Senegalese musician
• Souleymane Diawara, Senegalese footballer

Burkina Faso[link]

• Amadou Coulibaly, Burkinabé footballer
• Cheick Kongo, Burkinabé mixed martial artist
• Joseph Ki-Zerbo, political leader and historian

See also[link]

• Mali Empire
• Kaabu
• Mandé
• Mande languages
• Manding languages
• Mandinka language
• Djembe
• Griot
• Kora (instrument)
• Gravi-kora
• Mane, Malian Soldiers

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Charry, Eric S. (2000). Mande Music: Traditional and Modern Music of the Maninka and Mandinka of Western Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-10161-4. 
• Robert W. Nicholls. The Mocko Jumbie of the U.S. Virgin Islands; History and Antecedents. African Arts, Vol. 32, No. 3 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 48–61+94-96
• Matt Schaffer (Editor). Djinns, Stars and Warriors: Mandinka Legends from Pakao, Senegal (African Sources for African History, 5) (African Sources for African History, 5). Brill Academic Publishers (2003) ISBN 978-90-04-13124-8
• Matt Schaffer. Bound to Africa: The Mandinka Legacy in The New World. History in Africa 32 (2005) 321-369
• Robert J. Mundt. Historical Dictionary of the Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire). Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - Kondon (1987) pp. 98–99
• Lucie Gallistel Colvin. Historical Dictionary of Senegal. Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - Kondon (1981) pp. 216–217
• Pascal James Imperato. Historical Dictionary of Mali. Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - Kondon (1986) pp. 190–191
• ETHNOLOGUE Languages of the World- Thirteenth Edition (1996).

External links[link]

• Mandinka
• Malinke
• A website devoted to Mandinka djembe drumming
• A UK based website devoted to playing Malinke djembe rhythms
• The Ethnologue page for this people group
• Texts on Wikisource:
  • "Mandingo". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. 
  • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mandingo". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Alhaji Bai Konte (born 1920; died 1983) was a jali (praise singer) from Brikama, Gambia. His father Burama Konte was the one who composed the Anthem [Boom] of the 19th century Senegambian hero Mansumaneh Yundum. It was from that anthem that the anthem of Sheriff Sidi Hydara as well as Nyansu Mbasse originated from. Burama Konteh was a well known kora player of his generation.^[1] Alhaji Bai Konte was a regular on Radio Gambia and Radio Senegal's joint program called Chossani Senegambia (the history of Senegambia) in the 1970s. He and other prominent griots such as Jali Nyama Suso and Alhaji Abdoulaye Samba (on xalam) used to to play live music during the show. Alhaji Bai Konteh had narrated many epics on that show including the epic of King Abdou Njie and his griot and advisor Ibra Faye. Prominent broadcasters of that show included Alhaji Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof, Alhaji Assan Njie and Alhaji Mansour Njie.^[2][3][4]

Following in the footstep of his father, Bai Konte also played the 21-string kora and is believed to have been the first kora player to perform and tour in the United States as a soloist, playing at the 1973 Newport Jazz Festival. (Les Ballets Africains, a dance and music group from Guinea, had first performed in the U.S. in 1959, and featured a kora player.)^[5]

His sons Dembo Konte and Sherrifo Konteh (sic) live in Brikama, Gambia. Two LP recordings have been released of Alhaji Bai Konte with Dembo Konte and Malamini Jobarteh (Ma Lamin Jobarteh). Jali Sherrifo Konteh has released two CDs, 'Mansalou' and 'Chesano', and tours the UK most years.

Discography[link]

• 1973 - Konte, Alhaji Bai. Alhaji Bai Konte: Kora Melodies from The Republic of the Gambia, West Africa. Recorded and produced by Marc D. Pevar; photography and notes by Marc and Susan Pever. Rounder Records 5001.
• c. 1978 - Gambia's Music/La musique de al Gambie/Gambias Musik. Ethnic Folkways Library. Recorded and produced by Marc D. Pevar; introductory notes by Susan Gunn Pevar. [New York City]: Folkways Records FE 4521.
• 1979 - Konte, Alhaji Bai, with Dembo Konte and Ma Lamini Jobate. Gambian Griot Kora Duets. Recorded December 1977 in Dakar, Senegal, and Brikama, The Gambia, by Marc Pevar. New York City: Folkways. Re-released on CD by Smithsonian Folkways Records in 1999.

1982 - with Dembo Konte & Malamini Jobarteh, Kora Music and Songs from The Gambia, recorded/produced Ken Day & Lucy Duran, 1982, Virgin Records

• 1989 - Konte, Alhaji Bai. Kora Melodies From the Republic of the Gambia, West Africa. Recorded in 1973 by Marc D. Pevar. Originally released in 1973, and works 1-10 were issued also in 1985 as analog disc (5001). Somerville, Massachusetts: Rounder Records.
• 2001 - Konteh, Sherrifo. Mansalou. Compound Sounds CS01.
• 2005 - Konteh, Sherrifo. Chesano. Compound Sounds CS02.

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• IBDB.com info regarding note two
• Photo and audio of Alhaji Bai Konte, from Cora Connection site
• Biography of Jali Sherrifo Konteh on Compound Sounds web site; audio samples available on another page in that site.
• Jali Sherrifo Konteh's MySpace site with audio samples.

Categories[link]

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Mansa Sundiata Keita
Emperor of Imperial Mali
Reign	c 1235 – c 1255[1]
	Crowned Mansa after The Battle of Kirina : c 1235
Predecessor	Naré Maghann Konaté and Dankaran Touman both as Faamas (Kings in Mandinka language - pre-Imperial Mali. As a Mansa (King of Kings), preceeded by none).
Heir-apparent	Mansa Uli I
Issue
Mansa Wali Keita Mansa Ouati Keita Mansa Khalifa Keita Mansa Sundiata Keita also had daughters not just sons.
Full name
Mansa Sundiata Keita
House	The Royal House of Keita
Father	Naré Maghann Konaté
Mother	Sogolon Condé
Born	c 1217[2] Niani, part of present-day Mali
Religion	Traditional African religion

Sundiata Keita (IPA Mandinka, Malinke, Bambara: sʊndʒæta keɪta) (c 1217 – c 1255^[3]) was the founder of the Mali Empire and celebrated as a hero of the Mandinka people of West Africa in the semi-historical Epic of Sundiata. The epic of Sundiata is primarily known through oral tradition, transmitted by generations of Mandinka griots (djeli or jeliw).^[4]

The epic[link]

A modern balafon. The balafon plays an important role in the Epic of Sundiata. The magical balafon belonging to Soumaoro Kanté was stolen by Sundiata Keita's griot - Balla Fasséké and taken to Mandinka country.^[5][6]

Sundiata was the son of Naré Maghann Konaté (variation: Maghan Konfara) and Sogolon Condé (variations: "Sogolon Kolonkan" or "Sogolon Kédjou", the daughter of the "buffalo woman", so called because of her ugliness and hunchback).^[7] Sundiata was crippled from childhood and his mother (Songolon) was the subject of ridicule among her co-wives. She was constantly teased and ridiculed openly for her son's disability. That really affected Sundiata and he was determined to do everything he possibly could and walk like his peers. Through his determination, he one day miraculously got up and walk. Among his peers, he became their leader. His paternal half-brother Dankaran Touman was very cruel to him. Dankaran's mother (Sassouma Bereté) was also very cruel to Sundiata's mother and has always resented her. Their cruelty escalated after the death of Naré Maghann (the king). To escape such persecution, and the threat on her son's life, Sogolon took her children (Sundiata and his sisters) and they lived in exile. The exile lasted for many years which took them to different countries of the old Ghana Empire and lastly to Mema where the king of Mema granted them asylum. Sundiata was admired by the King of Mema for his courage and tenacity. As such, he was given a senior position within the kingdom. When King Soumaoro Kanté of Sosso conquered the Mandinka people, messengers were sent to go and look for Songolon and her children as Sundiata was destined to be a great leader before he was even born. It was in Mema that they found him and persuaded him to come back and liberate the Mandinkas and their homeland. On his return, he was accompanied by an army given to him by the King of Mema. The warlords of Mali at the time who were his age group included : Tabon Wana, Kamadia Kamara (or Kamadia Camara), Faony Condé, Siara Kuman Konaté and Tiramakhan Traore (many variations : "Trimaghan" or "Tiramaghan", future conqueror of Kaabu). It was on the plain of Siby (var: Sibi) where they formed a pact brotherhood in order to liberate their country and people from the powerful Sosso king. At The Battle of Kirina, Sundiata and his allies defeated the Sosso king and became the first Emperor of the Mali Empire. He was the first of the Mandinka line of kings to adopt the royal title Mansa (King of Kings in the Mandinka language).^[8][9]

The Mandinka epic does not give us dates, but Arab and North African historians or chronologists who have visited the area about a century after the event have provided some of the dates including a genealogy. The written sources have also left out some pieces of information which the oral tradition was able to fill-in.^[10]

Other names and etymology[link]

There are variations in the spelling of Sundiata Keita's name. He is also known by different names some of which are given below:

• Mari Djata I
• Songolon Djata
• Sundjata Keyita
• Mari Djata or "Mārī-Djāta" (according to Ibn Khaldun in the late 14th century)^[11]
• The Lion King^[12]

The proper English spelling of Sundiata's name is Sunjata pronounced: soon-jah-ta, which reflects the actual pronunciation and the Mandinka language. The name Sogolon derives from his mother and Jata means lion. It is the traditional way of praising someone in some West African societies (Gambia, Senegal, Mali and Guinea in particular). The name Sundiata praises him through his mother which means "the lion of Songolon" or "Songolon's lion". The name Jata derives from Jara (lion). Jara and many of its variations such as jata, jala or jada are merely regional variations for example Gambia, Guinea, Mali etc. Sundiata's name is thus a combination of his mother's name Songolon (Sun or its variation Son) and jata (lion).^[13][14]

Surname (Keita or Konaté?)[link]

Some Mandinkas have propose that, the name Keita actually means inheritor (heir-apparent) in the Mandinka language, and that Sundiata's real surname is Konaté (French spelling in Mali) or Konateh, variations: Konate, Conateh (English spelling in the Gambia where the Mandinkas make up the largest ethnic group). It is proposed that, Sundiata Keita's father, Naré Maghann Konaté took the real family name Konaté whilst his successors were "Keitas in waiting" (heirs to the throne).^[15] According to others, the name Keita is a clan name rather than a surname.^[16] Although in some West African societies a clan can be similar to the family name (see Joof family), such similarities do not exist between the names Keita and Konaté. Both points of contentious agree that, Keita is not a real surname, nevertheless Sundiata is referred to as Sundiata Keita is many scholarly works. At present, there is no consensus among the scholars regarding the name Sundiata Konaté.

Battle of Kirina and religion[link]

Terracotta Archer figure from Mali (13th-15th century), with a quiver on his back. The bow and quiver of arrows where the symbols of power in Imperial Mali.^[17]

Delafosse previously proposed that, Soumaoro Kanté's grandfather with the help of his army and the Sosso nobility of Kaniaga captured what was left of the sacked Ghana Empire, and by 1180, Diara Kanté (var: Jara Kante), Soumaoro's father gained control of Koumbi Saleh, dethroned a Muslim dynasty and continued the Diarisso Dynasty (varition : Jariso or Jarisso) whose son (Soumaoro) went on to succeed him and launched an offensive against the Mandinkas.^[18][19] Delafosse's original work have been refuted and discarded by many scholars including Monteil, Cornevin, etc. There was no Diara Kanté in the oral sources. That was an addition by Delafosee which was contrary to the original sources.^[20] The consensus is, in c 1235, Sundiata who had survived one of Soumaoro's earlier raids went to war with the help of his allies against King Soumaoro of Sosso. Although a valiant warrior, Soumaoro was defeated at The Battle of Kirina (c 1235).^[21] Soumaoro is regarded as one of the true champions of the Traditional African religion. According to Fyle, Soumaoro was the inventor of the balafon and the dan (a four-string guitar used by the hunters and griots).^[22] After his victory at Kirina, Sundiata took control of the former conquered states of the Sosso and appropriated privileges among those who participated in the defeath of Soumaoro. The former allies of Soumaoro were also later defeated, in particular the king of Jolof. Serer oral tradition speaks of a Serer king of Jolof, involved in the occult (just as Soumaoro), who was later defeated by Tiramakhan Traore (one of the generals of Sundiata) after Sundiata sent his men to buy horses in Jolof. It is reported that, when Sundiata sent his men to Jolof to buy horses in a caravan loaded with gold, the king of Jolof took all the gold and horses - known among some as "the rubbery of the horses". In a revenge attack, Sundiata sent his general to Jolof to assassinate the king.^[23] It is believed that, it was probably this king of Jolof (known as Mansa Jolofing or Jolofing Mansa) who sided with Soumaoro at The Battle of Kirina^[24] and possibly belongs to the Ngom Dynasty of Jolof, the predecessors of the Diaw and Ndiaye Dynasties of Jolof.^[25] At present, little is known about the Ngom Dynasty of Jolof.

Niane has advanced the claim that, the Jolofing Mansa sided with Sumaguru [or Soumaoro] because "like him, he was hostile to Islam." He went on to state that:

"He [the King of Jolof] confiscated Diata's [Sundiata's] horses and sent him a skin, saying that he should make shoes out of it since he was neither a hunter nor a king worthy to mount a horse."^[26]

Niane alludes to Sundiata being a Muslim. According to Fage, there is nothing in the original epos that supports the claim. There is little or no reference to Islam either. Sundiata is regarded as a great hunter and magician whose subjects predominantly adhered to the Traditional African religion and so did Sundiata, in order to gain their favours.^[27][28][29] The Mali Empire was not founded by a Muslim dynasty, but by non-Muslims, based on the tenets of Traditional African religion.^[30] Some of Sundiata's successors did became Muslims, Mansa Musa being one of the must celebrated.^[31]

Imperial Mali[link]

By the 14th century, the Mali Empire "extended from the Atlantic Ocean eastward along the Niger River valley to Hausaland (northern Nigeria)..." ^[32]

.

After his victory at Kirina, Mansa Sundiata established his capital at Niani, near the present-day Malian border with Guinea.^[33] Assisted by his generals, Tiramakhan being one of the most prominent, he went on to conquer other states. The lands of the old Ghana Empire were conquered. The king of Jolof was defeated by Tiramakhan and his kingdom reduced to a vassal state. After defeating the former ally of Soumaoro, Tiramakhan ventured deep into present-day Senegal, the Gambia and Guinea Bissau and conquered them. Tiramakhan was responsible for the conquest of the Senegambia.^[34] In Kaabu (part of present-day Guinea Bissau), he defeated the last great Bainuk king (King Kikikor) and annexed his state. The great Kikikor was killed and his kingdom was renamed Kaabu.^[35][36] Sundiata was responsible for the conquest of Diafunu and Kita.^[37] Although the conquered states were answerable to the Mansa (king of kings) of Mali, Sundiata was not an absolute monarch despite what the title implies. Though he probably wielded popular authority, the Mali Empire was reportedly run like a federation with each tribe having a chief representative at the court.^[38] The first tribes were Mandinka clans of Traore, Kamara, Koroma, Konde (or Conde), and of course Keita. The Great Gbara Assembly was in charge of checking the Mansa's power, enforcing his edicts among their people, and selecting the successor (usually the Mansa's son, brother or sister's son).^[39] The Empire flourished from the 13th to the late 14th century^[40] but began to decline as some vassal states throw away the yoke of Mali and regained their independence. Some of these former vassals went on to form empires of their own.^[41]

Death[link]

Mansa Sundiata Keita died in c 1255. This is generally the accepted year of death.^[42][43] There is however very little information regarding his cause of death. Not only are there different versions, mainly modern, but Mandinka tradition forbids disclosing the burial ground of their great kings.^[44][45] According to some, he died of drowning whilst trying to cross the Sankarani River, near Niani.^[46][47] If one is to believe Delafosse, he was "accidentally killed by an arrow during a ceremony."^[48] Others have maintained that, he was assassinated at a public demonstration.^[49] At present, the generally accepted cause of death is drowning in the Sankarani River, where a shrine that bears his name still remains today (Sundiata-dun meaning Sundiata's deap water).^[50] His three sons (Mansa Wali Keita, Mansa Ouati Keita and Mansa Khalifa Keita) went on to succeed him as Mansas of the Empire. The famous West African and ostentatious^[51] ruler Mansa Musa is his grandnephew.^[52]

Legacy[link]

A strong army was a major contributor to the success of Imperial Mali during the reign of Mansa Sundiata Keita.^[53] Credit to Mali's conquests cannot all be attributed to Sundiata Keita but equally shared among his generals, and in this, Tiramakhan Traore stood out as one of the elite generals and warlords of Sundiata's Imperial Mali.^[54] However, in a wider perspective of 13th century West African military history, Sundiata stood out as a great leader and a valiant warrior who was able to command the loyalties of his generals and army.^[55][56]

It was during his reign that Mali first began to gain fame and notoriety as well as economic strength, a strength that his successors such as Mansa Musa improved on thanks to the ground work set by Sundiata, who controlled the region's trade routes and gold fields.^[57] The social and political constitution of Mali were first codified during the reign of Mansa Sundiata Keita. Known as the Gbara and the Kouroukan Fouga, although not written and subject to alterations when they were first recorded in written form, they were part of the social and political norms of Mali. Many of these laws have been incorporated into the constitution of modern-day Mali.^[58]

Sundiata Keita was not merely a conqueror who was able to rule over a large empire with different tribes and languages, but also developed Mali's mechanisms for agriculture, and is reported to have introduced cotton and weaving in Mali.^[60] Towards the end of his reign, "absolute security" is reported to have "prevailed throughtout his dominion."^[61]

From a global perspective, the Epic of Sundiata and the Mali Empire is taught in many schools, colleges and universities, not just in West Africa but in many parts of the World.^[62][63][64] Some scholars like Ellen Snodgrass, etc. have observed similarities with the 13th century Epic of Sundiata to Walt Disney's 1994 animated film, "The Lion King" (the inspiration behind the The Lion King's franchises such as "Lion King, the musical", etc.).^[65] Disney has maintained that, the film was inspired by William Shakespeare's Hamlet.^[66]

See also[link]

	Mali portal
	Africa portal
	Monarchy portal
	History portal
	Military portal

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Snodgrass, Mary Ellen, Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire, p 77, Infobase Publishing, 2009, ISBN 1-4381-1906-2
• Conrad, David C. (1992), "Searching for History in the Sunjata Epic: The Case of Fakoli", History in Africa 19: 147–200, JSTOR 3171998 .
• Jansen, Jan (2001), "The Sunjata Epic: The Ultimate Version", Research in African Literatures 32 (1): 14–46, JSTOR 3820580 .
• Niane, D.T. (1965), Sundiata: an epic of old Mali, London: Longmans .

Further reading[link]

• Biebuyck, Daniel P. (1976), "The African Heroic Epic", Journal of Folklore Institute 13 (1): 5–36, JSTOR 3813812 .
• Bulman, Stephen (2004), "A school for epic? The école William Ponty and the evolution of the Sunjata epic, 1913-c. 1960", in Jansen, Jan; Mair, Henk M. J., Epic adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents, Münster: Lit Verlag, pp. 34–45, ISBN 3-8258-6758-7, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UJEyHSUy8GMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false .
• Conrad, David C. (1984), "Oral sources on links between great states: Sumanguru, Servile Lineage, the Jariso, and Kaniaga", History in Africa 11: 35–55, JSTOR 3171626 .
• Davidson, Basil (1995), Africa in History: Themes and Outlines, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-82667-4 .
• Gilbert, E.; Reynolds, J.T. (2004), Africa in World History: from prehistory to the present, Pearson Education, ISBN 0-13-092907-7 .
• Janson, Marloes (2004), "The narration of the Sunjata epic as gendered activity", in Jansen, Jan; Mair, Henk M.J., Epic adventures: Heroic Narrative in the Oral Performance Traditions of Four Continents, Münster: Lit Verlag, pp. 81–88, ISBN 3-8258-6758-7 .
• McKissack, Patricia; McKissack, Fredrick (1995), The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa, Sagebrush, ISBN 0-8050-4259-8 .
• Newton, Robert C. 2006. Of Dangerous Energy and Transformations: Nyamakalaya and the Sunjata Phenomenon. Research in African Literatures Vol. 37, No. 2: 15-33.
• Quiquandon, F. (1892), "Histoire de la puissance mandinque d' après la légende et la tradition" (in French), Bulletin de la Société de géographie commerciale de Bordeaux 15: 305–318, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1046920/f320 . One of first publications presenting a version of the Sundiata Epic.
• Tsaaior, James Tar (2010), "Webbed words: masked meanings: proverbiality and narrative/discursive startegies in D.T. Niane's Dundiata: An Epic of Mali", Proverbium 27: 339–362 .
• Waliński, Grzegorz (1991), "The image of the ruler as presented in the tradition about Sunjata", in Piłaszewicz, S.; Rzewuski, E., Unwritten Testimonies of the African Past. Proceedings of the International Symposium held in Ojrzanów n. Warsaw on 07-08 November 1989, Orientalia Varsoviensia 2, Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, http://www.orient.uw.edu.pl/web-kjika/images/stories/Testimonies/20_walinski.pdf .
• Published translations of the epic include D.T. Niane's prose version, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali (Harlow: Longman, 2006, 1994, c1965: ISBN 1-4058-4942-8), Fa-Digi Sisoko's oral version, Son-Jara : The Mande Epic (Bloomington, Ind. : Indiana University Press, 2003), Issiaka Diakite-Kaba's French-English diglot dramatized version Soundjata, Le Leon/Sunjata, The Lion (Denver: Outskirts Press and Paris: Les Editions l'Harmattan, 2010).

External links[link]

• webMande. The Mande Peoples, History and Civilization (mostly in French)
• PDF: Guide to Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali from the Boston University's African Studies Center
• Outline of the Sundiata epic by Janice Siegel
• Parallels between The Sundiata Epic and The Lord of The Rings A comparison of shared character traits between Sundiata and Aragorn the hero that is the prophesied king in Tolkien's novel.
• The True Lion King of Africa: The Epic History of Sundiata, King of Old Mali - Paper addresses parallels found between Disney's "The Lion King" and the Epic of Sundiata.
• Background information on Sundiata Sections include Geography, Religion, Society & Politics
• History of Mali With reference to Sundiata and his successors.