A selection of modern coins

Numismatics

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A coin is a piece of hard material that is standardized in weight, is produced in large quantities in order to facilitate trade, and primarily can be used as a legal tender.

Coins are usually metal or a metallic material and sometimes made of synthetic materials, usually in the shape of a disc, and most often issued by a government. Coins are used as a form of money in transactions of various kinds, from the everyday circulation coins to the storage of large numbers of bullion coins. In the present day, coins and banknotes make up currency, the cash forms of all modern money systems. Coins made for paying bills and general monetized use are usually used for lower-valued units, and banknotes for the higher values; also, in many money systems, the highest value coin made for circulation is worth less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the face value of circulation coins has usually been higher than the gross value of the metal used in making them; exceptions occurring when inflation causes the metal value to surpass the face value, causing the minting authority to change the composition and the old coins to begin to disappear from circulation (see Gresham's Law.) However, this has generally not been the case throughout the rest of history for circulation coins made of precious metals.

Exceptions to the rule of coin face-value being higher than content value, also occur for some bullion coins made of silver or gold (and, rarely, other metals, such as platinum or palladium), intended for collectors or investors in precious metals. Examples of modern gold collector/investor coins include the American Gold Eagle minted by the United States, the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf minted by Canada, and the Krugerrand, minted by South Africa. The American Gold Eagle has a face value of US$50, and the Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins also have nominal (purely symbolic) face values (e.g., C$50 for 1 oz.); but the Krugerrand does not.

Historically, a great number of coinage metals (including alloys) and other materials have been used practically, artistically, and experimentally in the production of coins for circulation, collection, and metal investment, where bullion coins often serve as more convenient stores of assured metal quantity and purity than other bullion.^[1]

Coins have long been linked to the concept of money, as reflected by the fact that in some other languages the words "coin" and "currency" are synonymous. Fictional currencies may also bear the name coin (as such, an item may be said to be worth 123 coin or 123 coins).

The value of a coin[link]

In terms of its value as a collector's item, a coin is generally made more or less valuable by its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality/beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. Bullion coins are also valued based on these factors, but are largely valued based on the value of the gold or silver in them. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these value numbers are not market but fiat values.

Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat (law), and thus is determined by the free market only inasmuch as national currencies are subjected to various types of foreign exchange markets in international trade. This causes such coins to be monetary tokens in the same sense that paper currency is, when the paper currency is not backed directly by metal, but rather by a government guarantee of international exchange of goods or services. Some have suggested that such coins not be considered to be "true coins" (see below). However, because fiat money is backed by government guarantee of a certain amount of goods and services, where the value of this is in turn determined by free market currency exchange rates, similar to the case for the international market exchange values which determines the value of metals which back commodity money, in practice there is very little economic difference between the two types of money (types of currencies).

Coins may be minted that have fiat values lower than the value of their component metals, but this is never done intentionally and initially for circulation coins, and happens only in due course later in the history of coin production due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the fiat declared face value of the coin. Examples of this phenomenon include the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar, US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, coated with 2.5% copper. Extreme differences between fiat values and metal values of coins causes coins to be removed from circulation by illicit smelters interested in the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's Law. In fact, the United States Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.^[2] Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.

First coins[link]

Herodotus states (I, 94) that the Lydians 'were the first to coin in gold and silver'. Aristotle states that the first coins were struck by Demodike of Kyme, of Ancient Greece, who had married Midas, king of Pessinus, and had by him a son named Agamemnon.^[3]

Greek drachma of Aegina. Obverse: Land Chelone / Reverse: ΑΙΓ(INA) and dolphin. The oldest Aegina Chelone coins depicted sea turtles and were minted ca. 700-550 BC.

Some archaeological and literary evidences suggest that the Indians invented coinage, somewhere between the 6th to 5th century BC.^[4] However, some numismatists consider coins to have originated ca. 600-550 BC in Anatolia, which corresponds to modern-day Turkey, in particular in the Anatolian kingdom of Lydia.^[5][6] Opponents of the Lydia scenario point to the fact that coins of that era have been totally absent from archeological finds in Sardis, capital of Lydia.^[7] A coin, by definition, is an object used to facilitate commerce and exchanges. The proponents of the Lydian Greek coins scenario admit the fact that they were likely not used in commerce or industry. Electrum coins were not standardized in weight and are considered by opponents as badges, medals or ceremonial objects issued by priests,^[8] rather than coins (actually the oldest of them have been discovered not in Lydia, but in an ancient Greek temple of Ephesos, a city colony built by the ancient Greeks in what is now Turkey).

The oldest coins are considered by other numismatists to be the Aegina Chelone coins which were minted ca. 700-550 BC, either by the local Aegina people or by Pheidon king of Argos (who first set the standards of weights and measures). In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, there is a unique electrum stater of Aegina. The date of this coin can hardly be much later than about B.C. 700.^[9]

The Ancient Greeks spread the Anatolia practice (or vice versa) and extended it to commerce and trade. Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.^[10]

The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold that was further alloyed with added silver and copper.^[11] Many early Lydian and Greek coins were undoubtedly minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than true coins, though because of their numbers it's evident that some were official state issues, with King Alyattes of Lydia being a frequently mentioned originator of coinage.^[12]

Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, called a "legend" or "inscription", only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore the dating of these coins relies primarily on archeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). The fact that the oldest lion head coins were discovered in that temple, and the fact that they were not used in commerce, strengthens the scenario that these coins found there may have actually been badges or medals that were issued by the priests of the temple of Artemis, and the name of the person who received the badge or medal was inscribed on it. Artemis in Anatolia was named Potnia Theron, which is translated as "mistress of the animals", and her symbol was the lion and the tiger.

A small percentage of early Lydian Greek coins have a legend.^[13]

Set of three roman aurei depicting the rulers of the Flavian dynasty. Top to bottom: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. 69-96 AD.

A famous early electrum coin, the most ancient inscribed coin at present known, is from nearby Caria, Asia Minor. This coin has a Greek legend reading "Phaenos emi sema" ^[14] which can be translated either as "I am the badge of Phanes" or as "I am the sign of light" ^[15] or maybe "I am the tomb of light" or "I am the tomb of Phanes". The celebrated coins of Phanes are known to be amongst the earliest of Greek coins, a hemihekte of the issue was found in the famous foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (this deposit is considered the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a wealthy merchant, another that this coin is associated with Apollo-Phanes and, due to the Deer, with Artemis (twin sister of the god of light Apollo-Phaneos). Although only seven Phanes type coins were discovered, it is also notable that 20% of all early electrum coins also have the Lion (symbol of Artemis-Potnia Theron) and the sun burst (symbol of Apollo-Phaneos). Alternatively it is stated ^[16] that the inscribed Phanes maybe was the Halicarnassian mercenary of Amasis, mentioned by Herodotus,^[17] who escaped to the court of Cambyses, and became his guide in the invasion of Egypt in the year B.C. 527 or 525. According to Herodotus, this Phanes was buried alive by a sandstorm, together with 50000 Persian soldiers, while trying to conquer the temple of Amun–Zeus in Egypt.^[18] The fact that the Greek word "Phanes" also means light (or lamp), and the word "sema" also means tomb,^[19] makes this coin a famous and controversial one.^[20]

Another possible candidate for first metal coins come from China. The earliest known Chinese metal tokens were made ca. 900 BC, discovered in a tomb near Anyang.^[21][22] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese money, cowry shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.^[23][24][25]

Most numismatists, however, regard these as well as later Chinese bronzes that were replicas of knives, spades, and hoes as money but not as coins because they did not at least initially carry a mark or marks certifying them to be of a definite exchange value.^[26]

Along with Anatolia and China, India also played a major part in the development of coinage. The first Indian coins were minted around the 6th century BC by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The coins of this period were punch marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.^[27] The Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara,^[28] Kuntala,^[29] Kuru,^[30] Panchala,^[31] Shakya,^[32] Surasena,^[33] and Surashtra.^[34]

The earliest coins made of pure gold and silver were made by King Croesus of Lydia, son of Alyattes. Shortly afterward in the same region gold "darics" and silver "sigloi" were issued by the Achaemenid Empire of the Persians.

The first European coins are regarded as having been minted ca. 550 BC in Aegina, an island in the Aegean Sea, with coins of Athens and Corinth soon following.^[35] The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued ca. 289 BC.^[36] The first European coin to use Arabic numerals to date the year in which the coin was minted was the Swiss 1424 St. Gallen silver Plappart.^[37]

Coin debasement[link]

Throughout history, governments have been known to create more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" their money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement sometimes occurs in order to make the coin harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation unless price controls are also instituted by the governing authority, in which case a black market will often arise.

The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is 25 cents, a low value for the largest denomination coin compared to other countries. Recent increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc, mean that both the US one- and five-cent coins are now worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) now contain about two cents worth of copper. Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of half a cent, two cents, three cents,and twenty cents. (The Half Dollar and Dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) The United States also used to coin the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five cent coins were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollars were also much larger and weighed approximately an ounce. One dollar coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The U.S. also has bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100.

Other uses[link]

Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts".^[38] A number of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.

Features of modern coins[link]

1884 United States Trade Dollar

Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping", by which persons would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to form new coins.^[39] Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's Law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally.^[40] Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping.

Traditionally, the side of a coin carrying a bust of a monarch or other authority, or a national emblem, is called the obverse, or colloquially, heads; see also List of people on coins. The other side is called the reverse, or colloquially, tails. However, the rule is violated in some cases.^[41] Another rule is that the side carrying the year of minting is the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, and all Japanese coins, are exceptions.

In cases where a correctly oriented coin is flipped vertically to show the other side correctly oriented, the coin is said to have coin orientation. In cases where a coin is flipped horizontally to show the other side, it is said to have medallic orientation. While coins of the United States Dollar are coin orientated, those of the Euro and British Pound are medallic.

Bi-metallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating examples include the €1, €2, British £2 and Canadian $2.

The exergue is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or containing a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny.

Not all coins are round. The Australian 50 cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. A twist on it is wavy edges, found in the two dollar and the twenty cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10 cent coins of Bahamas. Some coins have also been issued in the shape of a square, such as the 15 cent coin of the Bahamas. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves.

Some other coins, like the British Fifty pence coin and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognisable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted.

A triangular coin with a face value of five pounds (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man, it became legal tender on 6 December 2007.^[42] Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin.^[43]

3 Russian Rubles coin minted in 2008.

Guitar-shaped coins were once issued in Somalia. Poland once issued a fan-shaped 10 złoty coin and the 2002 $10 coin from Nauru, was Europe-shaped.^[44]

Some mediaeval coins, called bracteates, were so thin they were struck on only one side.

The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan, was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image.

The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are coloured, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a coloured poppy on the reverse of a 25 cent piece.

For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals.^[45]

Physics[link]

Flipping[link]

Coins are popularly used as a sort of two-sided die; in order to choose between two options with a random possibility, one choice will be labeled heads and the other tails, and a coin will be flipped or tossed to see whether the heads or tails side comes up on top – see coin flipping. Mathematically, this is known as a Bernoulli trial: a fair coin is defined to have the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") of exactly 0.5. Coins are sometimes falsified to make one side weigh more, in order to simulate a fair type of coin which is actually not fair. Such a coin is said to be weighted.

Spinning[link]

Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3.^[46]

Gallery[link]

• 

  King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546 BC.

• 

  Persian Achaemenid Daric, circa 490BC

• 

  Reverse of a silver Tetradrachm from Athens, circa 480-420 BC.

• 

  Set of 5 sword coins produced by the Yan State, 4th century-222 BC.

• 

  Bactrian Drachm minted circa 185-170 BC.

• 

  Indian coin showing Karttikeya and Lakshmi, circa 75 BC.

• 

  A bronze coin of the Chinese Han Dynasty, circa 1st century BC.

• 

  Sestertius of Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, 238 AD.

• 

  Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, 688-700 AD.

• 

  Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, 729 AD.

• Wildermann thaler.jpg

  Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629.

• 

  Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, circa 1736-1741.

• 

  1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin, minted throughout the Spanish Empire as of 1497.

• 

  Coin with Actual Piece of Concorde Heat Shield in it, Tristan da Cunha

• 

  Historic Coins found in Failaka Island, Kuwait

• 

  One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835

See also[link]

Numismatics portal

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Coins

• Angus, Ian. Coins & Money Tokens. London: Ward Lock, 1973. ISBN 0-7063-1811-0

Gerard Butler
Gerard Butler at the Berlin Film Festival 2011
Born	Gerard James Butler (1969-11-13) 13 November 1969 (age 42) Paisley, Scotland
Occupation	Actor/singer
Years active	1997–present

Gerard James Butler (born 13 November 1969) is a Scottish actor who has appeared on film, stage, and television. A trained lawyer, Butler turned to acting in the mid-1990s with small roles in productions such as the James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies (1997), which he followed with steady work on television, most notably in the American miniseries Attila (2001). He garnered critical acclaim for his work as the lead in Joel Schumacher's 2004 film adaptation of the musical The Phantom of the Opera. In 2007, Butler gained recognition through his portrayal of King Leonidas in the film 300. Since then, he has appeared in projects including P.S. I Love You (2007), Nim's Island (2008), RocknRolla (2008), The Ugly Truth (2009), Gamer (2009), Law Abiding Citizen (2009), The Bounty Hunter (2010), and as a voice actor in How to Train Your Dragon (2010).

Early life[link]

Butler was born in Paisley, which is in Renfrewshire, Scotland,^[1] the youngest of three children of Margaret and Edward Butler, a bookmaker.^[2][3][4] Of Irish descent,^[5] he was brought up in a strict Roman Catholic family.^[6] Butler spent the first few years of his life in Montreal, Quebec,^[7] before the family returned to live in Scotland.^[8]

His mother Margret Butler returned from Quebec when her marriage broke down, when Gerard was aged 18 months.^[9] He attended High School in Paisley, achieved respectable grades - good enough to win a place at Glasgow University to study law - and rose to position of Head Boy at St Mirin's High School. He also attended Scottish Youth Theater whilst a teen. He did not see his father again until he was 16 years old, when Edward Butler called to meet him at a Glasgow restaurant. After this meeting, Butler cried for hours, and recalled of it later:

"That emotion showed me how much pain can sit in this body of yours; pain and sorrow that you don’t know you have until it is unleashed."^[9]

Butler came close to his father after this reunion, and accepted his offer to study law at Glasgow University. During his time as a student, he became the convener of the Law Society^[10] and sang in a rock band called Speed.^[11][12] He would ultimateley graduate with a 2-2 LLB degree in 1991.

Whilst a 22 year old student, his father was diagnosed with cancer, and died. This caused Butler's lifestyle to spiral out of control. He would say of this period in his life:

"I had gone from a 16-year-old who couldn’t wait to grasp life to a 22-year-old who didn’t care if he died in his sleep."^[13]

Upon graduation, he won a position as a trainee lawyer at an Edinburgh law firm. However, his lifestyle remained unrestrained and he frequently missed work due to his partying antics. One week before he qualified as a lawyer, he was fired.

Now, aged 25, and an unqualified lawyer, Butler moved to London to pursue his dream of becoming famous. He admitted,

"When I started out, I'm not sure I was actually in it for the right reasons. I wanted very much to be famous."^[9]

Unable to win any acting roles immediately, he was forced to accept blue collar jobs, which included being a waiter, a telemarketer and a demonstrator of how toys work at fairs. Whilst in London, he met an old friend from his teenage days in the Scottish Youth Theater, who was now a London casting agent, and was for a time her boyfriend and her assistant. She took him to an audition for Steven Berkoff's play of Coriolanus.^[10] The director said of Butler's audition:

"When he read, he had such vigour and enthusiasm – so much that it made the other actors seem limp – that I decided to cast him in the ensemble."^[13]

Now aged 27, Butler had his first professional acting job. Less than a year later, he won a part in a theater adaptation of Trainspotting, which he performed at the Edinburgh Festival. By age 30, Butler decided to move to Los Angeles to make it in the big league; where he won parts in Dracula 2000, Tomb Raider 2, Dear Frankie, and Phantom of the Opera. The director Vadim Jean said:

"I have never seen anybody work so hard to make their career happen."^[13]

Despite the early yearnings for fame, Butler would tell London's Daily Telegraph in a 2009 interview, when aged 39:

"I did expect to succeed and I did have faith that I would. In reality, though, it has turned out to be something very different to what I wanted. It’s the work and not the adulation that has proved to be the most fulfilling."^[13]

Career[link]

In London, Butler held a series of odd jobs until being cast by actor and director Steven Berkoff (who later appeared alongside him in Attila (2001)) in a stage production of Coriolanus. He was cast as Ewan McGregor's character Renton in the stage adaptation of Trainspotting, the same play that had inspired him to become an actor. His film debut was as Billy Connolly's character's younger brother in Mrs. Brown (1997).

His film career continued with small roles, first in the James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) and then Russell Mulcahy's Tale of the Mummy (1998). In 2000, Butler was cast in two breakthrough roles, the first being Attila the Hun in USA film Attila (2001/I) (TV). The film's producers wanted a known actor to play the part but kept coming back to Butler's screen tests and decided he was their man. He was cast as Dracula in Dracula 2000 (2000).

He then appeared in Reign of Fire (2002) as Creedy and Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life (2003) as Terry Sheridan, alongside Angelina Jolie. In the role of Andre Marek in the big-screen adaptation of Michael Crichton's novel Timeline (2003), Butler played an archaeologist who was sent back in time with a team of students to rescue a colleague.

In 2003, director Joel Schumacher was deciding on the principal casting for the film The Phantom of the Opera, a film adaptation of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical of the same name, and thought of Butler, whom he had seen earlier in the film Dracula 2000, to play the title character. Butler, who had had no musical experience other than singing in a rock band while he was studying to be a lawyer, was surprised at the interest, but immediately began taking singing lessons with a vocal coach.^[14] He then did an acting audition with Schumacher, and a singing audition with Lloyd Webber, both of whom were impressed by his performance.^[15] Despite the film receiving mixed reviews, Butler was praised for his performance.

Other projects that followed include Dear Frankie (2005), The Game of Their Lives (2005) and Beowulf & Grendel (2005).

In 2007, he starred as Spartan King Leonidas in the Warner Bros. production 300, which is often described as his breakthrough role.^[16] Butler, who said he "wanted to look really strong" in the film, trained with a high-intensity workout for four months prior to the film's shooting.^[17]

Gerard Butler on the set of the film, The Bounty Hunter, 2010

In 2007, he also appeared in Butterfly on a Wheel co-starring Pierce Brosnan and Maria Bello, which aired on network TV under the title Shattered, and in the romantic comedy P.S. I Love You with Hilary Swank. In 2008, he appeared in Nim's Island and RocknRolla. In 2009, he starred in the Mark Neveldine/Brian Taylor film Gamer, The Ugly Truth and Law Abiding Citizen, which he also co-produced. In 2010 he starred in the action/comedy The Bounty Hunter with Jennifer Aniston, and did a voice-over in the 2010 animated film How to Train Your Dragon as Stoick the Vast.

On 15 and 16 October 2010, thanks to the popularity of his role as Spartan King Leonidas and the use of his lines during athletic events at Michigan State University, he was a guest at their Midnight Madness and homecoming football game, respectively.

On 18 December 2011, while filming Of Men and Mavericks, Butler was hospitalised after he was pulled under big waves. A safety patrolman spotted Butler and quickly rushed to his aid. He was taken to Stanford University Medical Center where he was observed and then later released.^[18]

Personal life[link]

Butler has been open in interviews about struggling with alcoholism. In February 2012, Butler's publicist announced that Butler had completed a course of treatment for substance abuse of pain killers, at a rehab-centre.^[19] This was after Butler was concerned he was too reliant on prescribed pain relief medication which escalated when he was involved in a surfing incident before Christmas 2011.^[19][20][21]

A fan of the Glasgow football club Celtic F.C. and played a charity match with them in 2011, Butler regularly attended Celtic Park as a supporter, but has found that moving to Hollywood can be a problem when trying to keep up with the results due to the time difference between Los Angeles and Glasgow.^[22]

Despite his sometimes turbulent personal life and the often violent characters he plays, Butler is well known to be a kind and very nice person in real life. He is known to be very friendly with fans and co-workers, and socializes with everyone on set.

Filmography[link]

Butler at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gerard Butler

• Gerard Butler at the Internet Movie Database

Aaron Eckhart
Eckhart at the San Diego Comic-Con International in July 2010
Born	Aaron Edward Eckhart (1968-03-12) March 12, 1968 (age 44) Cupertino, California, United States
Occupation	Actor
Years active	1992–present

Aaron Edward Eckhart (born March 12, 1968) is an American film and stage actor. Born in California, he moved to England at the age of 13, when his father relocated the family. Several years later, he began his acting career by performing in school plays, before moving to Sydney, Australia, for his high school senior year. He left high school without graduating, but earned a diploma through an adult education course, and graduated from Brigham Young University-Hawaii (BYUH) in 1994 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film. For much of the mid-1990s he lived in New York City as a struggling, unemployed actor.

As an undergraduate at Brigham Young, Eckhart met director and writer Neil LaBute, who cast him in several of his own original plays. Five years later Eckhart made a debut as an unctuous, sociopathic ladies' man in LaBute's black comedy film, In the Company of Men (1997). Under LaBute's guidance he worked in the director's films, Your Friends & Neighbors (1998), Nurse Betty (2000), and Possession (2002). Eckhart has chosen roles in an eclectic range of movies, from science fiction films such as The Core (2003) and Paycheck (2003) to romantic dramas like Conversations with Other Women (2006) and No Reservations (2007).

Eckhart gained wide recognition as George in Steven Soderbergh's critically acclaimed film, Erin Brockovich (2000), and in 2006 received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor for his portrayal of Nick Naylor in Thank You for Smoking. In 2008 he starred in the big-budget studio film The Dark Knight as Harvey Dent/Two-Face. Eckhart starred alongside Nicole Kidman in the film Rabbit Hole (2010).

Early life[link]

Eckhart was born in Cupertino, California, the son of Mary Eckhart (née Lawrence), a poet and children's author, and James C. Eckhart "Jim Senior", a computer executive.^[1] He is the youngest of three brothers.^[2] Eckhart was raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Mormon) church, and served a two-year LDS mission in France and Switzerland.^[3][4]

Eckhart's family relocated to England in 1981,^[1][5] following his father's job in information technology.^[6] The family resided in Surrey, South East England, first in Walton-on-Thames,^[7] later moving to Cobham.^[6] While living in England Eckhart attended American Community School, now known as ACS International Schools,^[6] where he was first introduced to acting, starring in a school production as Charlie Brown.^[8][9] In 1985 he moved to Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, where he attended American International School of Sydney for his high school senior year; he further developed his acting skills in productions like Waiting for Godot, where he admits that he did a "terrible" production.^[10] In the fall of his senior year^[2] Eckhart left the school in order to take a job working at a mall movie theater.^[11][12] He eventually earned his diploma through an adult education course.^[13] This also allowed Eckhart time to enjoy a year of surfing and skiing in Hawaii and the coastal waters of France.^[1][14] In 1988, Eckhart returned to the United States and enrolled as a film major at Brigham Young University–Hawaii,^[15] but later transferred to Brigham Young University (BYU) in Provo, Utah.^[1] He graduated in 1994 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree.^[11][16]

Career[link]

Early work[link]

While at Brigham Young University,^[17] Eckhart appeared in the Mormon-themed film, Godly Sorrow, and the role marked Eckhart's professional debut. At this time he met director/writer Neil LaBute,^[17] who cast him in several of his own original plays.^[18] After graduating from BYU, Eckhart moved to New York City, acquired an agent, and took various occasional jobs, including bartending, bus driving, and construction work.^[9] His first television roles were in commercials. In 1994 he appeared as an extra on the television drama series, Beverly Hills, 90210.^[9][19] Eckhart followed this small part with roles in documentary re-enactments, made-for-television movies, and short-lived programs like Aliens in the Family.^[20]

In 1997 Eckhart was approached by Neil LaBute to star in a film adaptation of LaBute's stage play, In the Company of Men.^[21] He played a frustrated white-collar worker who planned to woo a deaf office worker, gain her affections, then suddenly dump her.^[22] The film, his first feature to reach theaters, was critically well received,^[23] with Desson Howe of The Washington Post reporting that Eckhart is the "movie's most malignant presence" and that he "is in chilling command as a sort of satanic prince in shirtsleeves".^[24] In the Company of Men was a critical success, winning Best First Film at the 63rd annual New York Film Critics Circle Award.^[25][26] His performance won him the Independent Spirit Award in the category of Best Debut Performance.^[27] The film was ranked as one of "The 25 Most Dangerous Movies" by Premiere magazine.^[28]

The following year Eckhart starred in another LaBute feature, Your Friends & Neighbors (1998),^[16][17] as Barry, a sexually frustrated husband in a dysfunctional marriage. For the role Eckhart was required to gain weight.^[29] In 1999 he starred opposite Elisabeth Shue in Molly, a romantic comedy-drama in which he played the self-absorbed brother of an autistic woman who was cured by surgery.^[30] Eckhart also starred that year as a football coach, an offensive coordinator in Oliver Stone's Any Given Sunday.^[31]

Critical success[link]

Eckhart first gained wide exposure in 2000 as George, a pony-tailed biker, in Steven Soderbergh's drama, Erin Brockovich.^[32] The film was met with reasonable reviews,^[33] and was a box office success, earning $256 million worldwide.^[34] His performance was well received by critics; Entertainment Weekly's Owen Gleiberman, wrote that Eckhart "may be playing a bit of an ideal [...] but he makes goodness as palpable as he did yuppie evil in 'In the Company of Men'."^[35] In an August 2004 interview, Eckhart claimed that he had not worked for nearly a year before he was cast in the movie. "I felt like I sort of was getting away from what I wanted to do as an actor. [...] I had nine months off, but it wasn't a vacation. Sure, I didn't earn any money for nine months, but every day I was reading scripts, I was producing my own material, I was taking meetings, I was working on my craft."^[36]

Nick Nolte, Eckhart, Joshua Michael Stern, and Alan Cumming promoting Neverwas at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival.

Following the release of Erin Brockovich, Eckhart co-starred with Renée Zellweger in LaBute's Nurse Betty (2000).^[16] He next appeared in Sean Penn's mystery feature The Pledge (2001), in which he played a young detective partnered with a veteran detective, played by Jack Nicholson.^[37] The movie received generally favorable reviews,^[38] but it did not fare particularly well at the box office.^[39] The following year, he collaborated with LaBute in a film adaptation of the Man Booker Prize-winning novel Possession (2002).^[40] In 2003, Eckhart co-starred with Hilary Swank in The Core, a film about a geophysicist who tries to detonate a nuclear device in order to save the world from destruction.^[41] The film was critically and financially unsuccessful.^[42][43] Also in 2003, he appeared in The Missing, in which he played Cate Blanchett's lover,^[44] and in the action-thriller Paycheck opposite Ben Affleck.^[45] Paycheck, based on a short story by science fiction writer Philip K. Dick, garnered generally negative reception.^[46] Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two stars (out of four), saying that he "enjoyed the movie" but felt that it "exploits [Dick's story] for its action and plot potential, but never really develops it."^[47]

The following year, away from film, Eckhart guest starred in two episodes of NBC's comedy sitcom Frasier, where he played a boyfriend of Charlotte, Dr. Frasier Crane's love interest.^[48][49] His next film role was in E. Elias Merhige's thriller Suspect Zero, a movie about an FBI agent who tracks down a killer who murders serial killers.^[50][51] Upon release, the movie received broadly negative reviews.^[52] Despite the reception, Eckhart's performance was favored by critics; Newsday wrote that Eckhart was a "classically handsome leading man ... but Merhige demands of him complexity and anguish."^[53] Suspect Zero was a box office disappointment, earning $11 million worldwide.^[54] Also in 2004, Eckhart starred on the London stage, opposite Julia Stiles, in David Mamet's Oleanna at the Garrick Theatre. The drama ran until mid-2004.^[55] For this performance, Eckhart received favorable critical reviews.^[36][56] In 2005, returning to film, Eckhart appeared in Neverwas as a therapist who takes a job at a rundown mental hospital that once treated his father (Nick Nolte). The feature was never given a full theatrical release, eventually being released straight to DVD in 2007.^[57]

Worldwide recognition[link]

Eckhart's next project was Thank You for Smoking, in which he played Nick Naylor, a tobacco lobbyist who researched the link between smoking cigarettes and lung cancer. Eckhart said that he felt challenged playing the role: "You have to say these words that are crazy, and yet do it with a smile on your face and have the audience like you. At one point, I'm doing a talk show with a kid who's dying of cancer, and he's going through chemotherapy and the whole thing, and I spin it so the anti-smoking people are the bad guys and I'm the good guy, and I'm this guy's best friend. I mean, it's whacked out."^[58] The film was screened at a special presentation at the 30th annual Toronto International Film Festival in 2005.^[59][60] It had a limited release in March 2006 and was released worldwide the following month.^[61][62] For his performance, Eckhart received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.^[63] A contributor of USA Today wrote that he gave a "standout, whip-smart performance" citing that as Nick Naylor he kept him "likable even in his cynicism."^[64] In the Seattle Post-Intelligencer review of the film, it was reported that "Under his chummy but compassionless smile" Eckhart radiated charm and "Naylor's true joys: manipulating arguments, steering debate, cooking words."^[65]

In this same year, he starred with Helena Bonham Carter in Conversations with Other Women (2006).^[66] While promoting this film, Eckhart revealed that he wishes not to be typecast or repeat himself, saying he does not want to play any more villains.^[2] He appeared in the 2006 film noir The Black Dahlia—based on a real 1947 crime—as Sergeant Leland "Lee" Blanchard, a detective investigating the murder of Elizabeth Short, later dubbed the "Black Dahlia".^[67][68] The film premiered at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival.^[69][70] Reception for the movie was mixed,^[71] but many critics enjoyed Eckhart's performance; Time Out magazine praised Eckhart and co-star Hillary Swank for their performances, writing "...both [are] great in their secondary roles."^[72]

Internationally viewed as a sex symbol, he was named one of People magazine's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2006.^[73][74] The following year, Eckhart was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.^[75] He starred in No Reservations (2007), a remake of the 2001 German romantic comedy, Mostly Martha. He starred opposite Catherine Zeta-Jones as an up-and-coming hotshot chef.^[76] The film was met with mixed reviews and was unfavorably compared to the original film.^[77] Eckhart starred in the 2008 comedy Meet Bill, in which he played the eponymous character, a sad executive working at his father-in-law's bank.^[78][79] He gained 30 pounds and donned a fat suit for the role.^[21][80]

Eckhart signing autographs for fans during promotion of The Dark Knight in 2008.

Also in 2008, Eckhart portrayed the comic book character, Harvey Dent/Two-Face, in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight, the sequel to the 2005 film Batman Begins.^[81][82] Nolan's decision to cast Eckhart was based on his portrayal of corrupt characters in the films In the Company of Men, The Black Dahlia, and Thank You For Smoking.^[83][84] He noted in his depiction of the character that "[he] is still true to himself. He's a crime fighter, he's not killing good people. He's not a bad guy, not purely", while admitting "I'm interested in good guys gone wrong."^[83][84] The Dark Knight was a big financial and critical success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America. With revenue of $1 billion worldwide,^[85] it became the fourth highest grossing film of all time,^[86] and the highest grossing film of Eckhart's career. Roger Ebert opined that Eckhart did an "especially good job" as his character in the feature,^[87] while Premiere magazine also enjoyed his performance, noting that he "makes you believe in his ill-fated ambition ... of morphing into the conniving Two-Face."^[88]

Following the success of The Dark Knight, Eckhart next appeared in Alan Ball's Towelhead (2008), an adaption of the Alicia Erian novel of the same name, in which he played a Gulf War Army reservist who sexually abuses his 13-year-old Arab-American neighbor.^[89][90] The film was screened under the name Nothing is Private at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival.^[91] When he was first approached for the role, Eckhart revealed that he did not want to play a "pedophile".^[90] When asked about the sex scenes, Eckhart said: "Those were difficult times .... The way I did it was to really trust Alan. It was in the words. I really trusted Summer [Bishil], and I tried to get her to trust me, to build a relationship when we were doing physical scenes. We'd really rehearse them mechanically, and I'd say, 'OK, I'm going to put my hand here, I'm going to do this.' ... I think I found it more difficult."^[92] Towelhead was critically and financially unsuccessful.^[93][94]

He next co-starred with Jennifer Aniston in the romantic drama, Love Happens, released in September 2009, as a motivational speaker coming to terms with his own grief.^[95][96] The movie received ambivalent reviews,^[97] with a contributor of the Orlando Sentinel reporting that Eckhart plays "broken" for the whole movie.^[98] The following year he starred alongside Nicole Kidman in Rabbit Hole (2010), an adaption of David Lindsay-Abaire's 2005 drama of the same name.^[99][100] The feature premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival.^[101] In 2011, Eckhart starred in Jonathan Liebesman's science fiction film Battle: Los Angeles, in which he portrayed a combat veteran Marine platoon sergeant, the film was set in modern day Los Angeles and followed a platoon of U.S. Marines during a global alien invasion, who are joined by an Air Force Special Operations Sergeant and some Army Infantry Soldiers. This group of fighting men and women are engaged in combat operations against the alien enemy in the city of Los Angeles.^[102] He appeared alongside Johnny Depp, Richard Jenkins, and Amber Heard in Hunter S. Thompson's novel adaptation The Rum Diary, directed by Bruce Robinson.^[103][104] In the film, Eckhart played Sanderson, a wealthy landowner, who believes everything has a price and introduces Paul Kemp (Depp) to a different standard of living.^[103][104] For the future, among the actors Eckhart hopes to work with are Jeff Bridges and Angelina Jolie.^[105]

Personal life[link]

Eckhart once was engaged to actress, Emily Cline, whom he met during filming of In the Company of Men, but they separated in 1998.^[16][55] He always has been reluctant in speaking about his relationships in interviews.^[2] Eckhart dated Country Music songwriter and member of SHeDAISY, Kristyn Osborn, from 2006-2007.^[16][55] He appeared in the group's video for their hit, "I'm Taking the Wheel".^[55]

In various interviews Eckhart has talked about his beliefs, his way of life, and his future career ambitions. Talking to Entertainment Weekly regarding his Mormon faith, he revealed: "I'm sure people think I'm a Mormon, but I don't know that I'm a Mormon anymore, you know? To be honest, to be perfectly clear, I'd be a hypocrite if I did say that I was, just because I haven't lived that lifestyle for so many years."^[106] In other interviews he has divulged that, through hypnosis, he quit drinking, smoking, and partying,^[2][107] and that in his spare time, he enjoys photography.^[108] In an interview with Parade magazine, Eckhart revealed that before he discovered acting, he wanted to become a songwriter.^[8]

Filmography[link]

Eckhart at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival

Additional sources[link]

• Mitchell, Peter. "Dundee a talisman for Eckhart." The Age. May 1, 2003. Accessed December 15, 2008.
• Head, Steve. "IGN interviews Aaron Eckhart." IGN. August 24, 2004. Accessed December 30, 2008.
• Roberts, Farin. "BBC Movies - Aaron Eckhart interview." BBC Films. June 16, 2006. Accessed December 30, 2008. (Farin Roberts interviews Aaron Eckhart in discussion of Thank You for Smoking.) [Includes video clip].
• Fischer, Paul. "Aaron Eckhart No Reservations Interview." Femail. Accessed December 30, 2008.
• Berkshire, Geoff. "'Dark Knight' Q&A: Aaron Eckhart." Chicago Metromix. July 14, 2008. Accessed December 15, 2008.
• Blades, Nicole. "Aaron Eckhart Interview." Women's Health. July 16, 2008. Accessed October 24, 2008.
• Mottram, James. "Aaron Eckhart interview." Marie Claire. July 28, 2008. Accessed December 30, 2008.
• Fischer, Paul. "Aaron Eckhart The Dark Knight Interview." Femail. Accessed December 30, 2008.
• Berk, Phillip. "Man of the Hour." Filmink. September 16, 2008. Accessed October 3, 2008.

References[link]