University of Florida Cancer Hospital

Cancer research is basic research into cancer in order to identify causes and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, treatments and cure.

Cancer research ranges from epidemiology, molecular bioscience to the performance of clinical trials to evaluate and compare applications of the various cancer treatment. These applications include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, Immunotherapy and combined treatment modalities such as chemo-radiotherapy. Starting in the mid-1990s, the emphasis in clinical cancer research shifted towards therapies derived from biotechnology research, such as immunotherapy and gene therapy.

Areas of research[link]

Cause[link]

This type of research involves many different disciplines including genetics, diet, environmental factors (i.e. chemical carcinogens). In regard to investigation of causes and potential targets for therapy, the route used starts with data obtained from clinical observations, enters basic research, and, once convincing and independently confirmed results are obtained, proceeds with clinical research, involving appropriately designed trials on consenting human subjects, with aim to test safety and efficiency of the therapeutic intervention method. Important part of basic research is characterization of the potential function of mechanisms of carcinogenesis, in regard to the types of genetic and epigenetic changes that are associated with cancer development. The mouse is often used as a mammalian model for manipulation of the function of genes that play a role in tumor formation, while basic aspects of tumor initiation, such as mutagenesis, are assayed on cultures of bacteria and mammalian cells.

This section requires expansion.

Important cell types involved in cancer growth[link]

There are several different cell types that are critical to tumor growth. In particular Endothelial Progenitor Cells are a very important cell population in tumor blood vessel growth. This finding was demonstrated in the high impact factor journals of Science (2008) and Genes and Development (2007)which also showed that Endothelial Progenitor Cells are critical for metastasis and the angiogenesis.^[1][2] This importance of endothelial progenitor cells in tumour growth and angiogenesis has been confirmed by a recent publication in Cancer Research (August 2010). This seminal paper has demonstrated that endothelial progenitor cells can be marked using the Inhibitor of DNA Binding 1 (ID1). This novel finding meant that investigators were able to track endothelial progenitor cells from the bone marrow to the blood to the tumour-stroma and even incorporated in tumour vasculature. This finding of endothelial progenitor cells incorporated in tumour vasculature proves the importance of this cell type in blood vessel development in a tumour setting. Furthermore, ablation of the endothelial progenitor cells in the bone marrow lead to a significant decrease in tumour growth and vasculature development. Therefore endothelial progenitor cells are very important in tumour biology and present novel therapeutic targets.^[3]

[edit] In Vitro Research Using Cell Lines

In vitro assays allow scientists to conduct studies under reasonable conditions in the lab. In order to study the communication between a tumor cell and a host cell in vitro assays have been created. The use of fragmented chicken heart cells as a host was developed by Mareel.^[4] Holtfreter^[5] discovered a method of keeping the chicken heart cells from sticking to the Petri dish. In one study,^[6] the objective was to see how the tumor cell would communicate with the host cell's metabolism by studying the gap junction between the host cell and the tumor cell. Tumor cells were grown and then individually mixed with those from a chicken’s heart. The purpose of the chicken heart cells was to provide the cancer cells with something to attach to or in this case invade. The cells were grown in wells which were called PHF or pre-cultured heart fragments. Five cancer cell lines were used BICR/M1Rk, C6, EMT6/Ro, L, and HeLa. The different cell lines were put through a series of tests including electrophysiological measurements and histology using a light microscope to collect ultrastructural data. In the multicell tumor spheroids, most of the tumor cell lines showed tight packing except for BICR/M1Rk-MTS (multicell tumor spheroids). BICR/M1Rk-MTS cells appeared to be loosely packed and large in size. Once the tumor cells were mixed with the PHF cells were observed to see if they were invaded, and the time to cell invasion was recorded.

After the timed incubation periods BICR/M1Rk, C6, and EMT6/Ro showed invasion of PHF within a short period of time via gap junctions. Each cancer cell was able to invade the host’s cell and destroy it. In the case of the HeLa cells and L cells, there were no advancement into the PHF, except after a few days HeLa cells were able to invade and destroy the host cell. Though the host cell was not destroyed the cancer cells each surrounded the host’s cell, but only after many hours. This means that it is possible for the process of tumor cell invasion due to heterologous intercellular communication. The HeLa cells took a long time to invade the cell. This could be due to the over growth of HeLa cells created over time. Since there were so many HeLa cells surrounding the PHF it believed that the lack of space created a competition for nutrients^[7] Thus allowing the HeLa cells to, in a sense win, and over take the PHF. In the case of the L tumor cells, they were not able to invade the PHF. Though HeLa cells were able to accomplish invasion after several hours the L cells are structurally different rendering them inadequate. The L cells have much more intercellular free space and do not surround the host cell as tightly as Hela cells. It was concluded that with a tight gap junction nutrients cannot enter the cell allowing the cancer cells to invade. With this information about the gap junction process between host cell and the tumor cell, further studies were conducted in cancer gene therapy with the use of Hela cells and the herpes virus.^[8]

Oncogenomics/Genes involved in cancer[link]

The goal of oncogenomics is to identify new oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes that may provide new insights into cancer diagnosis, predicting clinical outcome of cancers, and new targets for cancer therapies. As the Cancer Genome Project stated in a 2004 review article, "a central aim of cancer research has been to identify the mutated genes that are causally implicated in oncogenesis (cancer genes)."^[9] The Cancer Genome Atlas project is a related effort investigating the genomic changes associated with cancer, while the COSMIC cancer database documents acquired genetic mutations from hundreds of thousands of human cancer samples.^[10]

These large scale projects, involving about 350 different types of tumour, have identified ~130,000 mutations in ~3000 genes that have been mutated in the tumours. The majority occurred in 319 genes of which 286 were tumour supressor genes and 33 oncogenes.

Several hereditary factors can increase the chance of cancer-causing mutations, including the activation of oncogenes or the inhibition of tumor suppressor genes. The functions of various onco- and tumor suppressor genes can be disrupted at different stages of tumor progression. Mutations in such genes can be used to classify the malignancy of a tumor.

In later stages, tumors can develop a resistance to cancer treatment. The identification of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes is important to understand tumor progression and treatment success. The role of a given gene in cancer progression may vary tremendously, depending on the stage and type of cancer involved.^[11]

Genes and protein products that have been identified by at least two independent publications as being involved in cancer are:^[9]
ABI1, ABL2, ACSL6, AF1Q, AF5Q31 (also known as MCEF), AKT1, ARNT, ASPSCR1, ATF1, ATIC, BCL10, BFHD, BIRC3, BMPR1A, BTG1, CBFA2T1, CBFA2T3, CBFB, CCND1, CDC2, CDK4, CHIC2, CHN1, COPEB, COX6C, CTNNB1, CYLD, DDB2, DDIT3, DEK, Eif4a, EIF4A2, EPS15, ERCC2, ERCC3, ERCC5, ERG, ETV4, ETV6, EWSR1, EXT1, EXT2, FANCC, FANCG, FGFR1OP, FGFR3, FH, FIP1L1, FUS, GAS7, GATA1, GMPS, GOLGA5, GPC (gene), GPHN, HIST1H4I, HRAS, HSPCA, IL21R, IIRF4, KRAS2, LASP1, LCP1, LHFP, LMO2, LYL1, MADH4, MEIS1, MLF1, MLH1, MLLT3, MLLT6, MNAT1, MSF, MSH2, MSN, MUTYH, MYC, NCOA4, NF2, NPM1, NRAS, PAX8, PCBD, PDGFB, PHOX2B, PIM1, PLK2, PNUTL1, POU2F1, PPARG, PRCC, PRKACB, PRKAR1A, PTEN, PTPN11, RABEP1, RAD51L1, RAP1GDS1, RARA, RB1, RET, RHOH, RPL22, SBDS, SDHB, SEPTIN6, SET, SH3GL1, SS18L1, SSX1, SSX2, SSX4, STAT3, TAF15, TCF12, TCL1A, TFE3, TFEB, TFG, TFPT, TFRC, TNFRSF6, TP53, TPM3, TPM4, TRIP11, VHL, WAS, WT1, ZNF198, ZNF278, ZNF384, ZNFN1A1

Treatment[link]

Current topics of cancer treatment research include:

• Boosting the immune system
• Anti-cancer vaccine — based on exposing some cancer cells extracted from a tumour to UV rays for 24 hrs then injecting them back into the organism, this approach has already been successful on rats.
• Chemotherapy
• Gene therapy^[12]
• Photodynamic therapy
• Radiation therapy
• Reoviridae (Reolysin drug therapy)
• Targeted therapy

Vaccines[link]

• HBV hepatitis "B" virus which leads to liver cancer.
• HPV vaccine human papillovirus HPV-16, HPV-18 for cervical cancer, genital warts, anal, vulvar, vaginal, penile, and HPV oral cancers.
• Canine Melanoma Vaccine^[13]
• Oncophage^[14]

Other methods[link]

This section requires expansion.

• Some research may indicate a connection between Vitamin D deficiency and cancer.^[15]

Issues[link]

Newsweek magazine published an article criticising the use of lab rats on cancer research because even though researchers frequently manage to cure lab mice transplanted with human tumors, few of those achievements are relevant to humanity.^[16] Oncologist Paul Bunn, from the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer^[17] said: "We put a human tumor under the mouse's skin, and that microenvironment doesn't reflect a person's—the blood vessels, inflammatory cells or cells of the immune system".^[16] Fran Visco founder of the National Breast Cancer Coalition completed:"We cure cancer in animals all the time, but not in people."^[16]

Funding[link]

Most funding for cancer research comes from taxpayers and charities, rather than from profit-making businesses. In the US, less than 30% of all cancer research is funded by commercial researchers such as pharmaceutical companies.^[18]

Per capita, public spending on cancer research by taxpayers and charities in the US is seven times as much as public spending by taxpayers and charities in the European Union.^[18] As a percentage of GDP, the non-commercial funding of cancer research in the US is four times the amount dedicated to cancer research in Europe.^[18] Half of Europe's non-commercial cancer research is funded by charitable organizations.^[18]

Some substances, like dichloroacetate (DCA)^[19] cannot be patented and thus would not garner the investment interest towards research from the pharmaceutical industry, though in the case of DCA it would be cheap and easy to manufacture.

Innovation[link]

The organizational behavior of the large institutions and corporations that research cancer, may unduly favor low-risk research into small incremental advancements, over innovative research that might discover radically new and dramatically improved therapy.^[20][21]

Distributed computing[link]

One can share computer time for distributed cancer research projects like Help Conquer Cancer.^[22] World Community Grid also had a project called Help Defeat Cancer. Other related projects include the Folding@home and Rosetta@home projects.

Organizations[link]

• Cancer organizations
• American Association for Cancer Research
• American Brain Tumor Association
• American Society of Clinical Oncology
• Australian Cancer Research Foundation
• Bath Cancer Research Unit
• Brain Tumor Foundation of Canada
• Brain Tumor Funders' Collaborative
• CACA
• Canadian Cancer Society
• Cancer Research
• Cancer Research Foundation
• Cancer Research Institute, Inc.
• Cancer Research UK
• Childhood Cancer Research Group
• Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation
• Dana-Farber/Harvard Cancer Center
• E-Foundation for Cancer Research
• Friends of Cancer Research
• Gateway for Cancer Research
• German Cancer Research Center
• Grassroots Cancer Research Foundation
• Institute of Cancer Research
• International Agency for Research on Cancer
• International Cancer Genome Consortium
• Israel Cancer Research Fund
• James S. McDonnell Foundation
• Jimmy V. Foundation
• Joe Andruzzi Foundation
• Lance Armstrong Foundation
• Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research
• Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
• National Brain Tumor Society
• National Cancer Institute
• National Foundation for Cancer Research
• National Institute of Health
• NCI-designated Cancer Center
• Northern California Cancer Center
• Quality Assurance Review Center
• Radiological Physics Center
• Save A Brain Foundation
• Terry Fox Foundation
• TGen Drug Development
• TGen
• Tower Cancer Research Foundation
• United Devices Cancer Research Project
• University of Florida Cancer Hospital
• USCACA
• University Zurich Hospital
• Walker Cancer Research Institute

References[link]

External links[link]

• A list of Cancer Therapeutic Targets at Sino Biological
• Cancer Genome Anatomy Project @ The NIH
• Cancer Research Genetics
• Cancer Research Jobs
• CBC Digital Archives – Cancer Research: The Canadian Quest for a Cure
• Kolata, Gina. "Forty Years’ War". The New York Times. http://nytimes.com/40years. Retrieved 2009-12-29.  "Articles in this series... examine the struggle to defeat cancer."
• Dana-Farber/Harvard Cancer Center
• Is the cure for cancer a virus? at HowStuffWorks
• Stanford's Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine
• The Integrative Cancer Biology Program @ National Cancer Institute

Kim Kardashian
Kim Kardashian Fragrance Launch, Glendale, CA on February 22, 2011
Born	Kimberly Noel Kardashian (1980-10-21) October 21, 1980 (age 31) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Nationality	American
Ethnicity	Armenian, Dutch, Scottish
Occupation	Businesswoman, socialite, television personality, model, actress
Years active	2007–present
Height	5 ft 2.5 in (1.59 m)
Television	Keeping Up with the Kardashians Kourtney and Kim Take New York
Spouse	Damon Thomas (m. 2000–2004) «start: (2000)–end+1: (2005)»"Marriage: Damon Thomas to Kim Kardashian" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Kim_Kardashian) Kris Humphries (m. 2011) «start: (2011)»"Marriage: Kris Humphries to Kim Kardashian" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Kim_Kardashian) (separated)
Parents	Robert Kardashian (father) Kris Jenner (mother) Bruce Jenner (stepfather)
Relatives	Kourtney Kardashian (sister) Khloé Kardashian (sister) Robert Kardashian Jr. (brother) Kylie Jenner (half-sister) Kendall Jenner (half-sister)
Website
kimkardashian.celebuzz.com

Kimberly Noel "Kim" Kardashian^[1] (born October 21, 1980^[2]) is an American socialite, celebutante, television personality, model, actress and businesswoman. She is known for starring in Keeping Up with the Kardashians, the E! reality series that she shares with her family, and its spin-offs including Kourtney and Kim Take New York.^[3]

Prior to the development of her career as a reality television star, Kardashian gained notoriety as the subject of a sex tape that subsequently resulted in a court awarding her $5 million. She has been involved in the production of several lines of clothing and fragrances. In 2010, she was the highest earning reality star, with estimated earnings of $6 million, and is one of the most highly documented and followed celebrities in the world in popular media.

In August 2011, Kardashian married basketball player Kris Humphries in a widely publicized ceremony. In October 2011, Kardashian filed for divorce, 72 days after the wedding.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Kardashian was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of attorney Robert Kardashian and his wife Kris Kardashian (née Houghton). Her father was a third generation Armenian American, and her mother is of Dutch and Scottish descent.^[4] Kardashian has two sisters, Kourtney and Khloé, and one brother, Robert. She has stepbrothers Burton Jenner, Brandon Jenner, and reality TV star Brody Jenner, step-sister Casey Jenner, and half-sisters Kendall Jenner and Kylie Jenner.^[5] She attended Marymount High School.^[6]

In 2000, Kardashian married music producer Damon Thomas; their relationship ended in divorce in 2004. Subsequently she dated R&B singer Ray J, NFL star Reggie Bush^[7] and Dallas Cowboys wide receiver Miles Austin.^[8] She also dated model Gabriel Aubry.^[9]

2003–07: Controversy and reality television[link]

In February 2007, a home sex video that she made with singer Ray J in 2003^[10] was leaked.^[11] Vivid Entertainment bought the rights for $1 million and released the film as Kim Kardashian: Superstar on February 21.^[11] Kardashian sued Vivid for ownership of the tape. In late April 2007, Kardashian dropped the suit and settled with Vivid Entertainment for $5 million.^[12]

Kardashian was a friend of Paris Hilton, who introduced her to the socialite scene.^[13] Her first acting role was in the television series Beyond the Break. In October 2007, along with her two sisters, mother, brother, half-sisters, and stepfather she starred in the E! television series, Keeping Up with the Kardashians. As of October 2011, the series has aired 69 episodes over six seasons.

2007–2010: Modeling and retail[link]

Kardashian in Santa Monica, California on May 13, 2009 at Maxim's 10th Annual Hot 100 Celebration

Kardashian co-owns a clothing boutique called D-A-S-H with her sisters Kourtney and Khloé.^[14] In December 2007, Kardashian posed nude for Playboy.^[15] In February 2008, Bongo Jeans announced that she would be their face model.^[16] She has also modeled for Carl's Jr., Sugar Factory lollipops, and various other products.^[17][18]

Kardashian starred in the 2008 disaster film spoof Disaster Movie as Lisa,^[19] and appeared in the How I Met Your Mother episode "Benefits". She also appeared on the Season 3 premiere of the series 90210 with her sisters Khloé and Kourtney; they all played themselves.^[20] Kardashian was a guest hostess of WrestleMania XXIV and appeared as a guest judge during Cycle 13 of America's Next Top Model.^[21] On December 16, 2009, Kardashian made a guest star appearance on CBS's CSI: NY with Vanessa Minnillo.^[22][19] In 2009 she had a cameo as club bouncer in the 2009 porn film spoof Deep in the Valley^[19]

Kardashian was one of 13 participants on the seventh season of Dancing with the Stars.^[23][19] She was partnered with Mark Ballas and was the third contestant voted off the show on September 30, 2008, finishing in 11th place overall.^[24] Sanford Siegal, the creator of the Cookie Diet, sued Kardashian, claiming she defamed him on Twitter. According to Siegal, Kardashian tweeted in October 2009 that he was "falsely promoting" that she was on the cookie diet. Siegal filed a claim in a Florida state court claiming the statements are false and defamatory. He also alleges that Kardashian was on QuickTrim's payroll when she posted the tweet. Kardashian's tweet appears to stem from an article on CookieDiet.com, that named Kardashian as one of many celebrities who saw positive results on the diet. Kardashian sent a cease-and-desist order to Siegal, demanding the link be removed.^[25]

Kardashian released her own fragrance product in 2010.^[26] In March 2009, Kardashian launched an endorsement with ShoeDazzle shopping,^[27] of which she is the co-founder and chief fashion stylist.^[17] The following month on April 9, 2009, Kardashian released a workout DVD series, Fit In Your Jeans By Friday, with trainers Jennifer Galardi and Patrick Goudeau.^[14][28] In September 2009, Fusion Beauty and Seven Bar Foundation launched "Kiss Away Poverty", with Kardashian as the face of the campaign. For every LipFusion lipgloss sold, $1 went to the Foundation to fund women entrepreneurs in the US.^[29]

She has also been featured in numerous international editions of FHM, including the cover of the April 2010 Australian edition and the UK March 2011 edition.^[30] Famous Cupcakes, a Los Angeles bakery, created a vanilla cupcake mix for Kardashian. The cupcake flavor is called Va-Va-Va-Nilla.^[17] Kardashian has also created jewelry along with her sisters, Khloé and Kourtney. They produced a collection for Virgins, Saints, and Angels in 2010.^[31]

Again with her sisters, Kardashian has released various clothing lines. One called K-Dash was to be sold on QVC in 2010,^[32] and in the same year they produced a range for Bebe.^[33][34][35] As of August 2011 they are creating another for Sears, called the Kardashian Kollection.^[36] In addition, Kardashian and her sisters created a sunless tanner called Kardashian Glamour Tan in 2010.^[37] On July 1, 2010, the New York City branch of Madame Tussauds revealed a wax figure of Kardashian.^[38]

2010–present: Marriage and other ventures[link]

Kardashian is the producer of The Spin Crowd, a reality television show about Command PR, a New York City public relations firm, run by Jonathan Cheban and Simon Huck. The show follows them as they settle into their new offices in Los Angeles. Kardashian is friends with both, specifically Cheban, and frequently appears on her reality shows. She also appeared at the 2010 MTV VMAs on September 12, 2010.^[39] She also appeared in and was the subject and judge of a task on the ninth episode of Season 10 of The Apprentice in 2010; the two teams had to create an in-store display for her new perfume line, to be sold at Perfumania.^[40][41] Kim, Kourtney, and Khloé wrote an autobiography entitled Kardashian Konfidential, which was released in stores on November 23, 2010.^[42]

Kardashian at the Style Your Slim event.

In April 2010, Kardashian sparked controversy over the way she held a cat for a photograph.^[43] The same year, animal rights organization PETA criticized Kardashian for repeatedly wearing fur coats, and named her as one of the five worst people or organizations of 2010 when it came to animal welfare.^[44] In June 2010, The Guardian commented on her ability to attract payments of up to US$10,000 from sponsors for each tweet that she broadcasts.^[45]

In December 2010, Kardashian filmed a music video for a song titled "Jam (Turn It Up)". The video was directed by Hype Williams; Kanye West makes a cameo in the video.^[46] Kardashian premiered the song during a New Year's Eve party at TAO Las Vegas on December 31, 2010.^[47] The song was produced by The-Dream and Tricky Stewart. When asked if an album is in the works, Kardashian replied: "There's no album in the works or anything – just one song we did for Kourtney and Kim Take New York, and a video Hype Williams directed, half of the proceeds we're giving away to a cancer foundation, because The-Dream's and one of my parents passed away from cancer. It's just all having fun – with a good cause".^[48] Jim Farber, writing for the Daily News, called the song a "dead-brained piece of generic dance music, without a single distinguishing feature," and suggested that the single made Kardashian the "worst singer in the reality TV universe."^[49]

Kardashian's 2010 earnings were the highest among Hollywood-based reality stars, being estimated at $6 million.^[50]

Kardashian has supported the recognition of the Armenian Genocide on numerous occasions and has encouraged Barack Obama and the United States government to consider its acknowledgement. On April 21, 2011, a few days before the 96th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide, she wrote about the issue on her blog in an effort to put it under spotlight and also sent a tweet to her fans urging its recognition.^[51]

Kardashian began dating NBA player Kris Humphries of the New Jersey Nets in October 2010. They became engaged in May 2011,^[52] and married on August 20, 2011 in Montecito, California.^[53] A two-part TV special showing the preparations and the wedding itself aired on E! in early October 2011, amidst what the Washington Post called a "media blitz" related to the wedding.^[54] After 72 days of marriage, Kardashian filed for divorce from Humphries on October 31, 2011, citing irreconcilable differences.^[55] After filing for the divorce, Kardashian asked the court to order Humphries to pay his own legal expenses.^[56] On December 1, 2011, Humphries filed his response to Kardashian's petition, requesting an annulment on the grounds of fraud or if the court will not grant an annulment, a decree of legal separation rather than Kardashian's requested divorce.^[57]

Several news outlets have surmised that Kardashian's marriage to Humphries was merely a publicity stunt to promote the Kardashian family's brand and their subsequent television ventures.^[58] Her former publicist has also claimed that her short-lived wedding was indeed staged and a ploy to generate money. Kardashian has since filed suit against him, saying his claims were untrue.^[59] A widely circulated petition asking to remove all Kardashian related programing off the air has been followed since their split.^[60] In March 2012, Kardashian and her sisters Kourtney and Khloe were named in a $5 million class action lawsuit against QuickTrim, the weight loss supplement they endorse.^[61]

Filmography[link]

References[link]

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External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kim Kardashian

• Official website
• Kim Kardashian at the Internet Movie Database
• Kardashians join forces with Australian designer at Mediasearch