Syncretism /ˈsɪŋkrətɪzəm/ is the combining of different (often contradictory) beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. Syncretism may involve the merger and analogising of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus asserting an underlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths.

Syncretism also occurs commonly in expressions of arts and culture (known as eclecticism) as well as politics (syncretic politics).

Nomenclature, orthography and etymology[link]

The Oxford English Dictionary first attests the word syncretism in English in 1618. It derives from modern Latin syncretismus, drawing on Greek συγκρητισμός (synkretismos), meaning "Cretan federation."

The Greek word occurs in Plutarch's (1st century AD) essay on "Fraternal Love" in his Moralia (2.490b). He cites the example of the Cretans, who compromised and reconciled their differences and came together in alliance when faced with external dangers. "And that is their so-called Syncretism."

Erasmus probably coined the modern usage of the Latin word in his Adagia ("Adages"), published in the winter of 1517–1518, to designate the coherence of dissenters in spite of their differences in theological opinions. In a letter to Melanchthon of April 22, 1519, Erasmus specifically adduced the Cretans of Plutarch as an example of his adage "Concord is a mighty rampart".

Social and political roles[link]

Overt syncretism in folk belief may show cultural acceptance of an alien or previous tradition, but the "other" cult may survive or infiltrate without authorized syncresis nevertheless. For example, some Conversos developed a sort of cult for martyr-victims of the Spanish Inquisition, thus incorporating elements of Catholicism while resisting it.

Some religious movements have embraced overt syncretism, such as the case of melding Shintō beliefs into Buddhism or the amalgamation of Germanic and Celtic pagan views into Christianity during its spread into Gaul, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. Indian influences are seen in the practice of Shi'i Islam in Trinidad. Others have strongly rejected it as devaluing and compromising precious and genuine distinctions; examples of this include post-Exile Second Temple Judaism, Islam, and most of Protestant Christianity.

Syncretism tends to facilitate coexistence and unity between otherwise different cultures and worldviews (intercultural competence), a factor that has recommended it to rulers of multi-ethnic realms. Conversely, the rejection of syncretism, usually in the name of "piety" and "orthodoxy", may help to generate, bolster or authenticate a sense of uncompromised cultural unity in a well-defined minority or majority.

Religious syncretism[link]

Religious syncretism exhibits blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorporation into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated traditions. This can occur for many reasons, and the latter scenario happens quite commonly in areas where multiple religious traditions exist in proximity and function actively in the culture, or when a culture is conquered, and the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but do not succeed in entirely eradicating the old beliefs or, especially, practices.

Religions may have syncretic elements to their beliefs or history, but adherents of so-labeled systems often frown on applying the label, especially adherents who belong to "revealed" religious systems, such as the Abrahamic religions, or any system that exhibits an exclusivist approach. Such adherents sometimes see syncretism as a betrayal of their pure truth. By this reasoning, adding an incompatible belief corrupts the original religion, rendering it no longer true. Indeed, critics of a specific syncretistic trend may sometimes use the word "syncretism" as a disparaging epithet, as a charge implying that those who seek to incorporate a new view, belief, or practice into a religious system actually distort the original faith. Non-exclusivist systems of belief, on the other hand, may feel quite free to incorporate other traditions into their own. Others state that the term syncretism is an elusive one,^[1] and can be applied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of Christianity or Islam of beliefs or practices introduced from somewhere else. The consequences under this definition, according to Keith Fernando, is a fatal compromise of the religion's integrity.

In modern secular society, religious innovators sometimes create new religions syncretically as a mechanism to reduce inter-religious tension and enmity, often with the effect of offending the original religions in question. Such religions, however, do maintain some appeal to a less exclusivist audience. Discussions of some of these blended religions appear in the individual sections below.

Ancient Greece[link]

Classical Athens was exclusive in matters of religion. The Decree of Diopithes made the introduction of and belief in foreign Gods a criminal offence and only Greeks were allowed to worship in Athenian temples and festivals as foreigners were considered impure. Syncretism functioned as a feature of Hellenistic Ancient Greek religion although only outside of Greece. Overall, Hellenistic culture in the age that followed Alexander the Great itself showed syncretist features, essentially blending of Mesopotamian, Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan–Roman) elements within an Hellenic formula. The Egyptian god Amun developed as the Hellenized Zeus Ammon after Alexander the Great went into the desert to seek out Amun's oracle at Siwa.^{[citation needed]}

Such identifications derive from interpretatio graeca, the Hellenic habit of identifying gods of disparate mythologies with their own. When the proto-Greeks (peoples whose language would evolve into Greek proper) first arrived in the Aegean and on the mainland of modern-day Greece early in the 2nd millennium BCE, they found localized nymphs and divinities already connected with every important feature of the landscape: mountain, cave, grove and spring all had their own locally venerated deity. The countless epithets of the Olympian gods reflect their syncretic identification with these various figures. One defines "Zeus Molossos" (worshipped only at Dodona) as "the god identical to Zeus as worshipped by the Molossians at Dodona". Much of the apparently arbitrary and trivial mythic fabling results from later mythographers' attempts to explain these obscure epithets.^{[citation needed]}

Judaism[link]

In Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud made a case for Judaism arising out of the pre-existing monotheism that was briefly imposed upon Egypt during the rule of Akhenaten. Aten, the disk of the Sun in ancient Egyptian mythology, and originally an aspect of Ra, was chosen as the sole deity for Akhenaten's new religion. The "Code of Hammurabi" is also cited as a likely starting point for the Jewish Ten Commandments. Hammurabi was from the Mesopotamian culture that revered Marduk, among others. Judaism fought lengthy battles against syncretist tendencies: note the case of the golden calf and the railing of prophets against temple prostitution, witchcraft and local fertility cults, as told in the Tanakh. On the other hand, some scholars hold that Judaism refined its concept of monotheism and adopted features such as its eschatology, angelology and demonology through contacts with Zoroastrianism.^[2][3][4]

In spite of the Jewish halakhic prohibitions on polytheism, idolatry, and associated practices (avodah zarah), several combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up: Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism, Judeo-Paganism, Messianic Judaism, Jewish Mormonism, and others such as Judeo-Christianity. Until relatively recently, China had a Jewish community which had adopted some Confucian practices.^{[citation needed]} Several of the Jewish Messiah claimants (such as Jacob Frank) and the Sabbateans came to mix Cabalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam.

Roman world[link]

The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greek deities with similar figures in the Etruscan-Roman tradition, though without usually copying cult practices. (For details, see Interpretatio graeca.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also wide favor in Rome: Serapis, Isis and Mithras, for example. Cybele as worshipped in Rome essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterranean goddess. The Romans imported the Greek god Dionysus into Rome, where he merged with the Latin mead god Liber, and converted the Anatolian Sabazios into the Roman Sabazius.

The degree of correspondence varied: Jupiter makes perhaps a better match for Zeus than the rural huntress Diana does for the feared Artemis. Ares does not quite match Mars. The Romans physically imported the Anatolian goddess Cybele into Rome from her Anatolian cult-center Pessinos in the form of her original aniconic archaic stone idol; they identified her as Magna Mater and gave her a matronly, iconic image developed in Hellenistic Pergamum.

Likewise, when the Romans encountered Celts and Germanic peoples, they mingled these peoples' gods with their own, creating Sulis Minerva, Apollo Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the war-assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaks of Germanic worshippers of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Hercules as Thor and Mercury as Odin.

Christianity[link]

Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split into eastern and western rites during the Great Schism. It became involved, however, with the rifts of the Protestant Reformation, with Desiderius Erasmus's readings of Plutarch. Even earlier, Syncretism was a fundamental aspect of the efforts of Neoplatonists such as Marsilio Ficino to reform the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.^[5] In 1615, David Pareus of Heidelberg urged Christians to a "pious syncretism"^{[citation needed]} in opposing the Antichrist, but few 17th-century Protestants discussed the compromises that might effect a reconciliation with the Catholic Church: Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche and Abraham Calovius (1612–85) opposed the Lutheran Georg Calisen "Calixtus" (1586–1656) of the University of Helmstedt for his "syncretism".^[6] (See: Syncretistic Controversy.)

Catholicism in Central and South America has integrated a number of elements derived from indigenous and slave cultures in those areas (see the Caribbean and modern sections); while many African Initiated Churches demonstrate an integration of Protestant and traditional African beliefs. In Asia the revolutionary movements of Taiping (19th-century China) and God's Army (Karen in the 1990s) have blended Christianity and traditional beliefs. The Catholic Church allows some symbols and traditions to be carried over from older belief systems, so long as they are remade to fit into a Christian worldview; syncretism of other religions with Catholicism, such as Voudun or Santería, is condemned by the Church.

One can contrast Christian syncretism with contextualization or inculturation, the practice of making Christianity relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a change in the styles or expression of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and building styles into churches in other parts of the world, in a contextualization approach, they would build churches, sing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style. Some Jesuit missionaries adapted local systems and images to teach Christianity, as did the Portuguese in China.

In this view, syncretism implies compromising the message of Christianity by merging it with not just a culture, but another religion, common examples being animism or ancestor worship.^{[citation needed]}

The Latter Day Saint movement can be framed as a syncretic outgrowth of main-line Christianity.^[7]

Syncretistic Controversy[link]

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The syncretistic controversy was the theological debate provoked by the efforts of Georg Calixt and his supporters to secure a basis on which the Lutherans could make overtures to the Roman Catholic and the Reformed Churches. It lasted from 1640 to 1686. Calixt, a professor at Helmstedt, had through travels in England, the Netherlands, Italy, and France, acquaintance with the different churches and their representatives, and extensive study, developed a more open attitude toward the different religious bodies than had the majority of his contemporary Lutheran theologians. While the latter firmly adhered to the "pure doctrine", Calixt tended not to regard doctrine as the one thing necessary for a Christian, nor did he regard all doctrine as equally certain and important. Consequently, he advocated unity between those who agreed on the fundamental minimum, with liberty as to all less fundamental points. In regard to Catholicism, he would have (as Melanchthon once would have) conceded to the pope a primacy human in origin, and he also admitted that one might call the Mass a sacrifice.

The theological faculties of Helmstedt, Rinteln, and Königsberg supported Calixt; opposed were those of Leipzig, Jena, Strasburg, Giessen, Marburg, and Greifswald. Abraham Calov opposed Calixt. The Elector of Saxony, for political reasons, opposed the Reformed Church, because the other two secular electors (Palatine and Brandenburg) were "reformed", and were competing with him. In 1649 he wrote to the three dukes of Brunswick, who maintained Helmstedt as their common university, and expressed the objections of his Lutheran professors, complaining that Calixt wished to extract the elements of truth from all religions, fuse all into a new religion, and provoke a schism.

In 1650 Calov became a professor at Wittenberg, and quickly attacked the Syncretists in Helmstedt. An outburst of polemical writings followed. In 1650 the dukes of Brunswick responded with the desire to limit the discord, and proposed a meeting of the political councillors. Saxony, however, did not favour this suggestion. An attempt to convene theologians was unsuccessful. The theologians of Wittenberg and Leipzig condemned 98 heresies of the Helmstedt theologians. They urged that this "Formula of Concord" be signed by everyone who wished to remain in the Lutheran Church. Outside Wittenberg and Leipzig, however, it was not accepted, and Calixt's death in 1656 ushered in five years of almost undisturbed peace.

The controversy broke out afresh in Hesse-Kassel, where Landgrave William VI sought to effect a union between his Lutheran and Reformed subjects, or at least to lessen their mutual hatred. In 1661 he had a colloquy held in Kassel between the Lutheran theologians of the University of Rinteln and the Reformed theologians of the University of Marburg. Enraged at this revival of the syncretism of Calixt, the Wittenberg theologians called on the Rinteln professors to make their submission, whereupon the latter answered with a detailed defence. Another long series of polemical treatises followed.

In Brandenburg-Prussia in 1663, the Great Elector (Frederick William I) forbade preachers from speaking of the Evangelical disputes. A long colloquy in Berlin (September 1662 to May 1663) led only to fresh discord. Growing impatient, the Elector ended his conferences in 1664 and published another "syncretistic" edict. Since the edict disallowed the Formula of Concord, one of the Lutheran Confessions as contained in the Book of Concord, many Lutheran clergy did not comply with the edict. Whoever refused to sign the form declaring his intention to observe this regulation was deprived of his position, including Paul Gerhardt, a pastor and noted hymnwriter. The citizens of Berlin petitioned to have him restored, and owing to their repeated requests, the Elector made an exception for Gerhardt. His conscience did not allow him to retain the post and Gernardt lived in Berlin for more than a year without fixed employment. During this time his wife also died, leaving him with one surviving child. The Elector withdrew the edict a few months later, but Gerhardt's patroness, Electress Louisa Henrietta, had died, so he was still without a position.

Calixt's son, Friedrich Ulrich Calixt, defended his father's views against the Wittenberg theologians's calling his school "un-Lutheran" and heretical. The younger Calixt tried to show that his father's doctrine did not differ much from that of his opponents. Wittenberg had a new champion in Ægidius Strauch, who attacked Calixt with all his resources of learning, polemics, and wit. The Helmstedt side was defended by the celebrated scholar and statesman, Hermann Conring. The Saxon princes recognized that trying to carry through the "Consensus" might lead to a fresh schism in the Lutheran Church, and endanger its position related to Catholic power. They forbade the Saxon theologians from continuing the controversy in writing. Negotiations for peace then resulted, with Duke Ernst the Pious of Saxe-Gotha especially active. They considered creating a permanent college of theologians to decide theological disputes. However, the negotiations with the courts of Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Denmark, and Sweden remained as fruitless as those with the theological faculties, except that peace was maintained until 1675.

Calov renewed hostilities. He attacked not only Calixt, but also and particularly the moderate John Musæus of Jena. Calov succeeded in having the University of Jena and Musæus compelled to renounce syncretism. But this was his last victory. The Elector renewed his prohibition against polemical writings. Calov seemed to give way for a time. Although he returned to his attack on the syncretists, he died in 1686, and the controversy ended.

The Syncretist Controversy had the result of lessening religious hatred and of promoting mutual forbearance. Catholicism benefited, as some Protestants came to better understand and appreciate it. In Protestant theology, it prepared the way for the sentimental theology of Pietism to become more popular than Lutheran orthodoxy.

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Syncretism". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. 

Islam[link]

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The mystical tradition in Islam, known as Sufism appears somewhat syncretic in nature, not only in its origins but also in its beliefs since it espouses the concepts of Wahdat-al-Wujud and Wahdat-al-Shuhud that are, to a great extent, synonymous to Pantheism and Panentheism and sometimes Monism although the traditional Islamic belief system reject them and stress on strict monotheism called Tawhid.

Druze religion[link]

The Druzes integrated elements of Ismaili Islam with Gnosticism and Platonism.

Barghawata[link]

The Barghawata kingdom followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism) with elements of Sunni, Shi'ite and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. Supposedly, they had their own Qur'an in the Berber language comprising 80 suras under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty Salih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be the final Mahdi, and that Isa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.

Bahá'í Faith[link]

The Bahá'ís follow Bahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, and Abraham. This acceptance of other religious founders has encouraged some to regard the Bahá'í religion as a syncretic faith. However, Bahá'ís and the Bahá'í writings explicitly reject this view. Bahá'ís consider Bahá'u'lláh's revelation an independent, though related, revelation from God. Its relationship to previous dispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. They regard beliefs held in common as evidence of truth, progressively revealed by God throughout human history, and culminating in (at present) the Bahá'í revelation. Bahá'ís have their own sacred scripture, interpretations, laws and practices that, for Bahá'ís, supersede those of other faiths.^[8][9]

Caribbean religions and cultures[link]

The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (The technical term "Creole" may apply to anyone born and raised in the region, regardless of ethnicity.) The shared histories of the Caribbean islands include long periods of European Imperialism (mainly by Spain, France, and the United Kingdom) and the importation of African slaves (primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands, producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean.

The Rastafari movement, founded in Jamaica, syncretizes vigorously, mixing elements from the Bible, Marcus Garvey's Pan Africanism movement, Hinduism, and Caribbean culture.

Another highly syncretic religion of the area, vodou, combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, and Christian (especially Roman Catholic) beliefs.

See the modern section for other Caribbean syncretisms.

Indian traditions[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia, assimilating elements of various diverse religious traditions.^{[citation needed]} One example of this is the Yoga Vasistha.^[10]

The Mughal emperor Akbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire, propounded Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire

Meivazhi (Tamil: மெய்வழி) is a syncretic monotheistic minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India. Its focus is spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death, through the teachings. Mevaizhi preaches the Oneness of essence message of all the previous major scriptures - particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Christianity - allowing membership regardless of creed. Meivazhi's disciples are thousands of people belonging once to 69 different castes of different religions being united as one family of Meivazhi Religion.

Sikhism is a syncrentic monotheistic religion consisting of the Hindu concepts of reincarnation and the Abrahamic (especially the Muslim version) concept of monotheism.

Other modern syncretic religions[link]

Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the New World religions Candomblé, 21 Division, Vodou and Santería, which analogize various Yorùbá and other African deities to the Roman Catholic saints. Some sects of Candomblé have also incorporated Native American deities, and Umbanda combined African deities with Kardecist spiritualism.

Hoodoo is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by some African American communities in the Southern United States. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America include Louisiana Voodoo as well as Pennsylvania Dutch Pow-wow, in which practitioners profess to invoke power through the Christian God.

Many historical Native American religious movements have incorporated Christian European influence, like the Native American Church, the Ghost Dance, and the religion of Handsome Lake.

Unitarian Universalism also provides an example of a modern syncretic religion. It traces its roots to Universalist and Unitarian Christian congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freely incorporates elements from other religious and non-religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as "Christian."

Theosophy and the Theosophy-based Ascended Master Teachings are syncretic religions that combine deities primarily from Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism into an elaborate Spiritual Hierarchy.

Universal Sufism seeks the unity of all people and religions. Universal Sufis strive to "realize and spread the knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faiths and beliefs may, of themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences be rooted out."^[11]

In Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, Catholicism and Kardecism.

Several new Japanese religions, (such as Konkokyo and Seicho-No-Ie), are syncretistic.

The Nigerian religion Chrislam combines Christian and Islamic doctrines.

Thelema is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, including Hermeticism, Eastern Mysticism, Yoga, 19th century libertarian philosophies (e.g. Nietzsche), occultism, and the Kabbalah, as well as ancient Egyptian and Greek religion.

Examples of strongly syncretist Romantic and modern movements with some religious elements include mysticism, occultism, theosophy, modern astrology, Neopaganism, and the New Age movement.

In China, most of the population follows syncretist religions combining Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and elements of Confucianism. Out of all Chinese believers, approximately 85.7% adhere to Chinese traditional religion, as many profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist at the same time. Many of the pagodas in China are dedicated to both Buddhist and Taoist deities.

In Réunion, the Malbars combine elements of Hinduism and Christianity.

The Unification Church, founded by religious leader Sun Myung Moon in South Korea in 1954. Its teachings are based on the Bible, but include new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism and Christianity and incorporates Asian traditions.^[12][13]

Cultures and societies[link]

Enlightenment[link]

The modern, rational non-pejorative connotations of syncretism date from Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie articles: Eclecticisme and Syncrétistes, Hénotiques, ou Conciliateurs. Diderot portrayed syncretism as the concordance of eclectic sources.

Fiction[link]

• Orange Catholic Bible, Zensunni, and Zensufi, all from the 20th-century science fiction Dune series by Frank Herbert.
• Life of Pi (2001) by Yann Martel
• Brave New World (1932) by Aldous Huxley
• The First Amalgamated Church in Futurama

New media art[link]

• Roy Ascott
• Syncretic Reality: art, process, and potentiality

See also[link]

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Syncretism.

• Hermeneutics
• New religious movement
• Parody religion
• Three teachings (Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism)

Notes[link]

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. It needs attention from an expert on the subject. Tagged since May 2010. Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since May 2010. It may contain improper references to self-published sources. Tagged since March 2011.

Walter Bowman Russell (May 19, 1871 – May 19, 1963) was an American polymath known^[1] for his achievements as a painter, sculptor, author and builder and less well known as a natural philosopher and for his unified theory in physics and cosmogony.^[2][3] He posited that the universe was founded on a unifying principle of rhythmic balanced interchange. This physical theory, laid out primarily in his books The Secret of Light (1947) and The Message of the Divine Iliad (1948–49), has not been accepted by mainstream scientists.^[4] Russell asserted that this was mainly due to a difference in the assumptions made about the existence of mind and matter; Russell assumes the existence of mind as cause while he believes that scientists in general assume the existence of mind as effect.^[5] Russell was also proficient in philosophy, music, ice skating, and was a professor at the institution he founded, the University of Science and Philosophy. He believed mediocrity is self-inflicted and genius is self-bestowed.^[6] The content of his public lectures and his writing about living philosophy place him firmly in the New Thought Movement,^[7]

In 1963, Walter Cronkite in the national television evening news, commenting on Dr. Walter Russell's death, referred to him as "... the Leonardo da Vinci of our time."^[8] After Walter Russell died (which the Russells referred to as being "refolded"), his wife Lao Russell kept USP going successfully until she herself died in 1988.^[9]

Biography[link]

Born in Boston, MA on May 19, 1871, Russell left formal schooling at the age of nine (ten in some accounts) in order to help support his family. At age thirteen he became a church organist.^[10] He paid his own way through Massachusetts Normal School of Art. His jobs included: art editor at Collier's Magazine, portrait painter, author and lecturer, architect (Hotel des Artists (rumored involvement), West 67th St., New York;^[11] Alwyn Court at 58th and Seventh Avenue; a Gothic studio opposite the Museum of Natural History on 79th St.), sculptor (including busts of Mark Twain, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Thomas Alva Edison, etc.).^[12]

In 1894 Russell married his first wife Helen Andrews, with whom he had two daughters.^[13]

Russell also studied physics, and in his latter scientific period he advocated the transmission or acquisition of energy from what he referred to as the 'fabric of space'.^{[citation needed]}

His Swannanoa estate was the setting for his University of Science and Philosophy from the late 1940s to the early 1990s. He lived there with his second wife Lao Russell till May 19, 1963 and she continued his work at the University until May 5, 1988. The Russells welcomed visitors to Swannanoa. Today, the place is closed down.^[14]

Born Daisy Cook in England, and later known as Daisy Stebbing, Lao Russell (November 1904 – May 5, 1988) emigrated to the United States in the 1930s, where she marketed her own beauty products, such as Beautipon, a breast enhancement cream, and Slimcream, a breast reduction cream. She advertised these in publications such as Popular Songs magazine, buying small classified ads. She was an admirer of Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of Christian Science. Her relationship with Walter Russell began in 1946, when she read The Man Who Tapped The Secrets Of The Universe and looked him up, eventually leading to Russell's re-marriage "...and who shall deny that her simple philosophy tapped the secret of the universe."^[15] Students at the University are not restricted to a study of Walter Russell scientific theories but they can also seek enlightenment in the works of Lao Russell on such topics among others as love, sex and reincarnation.^[16]

Legacy[link]

Walter Russell presented theories on the "fundamental principles of energy dynamics," the nature of matter and the progression of the evolution of matter, and the depiction of the universe as a continuously changing, creating effort sustained by the systematic work effort of the energy of light. His depictions laws was a nonstandard cosmology. Students of his work today call it "Russelian science."^[17]

Russell portrayed the principles of the unity of universal law in a way which he believed brought many mainstream theories into direct conflict, or incompleteness, such as some of the principles of Isaac Newton e. g. weight as Dr. Russell explains: "... Weight should be measured dually as temperature is. It should have an above and below zero... "^[18] He presented a view of the periodic table of elements that led him to the prediction of the existence of plutonium and the two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium^{[19][unreliable source?]} which were known in theory but as yet undiscovered in nature, (as well as elements which are still undiscovered in nature) e. g. the inert gases 'alphanon', 'betanon' and 'gammanon'^{[19][unreliable source?]} as well as the creation of heavy water.^{[19][unreliable source?]} Russell’s periodic table has not been adopted by mainstream chemistry. However in 1923, Charles Steinmetz of General Electric was able to corroborate the existence of some of the predicted transuranium elements by direct experimentation in the laboratory which helped to usher in the Atomic Age, in 1945.^{[20][unreliable source?]}

Such conflicts have left the work of Russell in obscurity. Robert Mayer claims this is because his cosmology, while complete^[21] in itself, would require upon its academic and scientific acceptance not only the upheaval of many scientific theories, but also matters such as the nature of God . Once, when asked how he acquired his scientific knowledge, he answered: "...I always looked for the Cause behind things and didn't fritter away my time analyzing Effect. All knowledge exists as Cause. It is simple. It is limited to Light of Mind and the electric wave of motion which records God's thinking in matter."^[22] At one point, an impressed Nikola Tesla advised Dr. Russell to lock all the new knowledge in the Smithsonian for one thousand years or so, or until man is ready for it.^{[23][unreliable source?]}

In 1974, in the preface to The Universal One, Lao Russell asserted that "...Dr. Russell's thought and awareness matured in expression and he clarified and rectified errors he felt that he had committed in his earlier writings."

Besides his scientific work, Russell also worked in an array of other fields, including the arts, architecture, business and writing.^[22][24] He was friend and advisor to Theodore Roosevelt^[25] and gave lectures about the connection between his universal principles and the applications of these principles to human life.^[26] The University of Science and Philosophy publishes his books and perpetuates his teachings.

Astronomical thermodynamics[link]

Walter Russell asserted that neither light nor heat flows from one point of space to another. He stated the same of electricity and magnetism; that neither is a flow varying as the inverse of the square of the distance according to Coulomb's Law, but a reproduction as the inverse of the cube of space. "Light does not travel. The light and heat which appear to come from the star or the sun has never left the star or the sun. That which man sees as light and feels as heat is the reproduced counterpart of the light and of the heat which is its cause."^[27]

Nuclear reactors[link]

Lao and Walter Russell wrote the book Atomic Suicide? as a warning against the misuse of nuclear power through the proliferation of nuclear power plants. According to Walter Russell, the increasing heat and pressure generated on the planet by the increasing use of nuclear energy would eventually cause major global changes of a catastrophic nature.

Russell and the New Age[link]

The term New Age in its contemporary sense can be traced back at least to 1888. Walter Russell spoke of "... this New Age philosophy of the spiritual re-awakening of man ... Man's purpose in this New Age is to acquire more and more knowledge ..." in his essay "Power Through Knowledge," which was published in 1944.^[28]

Russell accepted Richard Maurice Bucke's premise that not only the human body, but also human consciousness, had evolved in stages, that human consciousness periodically made iterative leaps, such as that from animal awareness to rational self-awareness, many millennia ago. Russell believed that humankind was on the brink of making another key, evolutionary leap in consciousness. The next cycle of human evolution, said Bucke, would be from rational self-consciousness to spiritual super-consciousness on the order of that experienced by sages, religious figures, and mystics of the past 2,500 years.

In 1947–48, Russell wrote: “This New Age is marking the dawn of a new world-thought. That new thought is a new cosmic concept of the value of man to man. The whole world is discovering that all mankind is one and that the unity of man is real – not just an abstract idea. Mankind is beginning to discover that the hurt of any man hurts every man, and, conversely, the uplift of any man uplifts every man” (Message of the Divine Iliad, vol. 2, p. 69). Russell’s predictions about what the New Age would bring included “a marriage between religion and science” (MDI p 257). Russell appeared to believe that this "New Age" would begin in 1946, based on a vision he had in 1921.

The most extensive treatment of Russell's ideas are found in his book, “A Course in Cosmic Consciousness.” Russell's ideas have also been digested by others.

University of Science and Philosophy[link]

The University of Science and Philosophy was a home-study educational institution founded in 1949 by Russell and his wife Lao Russell, originally located at the Swannanoa estate in Virginia, USA.

The original idea was based on the Twilight Club, originating in 1870 with Herbert Spencer and Ralph Waldo Emerson and dedicated to the "upliftment of mankind." In 1921, it was reorganized and renamed "Society of Arts and Sciences" by Walter Russell, Edwin Markham and Thomas J. Watson Sr., Founder and Chairman of IBM.^[29]

In the 1920s and 1930s, Walter Russell and Thomas J. Watson Sr. delivered a series of lectures on business ethics.^[30]

Books[link]

• The Sea Children, 1901
• The Bending of the Twig, 1903^[31]
• The Age of Innocence, 1904^[32]
• The Universal One, 1926
• The Russell Genero-Radiative Concept or The Cyclic Theory of Continuous Motion, L. Middleditch Co., 1930
• The Secret of Light, 1st ed., 1947, 3rd ed., Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1994, ISBN 1-879605-44-9
• The Message of the Divine Iliad, vol. 1, 1948, vol 2. , 1949
• The Book of Early Whisperings, 1949
• The Home Study Course, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), 1st ed., 1950–52
• Scientific Answer to Human Relations, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1951
• A New Concept of the Universe, Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1953
• Atomic Suicide?, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1957
• The World Crisis: Its Explanation and Solution, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1958
• The One-World Purpose, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1960

Books published after his death:

• Think: The First Principle of Business Ethics, Univ of Science & Philosophy, 2nd ed., 2003, ISBN 1-879605-73-2
• Your Day and Night, (excerpt from The Message of the Divine Iliad), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1993, ISBN 1-879605-09-0
• The Sculptor Searches for Mark Twain's Immortality, (talk given 1934), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1991, ISBN 1-879605-31-7
• The Electric Nature of the Universe, (talk given 1936), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1991, ISBN 1-879605-00-7
• Space and the Hydrogen Age, (talk given 1939), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1989
• The Immortality of Man, (talk given 1944), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1991, ISBN 1-879605-33-3
• The Fifth Kingdom Man, (talk given 1946), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1991 ,ISBN 1-879605-01-5
• Genius Inherent In Everyone, (talk given 1946), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1994, ISBN 1-879605-36-8
• The Secret of Working Knowingly with God, (talk given 1946), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1993, ISBN 1-879605-38-4
• The Self Multiplication Principle, (talk given 1946), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1993, ISBN 1-879605-39-2
• The Meaning and Acquisition of Wealth, (talk given 1946), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1993, ISBN 1-879605-41-4
• The Dawn of a New Day in Human Relations, (talk given 1951), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1991, ISBN 1-879605-32-5
• Caring for Your Physical & Spiritual Health, (talk given 1951), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1994, ISBN 1-879605-40-6
• The Quest of the Grail, (unfinished manuscript), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1991, ISBN 1-879605-02-3
• Where Do I Go When I Die, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), (excerpts from other books), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1992, ISBN 1-879605-37-6
• The Electrifying Power of Man-Woman Balance, (in cooperation with Lao Russell), (is the same asThe One-World Purpose except 2 projects at the end of the book are missing), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1988

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Clark, Glenn, The Man Who Tapped the Secrets of the Universe, Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1989 ISBN 1-879605-07-4
• Binder, Timothy A., In the Wave Lies the Secret of Creation, (contains a lot of unpublished drawings of Walter Russell), Univ of Science & Philosophy, 1995, ISBN 1-879605-45-7
• Hardy, Charles W., "A Worthy Messenger: The Life's Work of Walter Russell," 2011. ISBN 978-0-692-01400-4

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Walter Russell

• Walter-Russell.de
• The University of Science and Philosophy
• Cosmic Gnostic Radio Tribute to Walter Russell
• The Walter Russell & Lao Russell Web Ring Page
• [1]

David Adie Whitehead
Whitehead (right) with General Blamey on Tarakan, 8 May 1945
Nickname	Torpy
Born	30 September 1896 Leith, Scotland
Died	23 October 1992(1992-10-23) (aged 96)
Allegiance	Australia
Service/branch	Australian Army
Years of service	1913 – 1954
Rank	Brigadier
Commands held	26th Brigade 2/32nd Battalion 2/2nd Machine Gun Battalion 1st Machine Gun Regiment
Battles/wars	First World War Western Front Second World War North African Campaign Second Battle of El Alamein South West Pacific Theatre Salamaua-Lae campaign Huon Peninsula campaign Battle of Tarakan
Awards	Commander of the Order of the British Empire Distinguished Service Order & Bar Military Cross Mention in Despatches (3) Croix de guerre (France)
Other work	Combustion engineer, manager, member of the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission

David Adie Whitehead CBE, DSO & Bar, MC (30 September 1896 – 23 October 1992) was an Australian Army officer who fought in both World War I and World War II and rose to the rank of brigadier.

Biography[link]

David Whitehead enlisted in the Australian Army as a cadet lieutenant on 1 September 1913. He received officer training at Royal Military College, Duntroon in Canberra and was commissioned as an officer on 4 April 1916.^[1] Upon graduation Whitehead was seconded to the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) in France where he commanded the 23rd Machine Gun Company from April 1917 until he was made adjutant of the 3rd Machine Gun Battalion in July 1918.^[2] He was awarded the Military Cross in September 1918 for leading a battery of eight machine guns under heavy fire during an attack in late August.^[2]

Whitehead left the full-time Army after returning to Australia in 1919, but continued to serve in the part-time Citizens Military Forces (CMF). He held a number of regimental positions, and was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and command of the 1st Machine Gun Regiment in October 1937.^[2]

Following the outbreak of World War II David Whitehead enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force in March 1940 and was appointed the commander of the 2/2nd Machine Gun Battalion in May that year.^[1] He was given command of the 2/32nd Battalion in February 1942 and was promoted to brigadier in September and assumed command of the 26th Brigade.^[1] Whitehead led the brigade through the Second Battle of El Alamein during October and November in which it took part in heavy fighting.^[2]

After El Alamein Whitehead and his brigade returned to Australia in early 1943 to participate in operations against the Japanese. The 26th Brigade took part in the Landing at Lae in September 1943 and the Huon Peninsula campaign from October 1943 to January 1944.^[2] Following these campaigns the brigade returned to Australia, and did not see action again until 1945. In May 1945 Whitehead commanded the Australian landing at Tarakan. During this operation the 26th Brigade was expanded to almost the size of a division, and United States Army and Netherlands East Indies units served under Whitehead's command.^[2] Whitehead relinquished command of the 26th Brigade on 10 December 1945 and returned to Australia two days later.^[1]

Following the war Whitehead returned to citizen soldiering and was commander of the CMF 2nd Armoured Brigade from November 1947.^[2] He also served as the aide de camp to the Governor General of Australia between January 1949 and May 1952 and commanded the CMF contingent which attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II between March and June 1953.^[1] Whitehead retired from the Army in 1954.^[2]

After leaving the military Whitehead worked as a manager at Shell between 1945 and 1956. From 1956 until his retirement in 1961 he was an arbitrator with the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. David Whitehead died in 1992.^[2]

References[link]