Property law is the area of law that governs the various forms of ownership and tenancy in real property (land as distinct from personal or movable possessions) and in personal property, within the common law legal system. In the civil law system, there is a division between movable and immovable property. Movable property roughly corresponds to personal property, while immovable property corresponds to real estate or real property, and the associated rights and obligations thereon.

The concept, idea or philosophy of property underlies all property law. In some jurisdictions, historically all property was owned by the monarch and it devolved through feudal land tenure or other feudal systems of loyalty and fealty.

Though the Napoleonic code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute, protection of personal property rights was present in medieval Islamic law and jurisprudence,^[1] and in more feudalist forms in the common law courts of medieval and early modern England.

Theory[link]

The word property, in everyday usage, refers to an object (or objects) owned by a person — a car, a book, or a cellphone — and the relationship the person has to it. In law, the concept acquires a more nuanced rendering. Factors to consider include the nature of the object, the relationship between the person and the object, the relationship between a number of people in relation to the object, and how the object is regarded within the prevailing political system. Most broadly and concisely, property in the legal sense refers to the rights of people in or over certain objects or things.^[2]

Early American theory[link]

James Wilson, U.S. Supreme Court Justice and professor of law at the University of Pennsylvania, in 1790 and 1791, undertook a survey of the philosophical grounds of American property law. He proceeds from two premises: “Every crime includes an injury: every injury includes a violation of a right.” (Lectures, III, ii.) The government’s role in protecting property depends upon an idea of right. Wilson traces the history of property in his essay "On the History of Property." In his lecture, "Of the natural rights of individuals" (Lectures II, xii), he articulates related contemporary theory.

That theory was brought to a focus on the question of whether man exists for the sake of government, or government for the sake of man – a distinction which may derive from, or lead to, the question of natural and absolute rights, and whether property is one of them. While he doubts this is so, he nonetheless states: “In his unrelated state, man has a natural right to his property, to his character, to liberty, and to safety.” James Wilson asks whether “the primary and principal object in the institution of government… was… to acquire new rights by human establishment? Or was it, by a human establishment, to acquire a new security for the possession or the recovery of those rights….?” He indicates a preference for the latter.

In the opening sentence of "On the History of Property," he states quite clearly: “Property is the right or lawful power, which a person has to a thing.” He then divides the right into three degrees: possession, the lowest; possession and use; and, possession, use, and disposition – the highest. Further, he states: “Man is intended for action. Useful and skilful industry is the soul of an active life. But industry should have her just reward. That reward is property, for of useful and active industry, property is the natural result.” From this simple reasoning he is able to present the conclusion that exclusive, as opposed to communal property, is to be preferred. Wilson does, however, give a survey of communal property arrangements in history, not only in colonial Virginia but also ancient Sparta.

Non-legally recognized or documented property rights are known as informal property rights. These informal property rights are non-codified or documented, but recognized among local residents to varying degrees. Priority

Different parties may claim an interest in property by mistake or fraud, with the claims being inconsistent of each other. For example, the party creating or transferring an interest may have a valid title, but intentionally or negligently creates several interests wholly or partially inconsistent with each other. A court resolves the dispute by adjudicating the priorities of the interests. but according to the Indian property law it define the ‘Transfer of property’ means an act by which a living person conveys property, in present or in future, to one or more other living persons, or to himself and one or more other living persons; and "to transfer property" is to perform such act. In this section "living person includes a company or association or body of individuals, whether incorporated or not, but nothing herein contained shall affect any law for the time being in force relating to transfer of property to or by companies, associations or bodies of individuals

John Hardy from the Legal institute of England stated "For the title to be valid, we must incorporate the company or association for the living" This statement has been used thoroughly

Property rights and rights to people[link]

Property rights are rights over things enforceable against all other persons. By contrast, contractual rights are rights enforceable against particular persons. Property rights may, however, arise from a contract; the two systems of rights overlap. In relation to the sale of land, for example, two sets of legal relationships exist alongside one another: the contractual right to sue for damages, and the property right exercisable over the land. More minor property rights may be created by contract, as in the case of easements, covenants, and equitable servitudes.

A separate distinction is evident where the rights granted are insufficiently substantial to confer on the nonowner a definable interest or right in the thing. The clearest example of these rights is the license. In general, even if licenses are created by a binding contract, they do not give rise to property interests.

Property rights and personal rights[link]

Property rights are also distinguished from personal rights. Practically all contemporary societies acknowledge this basic ontological and ethical distinction. In the past, groups lacking political power have often been disqualified from the benefits of property. In an extreme form, this has meant that people have become "objects" of property—legally "things" or chattels. (See slavery.) More commonly, marginalized groups have been denied legal rights to own property. These include Jews in England and married women in Western societies until the late 19th century.

The dividing line between personal rights and property rights is not always easy to draw. For instance, is one's reputation property that can be commercially exploited by affording property rights to it? The question of the proprietary character of personal rights is particularly relevant in the case of rights over human tissue, organs and other body parts.

There have been recent cases of women being subordinated to the fetus, through the imposition of unwanted caesarian sections. English judges have recently made the point that such women lack the right to exclusive control over their own bodies, formerly considered a fundamental common-law right. In the United States, a "quasi-property" interest has been explicitly declared in the dead body. Also in the United States, it has been recognised that people have an alienable proprietary "right of publicity" over their "persona". The patent\patenting of biotechnological processes and products based on human genetic material may be characterised as creating property in human life.

A particularly difficult question is whether people have rights to intellectual property developed by others from their body parts. In the pioneering case on this issue, the Supreme Court of California held in Moore v. Regents of the University of California (1990) that individuals do not have such a property right.

Classification[link]

Property law is characterised by a great deal of historical continuity and technical terminology. The basic distinction in common law systems is between real property (land) and personal property (chattels).

Before the mid-19th century, the principles governing the devolution of real property and personal property on an intestacy were quite different. Though this dichotomy does not have the same significance anymore, the distinction is still fundamental because of the essential differences between the two categories. An obvious example is the fact that land is immovable, and thus the rules that govern its use must differ. A further reason for the distinction is that legislation is often drafted employing the traditional terminology.

The division of land and chattels has been criticised as being not satisfactory as a basis for categorising the principles of property law since it concentrates attention not on the proprietary interests themselves but on the objects of those interests.^[3] Moreover, in the case of fixtures, chattels which are affixed to or placed on land may become part of the land.

Real property is generally sub-classified into:

1. corporeal hereditaments – tangible real property (land)
2. incorporeal hereditaments – intangible real property such as an easement of way

Possession[link]

The concept of possession developed from a legal system whose principal concern was to avoid civil disorder. The general principle is that a person in possession of land or goods, even as a wrongdoer, is entitled to take action against anyone interfering with the possession unless the person interfering is able to demonstrate a superior right to do so.

In England, the Torts Act of 1977 has significantly amended the law relating to wrongful interference with goods and abolished some longstanding remedies and doctrines.

Transfer of property[link]

The most usual way of acquiring an interest in property is as the result of a consensual transaction with the previous owner, for example, a sale or a gift. Dispositions by will may also be regarded as consensual transactions, since the effect of a will is to provide for the distribution of the deceased person's property to nominated beneficiaries. A person may also obtain an interest in property under a trust established for his or her benefit by the owner of the property.

It is also possible for property to pass from one person to another independently of the consent of the property owner. For example, this occurs when a person dies intestate, goes bankrupt, or has the property taken in execution of a court judgment.

Priority[link]

Different parties may claim an interest in property by mistake or fraud, with the claims being inconsistent of each other. For example, the party creating or transferring an interest may have a valid title, but intentionally or negligently creates several interests wholly or partially inconsistent with each other. A court resolves the dispute by adjudicating the priorities of the interests. but according to the Indian property law it define the ‘Transfer of property’ means an act by which a living person conveys property, in present or in future, to one or more other living persons, or to himself and one or more other living persons; and "to transfer property" is to perform such act. In this section "living person includes a company or association or body of individuals, whether incorporated or not, but nothing herein contained shall affect any law for the time being in force relating to transfer of property to or by companies, associations or bodies of individuals

John Hardy from the Legal institute of England stated "For the title to be valid, we must incorporate the company or association for the living" This statement has been used thoroughly.

Lease[link]

Historically, leases served many purposes, and the regulation varied according to intended purposes and the economic conditions of the time. Leaseholds, for example, were mainly granted for agriculture until the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, when the growth of cities made the leasehold an important form of landholding in urban areas.

The modern law of landlord and tenant in common law jurisdictions retains the influence of the common law and, particularly, the laissez-faire philosophy that dominated the law of contract and the law of property in the 19th century. With the growth of consumerism, the law of consumer protection recognised that common law principles assuming equal bargaining power between parties may cause unfairness. Consequently, reformers have emphasised the need to assess residential tenancy laws in terms of protection they provide to tenants. Legislation to protect tenants is now common.

See also[link]

• Claim club
• Conversion (law)
• Detinue
• Escheat
• Rei vindicatio
• Replevin
• Trover
• Infectious invalidity

Notes[link]

References[link]

• AA Berle, 'Property, Production and Revolution' (1965) 65 Columbia Law Review 1
• Edwin Fruehwald, "A Biological Basis of Rights," 19 Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal 195 (2010).
• Jeremy Waldron (2004-09-06). "Property(Moveable and Immoveable Property)". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/property/. 

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Alexander Johnson (born December 7, 1942, in Helena, Arkansas is a former professional baseball player. He was an outfielder and designated hitter over parts of 13 seasons with the Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Cincinnati Reds, California Angels, Cleveland Indians, Texas Rangers, New York Yankees and Detroit Tigers. While playing for Cincinnati in 1968 and 1969, he batted over .300 both times, finishing 4th and 6th, respectively, in batting average in the National League. However, in both years, he led National League outfielders in errors. Following the 1969 season, Johnson was traded with Chico Ruiz to the California Angels for pitchers Pedro Borbon‚ Jim McGlothlin, and Vern Geishert. Johnson had his best season in 1970, winning the American League batting title by a fraction of a percentage point over Carl Yastrzemski of the Boston Red Sox, although he led league outfielders in errors and was 2nd in grounding out into double plays. He played with 4 other teams before retiring, always with a potent bat but being a liability in the field.

Johnson turned down many football scholarships to pursue his dream of baseball. His brother, Ron, was a running back, notably for the New York Giants.

After Johnson retired he lived in Detroit and took over Johnson Trucking Service, which was founded by his father, Arthur Johnson, in the 1940s. ^[1]

See also[link]

• List of Major League Baseball batting champions

References[link]

External links[link]

• Career statistics and player information from Baseball-Reference
• Baseball Library
• SABR BioProject - Alex Johnson

This biographical article relating to an American baseball outfielder born in the 1940s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Mark Thomas Lawrenson (born 2 June 1957) is a former professional football player, a defender in the Liverpool and Irish football teams of the 1980s. He began his career playing for third and second league teams, after five years he graduated to the premier league where he stayed for the remaining ten years of his career. After a short career as a manager, he has since became a radio, television and internet pundit for the BBC and Today FM. He was born in England, but played for the Republic of Ireland because his grandfather Thomas Crotty was born in Waterford. He is married to third wife, Susie, and has two children, Sam and Ruby.

Football career[link]

Preston and Brighton[link]

Mark Lawrenson was born in Penwortham and attended Preston Catholic College, a Jesuit school. His father, Tom, had been a winger for Preston North End. He always wanted to be a footballer, although his mother, Theresa, wanted him to become a priest.^[1] He began his career, as a 17 year-old, with his hometown club, Preston North End in 1974 who were then managed by World Cup winner Bobby Charlton. After Preston coach (and former Irish international goalkeeper) Alan Kelly became aware of the young player's Irish connections (and informed Irish international manager Johnny Giles), Lawrenson's solid performances earned him a call-up to the Republic of Ireland national squad, winning the first of 39 international caps at the age of 19. He made his debut on 24 April 1977 at Dalymount Park in a friendly with Poland, the game ended 0–0. Lawrenson's season was made complete when he was voted Preston's Player of the Year for the 1976/77 season.

After 73 league appearances for the Deepdale club he moved to Alan Mullery's Brighton & Hove Albion in the summer before the start of the 1977/78 season for £100,000, ironically, they outbid Liverpool who also showed interest in the 19 year-old Lawrenson. Lawrenson made his Brighton debut on 20 August 1977 in a 1–1 draw against Southampton at The Dell. He settled in at the Goldstone Ground and made 40 league appearances by the end of his first season of the club. He went on to make 152 league appearances by the end of 1980/81, However the club entered a financial crisis in 1981 and Lawrenson was forced to leave the club to make funds available. Many clubs were interested in signing Lawrenson after his resilient performances for both Preston and Brighton, but it was Liverpool manager Bob Paisley who, finally, got his signature.

Liverpool[link]

Liverpool offered a club transfer record of £900,000, and Lawrenson joined in the summer of 1981. He was to form a formidable central defensive partnership with Alan Hansen after Phil Thompson suffered an injury, although he was also used frequently at full back or in midfield.

Lawrenson made his first start for the team at left-back in a 1–0 league defeat at the hands of Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 29 August 1981.^[2] He scored his first goal a month later during the 7–0 European Cup 1st round 2nd leg trouncing of Finnish team Oulun Palloseura at Anfield on 30 September. Lawrenson came on for Ray Kennedy in the 64th minute scoring in the 72nd. Also coming off the bench to score his first goal for the club was Ian Rush.

In Lawrenson's first season, Liverpool won the League championship and the League Cup before retaining both for another two seasons, becoming only the third club in history to win three titles in a row. They also added the club's fourth European Cup in 1984, the last time Liverpool would win this honour until 2005.

Lawrenson then dislocated his shoulder about three weeks before the 1985 European Cup final, the Heysel Stadium Disaster. He started the game but took a knock after a few minutes and had to be substituted.^[3]

Lawrenson earned a reputation as an accomplished player although he was often called a chopper by his Liverpool teammates and fans alike. In doing so Liverpool rose above derby rivals Everton into second place in the league by just two points. Liverpool then came from behind to win 3–1 in the derby Cup final at Wembley. By now, Lawrenson's first team place was under serious threat from the younger Gary Gillespie. Lawrenson's partnership with team captain Hansen continued for one more season before he, already out through a minor injury, suffered Achilles tendon damage in 1988 which prematurely ended his career. He earned a fifth and final title medal when that season ended.

His Liverpool career ended after 332 appearances and 18 goals in all competitions – one of which was the "forgotten fifth" in a 5–0 thumping of Merseyside rivals Everton on 6 November 1982, a game in which Ian Rush took most of the headlines by scoring four of the five goals and a place in Anfield folklore.

In 1989, he spent one season with the Tampa Bay Rowdies in the American Soccer League.^[4]

Management[link]

After his time at Liverpool, he was appointed Oxford United manager in 1988. His time at the club was frustrating and he resigned after star striker Dean Saunders was sold by the board of directors, without Lawrenson's approval.

Over that winter, he made a playing comeback in the GM Vauxhall Conference, making two appearances for Barnet.

Lawrenson also managed Peterborough United from 6 September 1989 until 9 November 1990. However, his spell in charge was mostly unsuccessful, even though he was popular amongst the younger players.

Media career[link]

Lawrenson began his television career providing match analysis on HTV West's local football coverage,^[5] before working as a pundit for the BBC but then left briefly to become a coach specialising in defensive tactics for Kevin Keegan at Newcastle United. However, the position was again short-lived and he returned to media work. He has since become established as a pundit and commentator, both on BBC television and radio coverage, often finding himself sitting alongside his former defensive partner, Alan Hansen, and, since the departure from the BBC of Trevor Brooking, he has assumed the main co-commentator on major national and international (FIFA) matches covered by the television network. He appears regularly on Football Focus and Match of the Day.

He is also often a co-commentator on BBC Radio Five Live, often working on the feature matches on Sunday afternoons. He previously worked as a pundit for TV3 between 2001-2007 in Ireland for mid-week Champions League games alongside Welsh national (FA) team manager and former Liverpool striker, John Toshack. When the Champions League returned to TV3 in 2010 he no longer provided punditry, instead he was replaced by Tony Cascarino and Martin Keown but he moved into the commentary box alongside TV3 Commentator Trevor Welsh. He works on Today FM on Premiership Live with presenter Michael McMullan in talking about football related topics, predicting scores and stating facts, usually he does this between 2pm and 3pm on a Saturday afternoon. He also has a column on the BBC website where he gives his views and predictions on the Premier League's weekend fixtures.

Lawro appeared on The Russell Howard & Jon Richardson show on BBC 6 Music in a feature called "Lawro's Top Three" where he randomly chooses 3 objects or items and the presenters have to guess which order his top 3 go in.

One of his most memorable moments as a pundit was when he shaved off his trademark moustache after betting on Football Focus that Bolton would be relegated from the Premiership in the 2001–2002 season.^[6] He was ultimately proved wrong by Sam Allardyce's team and kept his word by shaving off the moustache.

He also writes a regular Preston North End column for the University of Central Lancashire's Students' Union newspaper, Pluto, and a weekly column for the Liverpool Daily Post newspaper. He worked with Japanese entertainment company Konami, recording commentary samples for the Pro Evolution Soccer series, alongside ITV commentator Jon Champion, from PES 2008 to PES 2010. He is to be replaced by ITV pundit Jim Beglin for PES 2011.^[7]

^[8]

Honours[link]

• Brighton & Hove Albion F.C
  • Football League Division Two (level 2) runners-up (1979)
• Liverpool F.C
  • 5 Football League Division One (Level 1) winners medals (1982, 1983, 1984, 1986 and 1988)
  • FA Cup winners medal (1986)
  • European Cup winners medal (1984)
  • 3 League Cup winners medals (1982, 1983 and 1984)
  • 2 Charity Shield winners medals (1982 and 1986 (shared))
  • Runners-up
    • 2x Football League Division One (1985 and 1987)
    • European Cup (1985)
    • League Cup (1987)
    • World Club Championship (1985)
    • 2 Charity Shield (1983 and 1984)

Managerial statistics[link]

^[9]

Team	Nat	From	To	Record
				G	W	D	L	Win %
Oxford United		24 March 1988	25 October 1988	&1000000000000002500000025	&100000000000000040000004	&100000000000000090000009	&1000000000000001200000012	&1000000000000001600000016.00
Peterborough United		6 September 1989	9 November 1990	&1000000000000006400000064	&1000000000000002500000025	&1000000000000002300000023	&1000000000000001600000016	&1000000000000003906000039.06

Career statistics[link]

[1]

References[link]

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2009)

External links[link]

• Official past players at liverpoolfc.tv
• Player profile at LFChistory.net
• Brighton seasonal record 1977/1978-1980/1981 at Sporting-heroes.net
• Liverpool seasonal record (part 1) 1981/1982-1983/1984 at Sporting-heroes.net
• Liverpool seasonal record (part 2) 1984/1985-1987/1988 at Sporting-heroes.net
• Republic of Ireland international record 1977/1987 at Sporting-heroes.net
• Mark Lawrenson management career stats at Soccerbase
• Lawrenson's BBC column.
• "Who's Who" recognition

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011)

Jack Valenti
Jack Valenti
Born	(1921-09-05)September 5, 1921 Houston, Texas, United States
Died	April 26, 2007(2007-04-26) (aged 85) Washington, D.C., United States
Alma mater	University of Houston Harvard University
Occupation	President of the MPAA, Special Assistant to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson

Jack Joseph Valenti (September 5, 1921 – April 26, 2007) was a longtime president of the Motion Picture Association of America. During his 38-year tenure in the MPAA, he created the MPAA film rating system, and he was generally regarded as one of the most influential pro-copyright lobbyists in the world.

Early life[link]

Valenti was born in Houston, Texas, USA, on September 5, 1921, the son of Italian immigrants. During World War II, he was a lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps, flew 51 combat missions as the pilot-commander of a B-25 medium bomber and received four decorations.

Valenti was an alumnus of the University of Houston where he was awarded a B.B.A. in 1946. He later received an M.B.A. from Harvard University. During his time at UH, Valenti worked on The Daily Cougar newspaper staff, and served as president of the university's student government. Valenti would later serve on the university's board of regents, and became the School of Communication's namesake when it was renamed to the Jack J. Valenti School of Communication in April 2008. In 2002, the university also awarded him an honorary doctorate.

In 1952, he co-founded "Weekley & Valenti", an advertising/political consulting agency.

Political career[link]

Valenti (far left) was present at Lyndon B. Johnson's swearing in aboard Air Force One.

Valenti's agency was in charge of^{[clarification needed]} the press during the November 1963 visit of President John F. Kennedy and Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson to Dallas, Texas. Following the assassination of President Kennedy, Valenti was present in the famous photograph of Lyndon Johnson's swearing in aboard Air Force One, and rode with the new president to Washington. He then became the first "special assistant" to Johnson's White House and lived in the White House for the first two months of Johnson's presidency.^[1] In 1964, Johnson gave Valenti the responsibility to handle relations with the Republican Congressional leadership, particularly Gerald Ford and Charles Halleck from the House and Senator Everett Dirksen.^[2]