Ottoman Syria
Territory of the Ottoman Empire
← 1516–1918 →   →   →
Flag
Territories included in Syrian provinces around 1900
Capital	Aleppo[1]
Language(s)	Ottoman Turkish, Syrian Arabic, Persian
Political structure	Territory of the Ottoman Empire
History
- Battle of Marj Dabiq	August 24, 1516
- al-Ma'ni insurrection in the Eyalet of Damascus	1633
- Invasion by Muhammad Ali of Egypt	1831
- Mount Lebanon gains a special status	1861
- British occupation, French occupation	1918
Today part of	Iraq  Israel  Jordan  Lebanon  Syria  Turkey

Ottoman Syria is a European reference to the area that during European Renaissance from the late 15th to early 18th century was called the Levant within the early period of the Ottoman Empire^[2], the Orient until the early 19th century, and Greater Syria until 1918 when it was replaced by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. Territory of the Greater Syria under the Ottoman rule in its final historical period included modern Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and parts of Turkey and Iraq.

History[link]

Before 1516, historical or Greater Syria was part of the Mamluk Empire centered in Egypt. The Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered Syria in 1516 after defeating the Mamlukes at the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo in northern Syria. Selim carried on his victorious campaign against the Mamlukes and conquered Egypt in 1517 following the Battle of Ridanieh, bringing an end to the Mamluk Sultanate.

Administrative divisions[link]

When he first seized Syria in 1516, Selim I kept the administrative subdivisions of the Mamluk period unchanged. After he came back from Egypt in July 1517, he reorganized Syria into one large province or eyalet named Şam (Arabic/Turkish for "Syria"). The eyalet was subdivided into several districts or sanjaks.

1516[link]

The Principality of Lebanon was awarded to Prince Fakhr al-Din I of the Maan dynasty after aiding the Sultan defeat the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq. The principality consisted mainly of today's Lebanon with the exception of the cities of Tripoli and Saida. It was a Constitutional Monarchy ruled by a prince first from the Maan Dynasty followed by the Chihabs. The Principality remained as a semi-independent entity within the Ottoman Empire until 1860 when it was replaced by another semi-independent regime known as the Mutasarrifate.

1549[link]

In 1549, Syria was reorganized into two eyalets. The northern Sanjak of Aleppo became the center of the new Eyalet of Aleppo. At this time, the two Syrian Eyalets were subdivided as follows:

• The Eyalet of Aleppo (Arabic: إيالة حلب‎)
  • The Sanjak of Aleppo
  • The Sanjak of Adana (أضنة)
  • The Sanjak of Ablistan (Marash (مرعش))
  • The Sanjak of Aintab (عينتاب)
  • The Sanjak of Birejik (البيرة) (Urfa (أورفة))
  • The Sanjak of Kilis (كلس)
  • The Sanjak of Ma'arra (معرة النعمان)
  • The Sanjak of Hama (حماة)
  • The Sanjak of Salamiya (سلمية)
  • The Sanjak of Homs (حمص)

• The Eyalet of Damascus (Arabic: ‎إيالة العرب)
  • The Sanjak of Damascus
  • The Sanjak of Tripoli
  • The Sanjak of Safad
  • The Sanjak of Nablus
  • The Sanjak of Jerusalem
  • The Sanjak of Lajjun
  • The Sanjak of Salt
  • The Sanjak of Gaza

1579[link]

In 1579, the Eyalet of Tripoli was established under the name of Tripoli of Syria (Turkish:Trablusşam) (Arabic: طرابلس الشام). At this time, the eyalets became as follows:

The Eyalet of Aleppo included the Sanjaks of Aleppo, Adana, Marash, Aintab, and Urfa.

The Eyalet of Tripoli included the Sanjaks of Tripoli, Latakia, Hama and Homs.

The Eyalet of Damascus included the Sanjaks of Damascus, Beirut, Sidon, Acre, Safad, Nablus, Jerusalem, Gaza, Hauran and Ma'an

1586[link]

Ottoman Syria in 1600.

In 1586, the Eyalet of Raqqa was established in eastern Syria. It lasted until the Egyptian invasion in 1831 and included Eyalet of Raqqa (Arabic: ‎ إيالة الرقة), Sanjak of Urfa, Sanjak of Marash, Sanjak of Dayr Rahba, Sanjak of Khabour, Sanjak of Jamasa and Sanjak of Bani Rabi'a.

1660[link]

The Eyalet of Safad was established in 1660. It was later renamed the Eyalet of Sidon, and later, the Eyalet of Beirut.

1861[link]

Following the massacre of thousands of Christian civilians during the 1860 Lebanon conflict, and under a growing European pressure, mainly from France, an Ottoman edict issued in 1861 transformed "Al Kaimaqumyateen," the former regime based on religious rule that led to civil war, into the Mutesarrifiyyet governed by a Mutasarrıf who according to law had to be a non-Lebanese Christian .

1864[link]

As part of the Tanzimat reforms, an Ottoman law passed in 1864 provided for a standard provincial administration throughout the empire with the Eyalets becoming smaller Vilayets governed by a Wali or governor still appointed by the Porte but with new provincial assemblies participating in administration.

1874[link]

In 1874, Jerusalem became a Mutesarrifiyyet gaining a special administrative status.

1877[link]

Allied Occupied Territories in 1918's Syria

In 1877, the subdivisions of Syria were Aleppo Vilayet (Arabic: ولاية حلب), Zor Sanjak (Arabic: سنجق دير الزور), Beirut Vilayet (Arabic: ولاية بيروت), Damascus Vilayet (Arabic: ولاية سورية); Mutesarrifiyyet of Mount Lebanon (Arabic: متصرفية جبل لبنان); Mutesarrifiyyet of Jerusalem (Arabic: متصرفية القدس الشريف)

References[link]

• Bayyat, Fadil The Ottoman State in the Arab Scope (Arabic, 2007)

See also[link]

• History of Syria
• Roman Syria
• Sykes-Picot Agreement
• Arab Kingdom of Syria
• French Mandate of Syria
• Southern Syria

External links[link]

Ottoman History Podcast: History of Ottoman Syria

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Syrian Arab Republic الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "Homat el Diyar" "Guardians of the Land"
Capital		Damascus 33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.5°N 36.3°E / 33.5; 36.3
Largest city		Aleppo
Official language(s)		Arabic1
Demonym		Syrian
Government		Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic[1]
-	President	Bashar al-Assad
-	Prime Minister	Adel Safar
Legislature		People's Council
Independence
-	from France	17 April 1946
-	from the United Arab Republic	28 September 1961
Area
-	Total	185,180 km2 (89th) 71,479 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.1
Population
-	July 2012 estimate	22,530,746[2] (53rd)
-	Density	118.3/km2 (101st) 306.5/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2010 estimate
-	Total	$107.831 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$5,040[3]
GDP (nominal)		2010 estimate
-	Total	$59.957 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$2,802[3]
HDI (2011)		0.632[4] (medium) (119th)
Currency		Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone		EET (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the		Right
Internet TLD		.sy, سوريا.
Calling code		9632
1	Arabic is the official language; spoken languages and varieties are: Syrian Arabic, North Mesopotamian Arabic, Kurmanji Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian, Turkish[5]
2	02 from Lebanon

Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية‎ Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎ al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah  Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.

In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world,^[6] was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.

The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).^[7]

The modern Syrian state was established after the First World War as a French mandate, and represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Arab Levant. It gained independence in April 1946, as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949–1971. Between 1958 and 1961, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt, which was terminated by a military coup in Syria. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered to be non-democratic.^[8] Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1971.^[9]

Since 2011, the Syrian government has faced massive protests as part of the Arab Spring, has been suspended from the Arab League and has faced widespread criticism for its crackdown on protestors and armed groups which has resulted in thousands of casualties, according to the opposition. The Friends of Syria Group, a collection of Arab and Western governments opposed to the Assad government, recognized the Syrian National Council as "a legitimate representative" of Syrians protesting against the government.^[10] In addition, in late May 2012, a number of countries expelled Syrian diplomats in response to the Houla massacre, the execution of over 90 people in an attack that in total killed 108 people (among which 49 children and 34 women). ^[11]

Etymology[link]

The name Syria is derived from the ancient Greek name for Syrians: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, which the Greeks applied without distinction to the Assyrians.^[12][13] A number of modern scholars argued that the Greek word related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur.^[14] Others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon.^[15] However, the discovery of the Çineköy inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria.

The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene.^[16]

By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern day Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Iraq.^[17]

Geography[link]

Syria lies between latitudes 32° and 38° N, and longitudes 35° and 43° E. It consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of the country bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. The Northeast of the country "Al Jazira" and the South "Hawran" are important agricultural areas.^[18] The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of civilization".^[19]

The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are mild. Because of the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.^[18] Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of Suwaydiyah, Qaratshui, Rumayian, and Tayyem, near Dayr az–Zawr. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.^[20]

History[link]

Female figurine, Syria, 5000 BC. Ancient Orient Museum.

Since approximately 10,000 BC Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture (PPNA) where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic people used vessels made of stone, gyps and burnt lime (Vaiselles blanches). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age.

Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in northern Syria, an Italian mission led by Prof. Paolo Matthiae discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Anatolia and east to Iraq from 2500 to 2400 BC Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of Sumer and Akkad, as well as with peoples to the northwest. Gifts from Pharaoh found during excavations confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages. The Eblan civilization was likely conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BC; the city was restored as the nation of the Amorites a few centuries later and flourished through the early second millennium BC until conquered by the Hittites.

During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites(Phoenicians) and Arameans as part of the general disruptions associated with the Sea Peoples; the Phoenicians settled along the coastline of these areas as well as in the west (Now Lebanon and the current Syrian coast), in the area already known for its cedars. Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period, as it was a marchland between their various empires. Eventually the Persians took control of Syria as part of their general control of Southwest Asia; this control transferred to the Macedonians after Alexander the Great's conquests and thence to the Romans and the Byzantines.

In 83 BC Syria fell under the rule of Tigranes the Great; the King of Armenia. The Armenians maintained a rule of 13 years over Syria, which was finally turned into a Roman Province in 64 BC.

Ebla civilization[link]

100 Syrian pound note with Philip the Arab

Clay tablet from Ebla's archive

Around the excavated city of Ebla near Idlib city in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Anatolia and east to Iraq from 2500 to 2400 BC. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC, and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of Sumer and Akkad, as well as with peoples to the northwest.^[21] Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages, designated as Paleo-Canaanite.^[21]

However, more recent classifications of the Eblaite language has shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language.^[22] The Eblan civilization was likely conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BC; the city was restored, as the nation of the Amorites, a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium BC until conquered by the Hittites.^[23]

Antiquity and early Christian era[link]

Roman theatre in Bosra

Philippus Araps, Roman Emperor

During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated with the Sea Peoples. The Phoenicians settled along the coast of Northern Canaan (Lebanon), which was already known for its towering cedars. Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period; the land between their various empires being marsh.^[21]

Eventually, the Persians took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this dominion was transferred to the Ancient Macedonians and Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquests and the Seleucid Empire. The capital of this Empire (founded in 312 BC) was situated at Antioch, part of historical Syria, but just inside the Turkish border today. Pompey the Great captured Antioch in 64 BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this region passed to the Romans and then the Byzantines.^[21]

In the Roman Empire period, the city of Antioch was the third largest city in the empire after Rome and Alexandria. With an estimated population of 500,000 at its peak, Antioch was one of the major centers of trade and industry in the ancient world. The population of Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).^[24]

The Roman Emperor Alexander Severus, who was emperor from 222 to 235, was Syrian. His cousin Elagabalus, who was emperor from 218 to 222, was also Syrian and his family held hereditary rights to the high priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal at Emesa (modern Homs) in Syria. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), emperor from 244 to 249.^[24]

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul, was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys. (Acts 9:1–43 )

The desert city of Palmyra, whose ruins are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, grew large in the Syrian desert in the 1st and 2nd centuries (A.D.).

Islamic era[link]

Church of Saint Simeon Stylites near Aleppo is considered to be one of the oldest surviving churches in the world