| Revolutions of 1989 |
Top left: Round Table in Warsaw. Top right: Fall of the Berlin Wall. Middle left: Romanian Revolution. Middle right: Velvet Revolution in Prague. Bottom: Baltic Way in Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian SSR. |
| Other names |
Fall of "Communism", Collapse of "Communism", Collapse of Socialism, Fall of Socialism, Autumn of Nations, European Spring |
| Participants |
Citizens of Communist countries |
| Location |
Europe (especialy Central Europe, then South-East and Eastern Europe)
China
Communist countries in other parts of the world |
| Date |
9 March 1989 – 27 April 1992 |
| Result |
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| Eastern Bloc |
Soviet Socialist Republics
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States of the Eastern Bloc
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The Revolutions of 1989 (also known as the Fall of Communism, the Collapse of Communism, the Revolutions of Eastern Europe and the Autumn of Nations[1]) were the revolutions which overthrew the communist states in various Central and Eastern European countries.
The events began in Poland in 1989,[2][3] and continued in Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Romania. One feature common to most of these developments was the extensive use of campaigns of civil resistance demonstrating popular opposition to the continuation of one-party rule and contributing to the pressure for change.[4] Romania was the only Eastern Bloc country to overthrow its Communist regime violently.[5] The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 failed to stimulate major political changes in China. However, powerful images of courageous defiance during that protest helped to spark a precipitation of events in other parts of the globe. Among the famous anti-Communist revolutions was the fall of the Berlin Wall, which served as the symbolic gateway to German reunification in 1990.
The Soviet Union was dissolved by the end of 1991, resulting in 14 countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan) declaring their independence from the Soviet Union and the bulk of the country being succeeded by the Russian Federation. Communism was abandoned in Albania and Yugoslavia between 1990 and 1992, the latter splitting into five successor states by 1992: Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later renamed Serbia and Montenegro, and later still split into two states, Serbia and Montenegro). Czechoslovakia too was dissolved three years after the end of communist rule, splitting peacefully into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1992.[6] The impact was felt in dozens of Socialist countries. Communism was abandoned in countries such as Cambodia, Ethiopia, Mongolia and South Yemen. The collapse of Communism led commentators to declare the end of the Cold War.
The adoption of varying forms of market economy generally resulted at first in decreasing living standards in post-Communist States, together with side effects including the rise of business oligarchs in countries such as Russia, and disproportional social and economic development. Political reforms were varied but in only five countries were Communist institutions able to keep for themselves a monopoly on power, China, Cuba, North Korea, Laos, and Vietnam. Many Communist and Socialist organisations in the West turned their guiding principles over to social democracy. The European political landscape was drastically changed, with numerous Eastern Bloc countries joining NATO and stronger European economic and social integration entailed.
Ideas of Socialism had been gaining momentum among working class citizens of the world since the 19th century, these culminated in the early 20th century when several countries and subsequent nations formed their own Communist Parties. Many of the countries involved had monarchic governments and aristocratic social structures with an established nobility. Ordinarily, Socialism was undesirable within the circles of the ruling classes of the late 19th/early 20th century states; as such, Communist ideology was repressed - its champions suffered persecution while the nation on the whole was discouraged from adopting the mindset. This had been the practice even in the states which identified as exercising a multi-party system.
The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 saw the multi-ethnic Soviets overturn a previously nationalist Russian state along with its monarchy. The Bolsheviks comprised ethnicities of all entities which would compose the Soviet Union throughout its phases.
During the interwar period, Communism had been on the rise in many parts of the world (e.g. in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, it had grown popular in the urban areas throughout the 1920s). This led to a series of purges in many countries to stifle the movement.
Just as Communism had at some stage grown popular throughout the entities of Central and Eastern Europe, its image had also begun to tarnish at a later time all within the interwar period. As Socialist activists stepped up their campaigns against their oppressor regimes, they resorted to violence (including bombings and various other killings) to achieve their goal: this led large parts of the previously pro-Communist populace to lose interest in the ideology. A Communist presence forever remained in place however, but reduced from its earlier size.
After World War II, the Soviet Union had established a presence in a number of countries. There, they brought into power various Communist parties who were loyal to Moscow. The Soviets retained troops throughout the territories they had occupied. The Cold War saw these states, bound together by the Warsaw Pact, have continuing tensions with the capitalist west symbolized by NATO. Mao Zedong established communism in China in 1949.
During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, a spontaneous nationwide anti-authoritarian revolt, the Soviet Union invaded Hungary to assert control. In 1968, the USSR repressed the Prague Spring by organizing the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
Labour turmoil in Poland during 1980 had led to the formation of the independent trade union, Solidarity, led by Lech Wałęsa, which over time became a political force. On 13 December 1981, Communist leader Wojciech Jaruzelski started a crack-down on Solidarity, declaring martial law in Poland, suspending the union, and temporarily imprisoning all of its leaders.
New Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping developed the concept of Socialism with Chinese characteristics.
Although several Eastern bloc countries had attempted some abortive, limited economic and political reform since the 1950s (Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Prague Spring of 1968), the advent of reform-minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 signaled the trend toward greater liberalization. During the mid 1980s, a younger generation of Soviet apparatchiks, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order to reverse years of Brezhnev stagnation. The Soviet Union was facing a period of severe economic decline and needed Western technology and credits to make up for its increasing backwardness. The costs of maintaining its so-called "empire" – the military, KGB, subsidies to foreign client states – further strained the moribund Soviet economy.
The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of glasnost (openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika (economic restructuring). By the spring of 1989, the Soviet Union had not only experienced lively media debate, but had also held its first multi-candidate elections in the newly established Congress of People's Deputies. Though glasnost advocated openness and political criticism, at the time, it was only permitted in accordance with the political views of the Communists. The general public in the Eastern bloc were still threatened by secret police and political repression.
Moscow's largest obstacle to improved political and economic relations with the Western powers remained the Iron Curtain that existed between East and West. As long as the specter of Soviet military intervention loomed over Central, South-East and Eastern Europe, it seemed unlikely that Moscow could attract the Western economic support needed to finance the country's restructuring. Gorbachev urged his Central and South-East European counterparts to imitate perestroika and glasnost in their own countries. However, while reformists in Hungary and Poland were emboldened by the force of liberalization spreading from East to West, other Eastern bloc countries remained openly skeptical and demonstrated aversion to reform. Past experiences had demonstrated that although reform in the Soviet Union was manageable, the pressure for change in Central and South-East Europe had the potential to become uncontrollable. These regimes owed their creation and continued survival to Soviet-style authoritarianism, backed by Soviet military power and subsidies. Believing Gorbachev's reform initiatives would be short-lived, orthodox Communist rulers like East Germany's Erich Honecker, Bulgaria's Todor Zhivkov, Czechoslovakia's Gustáv Husák, and Romania’s Nicolae Ceauşescu obstinately ignored the calls for change.[7] "When your neighbor puts up new wallpaper, it doesn't mean you have to too," declared one East German politburo member.[8]
March 20–21, 1981, issue of
Wieczór Wrocławia (This Evening in
Wrocław). Blank spaces remain after the government censor pulled articles from page 1 (
right, "What happened at
Bydgoszcz?") and from the last page (
left, "Country-wide strike alert"), leaving only their titles. The printers—
Solidarity-trade-union members— decided to run the newspaper as is, with blank spaces intact. The bottom of page 1 of this master copy bears the hand-written
Solidarity confirmation of that decision.
Throughout the mid-1980s, Solidarity persisted solely as an underground organization, supported by the Catholic Church. However, by the late 1980s, Solidarity became sufficiently strong to frustrate Jaruzelski's attempts at reform, and nationwide strikes in 1988 forced the government to open a dialogue with Solidarity. On 9 March 1989, both sides agreed to a bicameral legislature called the National Assembly. The already existing Sejm would become the lower house. The Senate would be elected by the people. Traditionally a ceremonial office, the presidency was given more powers[9] (Polish Round Table Agreement).
By 1989, the Soviet Union had repealed the Brezhnev Doctrine in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its Warsaw Pact allies, termed the Sinatra Doctrine in a joking reference to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way". Poland became the first Warsaw Pact state country to break free of Soviet domination. Taking notice from Poland, Hungary was next to follow.[citation needed]
In December 1986, Chinese student demonstrators, taking advantage of the loosening political atmosphere, staged protests against the slow pace of reform. Students called for campus elections, the chance to study abroad, and greater availability of western pop culture. Hu Yaobang, a protégé of Deng Xiaoping and a leading advocate of reform, was blamed for the protests and forced to resign as the CCP General Secretary in January 1987. In the "Anti Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign", Hu would be further denounced.
The protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang on 15 April 1989. By the eve of Hu's funeral, one million people[citation needed] had gathered at Tiananmen square.
Gorbachev's visit to China on 15 May during the protests brought many foreign news agencies to Beijing, and their sympathetic portrayals of the protesters helped galvanize a spirit of liberation among the Central, South-East and Eastern Europeans who were watching. The Chinese leadership, particularly Communist Party General Secretary Zhao Ziyang, having begun earlier than the Soviets to radically reform the economy, was open to political reform, but not at the cost of a potential return to the disorder of the Cultural Revolution.
The movement lasted seven weeks, from Hu's death on 15 April until tanks cleared Tiananmen Square on 4 June. In Beijing, the resulting military response to the protesters by the PRC government left many civilians and military personnel charged with clearing the square of the dead or severely injured. The number of deaths is not known and many different estimates exist.
On 7 July 1989 President Mikhail Gorbachev implicitly renounced the use of force against other Soviet-bloc nations. Speaking to members of the 23-nation Council of Europe, Mr. Gorbachev made no direct reference to the so-called Brezhnev Doctrine, under which Moscow has asserted the right to use force to prevent a Warsaw Pact member from leaving the Communist fold, but stated 'Any interference in domestic affairs and any attempts to restrict the sovereignty of states - friends, allies or any others - are inadmissible'.[10]
A wave of strikes hit Poland in April and May 1988, and a second wave began on 15 August 1988 when a strike broke out at the July Manifesto coal mine in Jastrzębie-Zdrój, the workers demanding the re-legalisation of Solidarity. Over the next few days sixteen other mines went on strike followed by a number of shipyards, including on 22 August the Gdansk Shipyard famous as the epicentre of the 1980 industrial unrest that spawned Solidarity.[11] On 31 August 1988 Lech Walesa, the leader of Solidarity, was invited to Warsaw by the Communist authorities who had finally agreed to talks.[12] On 18 January 1989 at a stormy session of the Tenth Plenary Session of the ruling Communist Party, General Jaruzelski managed to get party backing for formal negotiations with Solidarity leading to its future legalisation - although this was achieved only by threatening the resignation of the entire Communist Party leadership if thwarted.[13] On 6 February 1989 formal Round Table discussions began in the Hall of Columns in Warsaw. On 4 April 1989 the historic Round Table Agreement was signed legalising Solidarity and setting up partly free parliamentary elections to be held on 4 June 1989 (incidentally, the day following the midnight crackdown on Chinese protesters in Tiananmen Square). A political earthquake followed. The victory of Solidarity surpassed all predictions. Solidarity candidates captured all the seats they were allowed to compete for in the Sejm, while in the Senate they captured 99 out of the 100 available seats (with the one remaining seat taken by an independent candidate). At the same time, many prominent Communist candidates failed to gain even the minimum number of votes required to capture the seats that were reserved for them.
On 15 August 1989, following the defection to Solidarity of the Communists' two longtime coalition partners, the United People`s Party (ZSL) and the Democratic Party (SD), the last Communist Prime Minister of Poland, General Czeslaw Kiszczak, said he would resign to allow a non-Communist to form an administration.[14] This virtually assured that a Solidarity member would become prime minister. On 19 August 1989 in a stunning watershed moment Tadeusz Mazowiecki, an anti-Communist editor, Solidarity supporter, and devout Catholic, was nominated as Prime Minister of Poland - and the Soviet Union voiced no protest, despite calls from hard-line Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu for the Warsaw Pact to intervene militarily to 'save socialism' as it had in Prague in 1968.[15] Five days later, on 24 August 1989, Poland's Parliament ended more than 40 years of one-party rule by making Mazowiecki the country's first non-Communist Prime Minister since the early postwar years. In a tense Parliament, Mr. Mazowiecki got 378 votes, with 4 against and 41 abstentions.[16] On 13 September 1989 a new non-Communist government was approved by parliament, the first of its kind in the former Eastern Bloc.[17]
Following Poland's lead, Hungary was next to revert to a non-Communist government. Although Hungary had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization during the 1980s, major reforms only occurred following the replacement of János Kádár as General Secretary of the Communist Party on 23 May 1988 with Karoly Grosz.[18] On 24 November 1988 Miklós Németh was appointed Prime Minister. On 12 January 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package", which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others.[19] On 29 January 1989, contradicting the official view of history held for more than 30 years, a member of the ruling Politburo Imre Pozsgay declared that Hungary's 1956 rebellion was a popular uprising rather than a foreign-instigated attempt at counterrevolution.[20] Mass demonstrations on March 15, the National Day, persuaded the regime to begin negotiations with the emergent non-Communist political forces. Round Table talks began on 22 April and continued until the Round Table agreement was signed on 18 September. The talks involved the Communists (MSzMP) and the newly emerging independent political forces Fidesz, the Alliance of Free Democrats (SzDSz), the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), the Independent Smallholders' Party, the Hungarian People’s Party, the Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky Society, and the Democratic Trade Union of Scientific Workers. At a later stage the League of Free Trade Unions and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KNDP) were invited.[21] It was at the talks that a number of Hungary's future political leaders emerged, including László Sólyom, József Antall, György Szabad, Péter Tölgyessy and Viktor Orbán.[22]
On 2 May 1989, the first visible cracks in the Iron Curtain appeared when Hungary began dismantling its 150 mile long border fence with Austria.[23] This increasingly destabilized the GDR and Czechoslovakia over the summer and autumn as thousands of their citizens illegally crossed over to the West through the Hungarian-Austrian border. On 1 June 1989 the Communist Party admitted that former Prime Minister Imre Nagy, hanged for treason for his role in the 1956 Hungarian uprising, was executed illegally after a show trial.[24] On 16 June 1989 Nagy was given a solemn funeral on Budapest's largest square in front of crowds of at least 100,000, followed by a hero's burial.[25]
The Round Table agreement of 18 September encompassed six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the Constitution, establishment of a Constitutional Court, the functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the penal code and the law on penal procedures (the last two changes represented an additional separation of the Party from the state apparatus).[26][27] The electoral system was a compromise: about half of the deputies would be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian system.[28] A weak presidency was also agreed upon, but no consensus was attained on who should elect the president (parliament or the people) and when this election should occur (before or after parliamentary elections). On 7 October 1989, the Communist Party at its last congress re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party.[29] In a historic session from 16 October to 20 October, the parliament adopted legislation providing for multi-party parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election.[30] The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government.[31] Hungarians suggested that Soviet troops "go home."
On 4 May 1989 Hungary started dismantling its barbed wire border with Austria opening an escape route through the iron curtain to the West that was used by a growing number of East Germans. By the end of September 1989, more than 30,000 East Germans had escaped to the West before the GDR denied travel to Hungary, leaving the CSSR (Czechoslovakia) as the only neighboring state where East Germans could travel. Thousands of East Germans tried to reach the West by occupying the West German diplomatic facilities in other Eastern European capitals, notably the Prague Embassy where thousands camped in the muddy garden from August to November. The GDR closed the border to the CSSR on 3 October, thereby isolating itself from all neighbors. Having been shut off from their last chance for escape, more and more East Germans began to participate in the Monday demonstrations which had begun in Leipzig on 4 September. The first three Monday demonstrations on 4th, 11th and 18 September attracted 1,200 to 1,500 demonstrators and many were arrested and beaten. However, the people refused to be intimidated and the Monday 25 September demonstration attracted 8,000 demonstrators.
After the fifth successive Monday demonstration in Leipzig on 2 October attracted 10,000 protesters, Socialist Unity Party (SED) leader Erich Honecker issued a shoot and kill order to the military.[32] Communists prepared a huge police, militia, Stasi, and work-combat troop presence and there were rumors of a Tiananmen Square-style massacre was being planned for the following Mondays demonstration on 9 October.[33]
On 6 October and 7 October, Gorbachev visited East Germany to mark the 40th anniversary of the German Democratic Republic, and urged the East German leadership to accept reform. A famous quote of his is rendered in German as "Wer zu spät kommt, den bestraft das Leben" (He who is too late is punished by life). However, the elderly Erich Honecker remained opposed to internal reform, with his regime even going so far as forbidding the circulation of Soviet publications that it viewed as subversive.
In spite of rumours that the Communists were planning a massacre on 9 October an incredible 70,000 citizens demonstrated in Leipzig that Monday. The authorities on the ground refused to open fire. This victory of the people facing down the Communists guns encouraged more and more citizens to take to the streets. The following Monday on 16 October 120,000 people demonstrated on the streets of Leipzig.
Faced with this ongoing civil unrest, the ruling Socialist Unity Party (SED) deposed Honecker on 18 October, and replaced him with Egon Krenz, but the demonstrations kept growing - on Monday 23 October the Leipzig protesters numbered 300,000 and remained as large the following week. The border to Czechoslovakia was opened again on 1 November, but the Czechoslovak authorities soon let all East Germans travel directly to West Germany without further bureaucratic ado, thus lifting their part of the Iron Curtain on 3 November. On 4 November the authorities decided to authorize a demonstration in Berlin and were faced with the Alexanderplatz demonstration where half a million citizens converged on the capital demanding freedom in the biggest protest the GDR ever witnessed. Unable to stem the ensuing flow of refugees to the West through Czechoslovakia, the East German authorities eventually caved in to public pressure by allowing East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany directly, via existing border points, on 9 November, without having properly briefed the border guards. Triggered by the erratic words of Günter Schabowski in a TV press conference, stating that the planned changes were "in effect immediately", hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; soon new crossing points were forced open in the Berlin Wall by the people, and sections of the wall literally torn down as this symbol of oppression was overwhelmed.
On 13 November GDR Prime Minister Willi Stoph was replaced by reformer Hans Modrow. On 1 December the Volkskammer removed the SED's leading role from the constitution of the GDR. On 3 December Krenz resigned as leader of the SED, on 6 December he resigned as the GDR's Head of State. On 7 December Round Table talks opened between the SED and other political parties. The SED's monopoly on power had ended. On 15 January 1990 the HQ of the Stasi in Berlin was stormed by protesters. Hans Modrow led the GDR until free elections were held on 18 March 1990. Lothar de Maizière of the East German Christian Democratic Union became Prime Minister on 4 April 1990 and led the GDR until the reunification of East and West Germany that came into force on 3 October 1990.
The Kremlin's willingness to abandon such a strategically vital ally marked a dramatic shift by the Soviet superpower and a fundamental paradigm change in international relations, which until 1989 had been dominated by the East-West divide running through Berlin itself.
The "Velvet Revolution" was a non-violent revolution in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government. On 17 November 1989 (Friday), riot police suppressed a peaceful student demonstration in Prague. That event sparked a series of popular demonstrations from 19 November to late December. By 20 November the number of peaceful protesters assembled in Prague had swelled from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated half-million. A two-hour general strike, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was successfully held on 27 November.
With the collapse of other Communist governments, and increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November 1989 that it would relinquish power and dismantle the single-party state. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany and Austria in early December. On 10 December, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-Communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989.
In June 1990 Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946.
In October and November 1989 demonstrations on ecological issues were staged in Sofia, where demands for political reform were also voiced. The demonstration were suppressed, but on 10 November 1989 – the day after the Berlin Wall was breached – Bulgaria's long-serving leader Todor Zhivkov was ousted by his Politburo. He was succeeded by a considerably more liberal Communist, former foreign minister Petar Mladenov. Moscow apparently approved the leadership change, despite Zhivkov's reputation as a slavish Soviet ally. The new regime permitted the formation of non-communist parties and the right to gather freely, which led to the first mass demonstration on November 17. Newly formed anti-communist movements united as the Union of Democratic Forces on December 7. The UDF was not satisfied with the removal of Todor Zhivkov, and demanded additional democratic reforms, most importantly the removal of the constitutionally mandated leading position of the Communist party in Bulgaria.
This demand was granted on by Mladenov in a nationally televised address on 11 December 1989, amid escalating street protests. it was also decided that a round table on the Polish model would be held in 1990 and elections held by June 1990. The Communist party was formally stripped of its constitutional position by the parliament in February 1990. Between 3 January and 14 May 1990 during the Round table talks an agreement was reached on the transition to democracy. The Communist party renamed itself as the Bulgarian Socialist Party in April 1990. In June 1990 the first free elections since 1945 were held, won by the Bulgarian Socialist Party.
In November 1989, Nicolae Ceauşescu was re-elected for another five years as leader of the Romanian Communist Party, signalling that he intended to ride out the anti-Communist uprisings sweeping the rest of Europe. As Ceauşescu prepared to go on a state visit to Iran, his Securitate ordered the arrest and exile of a local Hungarian Calvinist minister, László Tőkés, on 16 December, for sermons offending the regime. Tőkés was seized, but only after serious rioting erupted. Timişoara was the first city to react, on 16 December, and civil unrest continued for 5 days.
Returning from Iran, Ceauşescu ordered a mass rally in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest on December 21. However, to his shock, the crowd booed as he spoke. After learning about the incidents (both from Timişoara and from Bucharest) from Western radio stations[citation needed], years of repressed dissatisfaction boiled to the surface throughout the Romanian populace and even among elements in Ceauşescu's own government, and the demonstrations spread throughout the country.
At first the security forces obeyed Ceauşescu's orders to shoot protesters, but on the morning of 22 December, the Romanian military suddenly changed sides. Army tanks began moving towards the Central Committee building with crowds swarming alongside them. The rioters forced open the doors of the Central Committee building in an attempt to capture Ceauşescu and his wife, Elena, but they managed to escape via a helicopter waiting for them on the roof of the building. The revolution resulted in 1,104 deaths. Unlike its kindred parties, the PCR simply melted away.[clarification needed]
Although elation followed the flight of the Ceauşescus, uncertainty surrounded their fate. On Christmas Day, Romanian television showed the Ceauşescus facing a hasty trial, and then undergoing summary execution. An interim National Salvation Front Council led by Ion Iliescu took over and announced elections for April 1990. The first elections were actually held on 20 May 1990.
The Malta Summit consisted of a meeting between U.S. President George H. W. Bush and U.S.S.R. leader Mikhail Gorbachev, taking place between 2–3 December 1989, just a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a meeting which contributed to the end of the Cold War[citation needed] partially as a result of the broader pro-democracy movement. It was their second meeting following a meeting that included then President Ronald Reagan, in New York in December 1988. News reports of the time[citation needed] referred to the Malta Summit as the most important since 1945, when British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed on a post-war plan for Europe at the Yalta Conference.
Between the spring of 1989 and the spring of 1991 every Communist or former communist Eastern European country, and in the case of the USSR and Yugoslavia every constituent republic, held competitive parliamentary elections for the first time in many decades. Some elections were only partly free, others fully democratic. The chronology below gives the details of these historic elections, the date is the first day of voting as several elections were spilt over several days for run-off contests:
In the Socialist People's Republic of Albania, Enver Hoxha, who led Albania for decades, died 11 April 1985. In 1989, the first revolts started in Shkodra and spread in other cities. Eventually, the existing regime introduced some liberalization, including measures in 1990 providing for freedom to travel abroad. Efforts were begun to improve ties with the outside world. March 1991 elections left the former Communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet including non-Communists. Albania's former Communists were routed in elections March 1992, amid economic collapse and social unrest.
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not a part of the Warsaw Pact but pursued its own version of "Communism" under Josip Broz Tito. It was a multi-ethnic state, and the tensions between ethnicities first escalated with the so-called Croatian Spring of 1970–71, a movement for greater autonomy of Croatia, which was suppressed. In 1974 there followed constitutional changes devolving some of the federal powers to the constituent republics and provinces. After Tito's death in 1980 ethnic tensions grew, first in Albanian-majority Kosovo. In late 1980s Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević used the Kosovo crisis to stoke up Serb nationalism and attempt to consolidate and dominate the country, which alienated the other ethnic groups.
Parallel to the same process, Slovenia witnessed a policy of gradual liberalization since 1984, not unlike the Soviet Perestroika. This provoked tensions between the League of Communists of Slovenia on one side, and the central Yugoslav Party and the Federal Army on the other side. In mid May 1988, the Peasant Union of Slovenia was organized as the first non-Communist political organization in the country. Later in the same month, the Yugoslav Army arrested four Slovenian journalists of the alternative magazine Mladina, accusing them of revealing state secrets. The so-called Ljubljana trial triggered mass protests in Ljubljana and other Slovenian cities. The Committee for the Defence of Human Rights was established as the platform of all major non-Communist political movements. By early 1989, several anti-Communist political parties were already openly functioning, challenging the hegemony of the Slovenian Communists. Soon, the Slovenian Communists, pressured by their own civil society, entered in conflict with the Serbian Communist leadership.
In January 1990, an extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was called in order to settle the disputes among its constituent parties. Faced with being completely outnumbered, the Slovenian Communists left the Congress, thus de facto bringing to an end the Yugoslav Communist Party. The Slovenian Communists were followed by the Croatian ones. Both parties of the two western republics negotiated free multi-party elections with their own opposition movements.
In the spring of 1990s, the democratic and anti-Yugoslav DEMOS coalition won the elections in Slovenia, while the Croatian elections witnessed the landslide victory of the nationalists. The results were much more balanced in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia, while the parliamentary and presidential elections in Serbia and Montenegro consolidated the power of Milošević and his supporters. Free elections on the level of the federation were never carried out. Instead, the Slovenian and Croatian leaderships started preparing plans for secession from the federation.
Escalating ethnic and national tensions led to the Yugoslav wars and the independence of the constituent (federal) units, in chronological order:
- Slovenia (25 June 1991)
- Croatia (25 June 1991)
- Republic of Macedonia (8 September 1991)
- Bosnia and Herzegovina (1 March 1992)
- Serbia and Montenegro (2 state unions between 1992–2006). Montenegro proclaimed independence on 3 June 2006, while Serbia proclaimed its succession to the union as an independent state on 5 June 2006.
- Kosovo (17 February 2008, partially recognized)
On 1 July 1991, the Warsaw Pact was officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague. At a summit later that same month, Gorbachev and Bush declared a US–Soviet strategic partnership, decisively marking the end of the Cold War. President Bush declared that US–Soviet cooperation during the 1990–91 Gulf War had laid the groundwork for a partnership in resolving bilateral and world problems.
As the Soviet Union rapidly withdrew its forces from Central and Southeast Europe, the spillover from the 1989 upheavals began reverberating throughout the Soviet Union itself. Agitation for self-determination led to first Lithuania, and then Estonia, Latvia and Armenia declaring independence. Disaffection in other Soviet republics, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan, was countered by promises of greater decentralization. More open elections led to the election of candidates opposed to Communist Party rule.
Glasnost had inadvertently released the long-suppressed national sentiments of all peoples within the borders of the multinational Soviet state. These nationalist movements were further strengthened by the rapid deterioration of the Soviet economy, whereby Moscow's rule became a convenient scapegoat for economic troubles.[citation needed] Gorbachev's reforms had failed to improve the economy, with the old Soviet command structure completely breaking down. One by one, the constituent republics created their own economic systems and voted to subordinate Soviet laws to local laws.
In an attempt to halt the rapid changes to the system, a group of Soviet hard-liners represented by Vice-President Gennadi Yanayev launched a coup overthrowing Gorbachev in August 1991. Boris Yeltsin, then president of the Russian SFSR, rallied the people and much of the army against the coup and the effort collapsed. Although restored to power, Gorbachev's authority had been irreparably undermined. In September, the Baltic states were granted independence. Over the next three months, one republic after another declared independence. The penultimate step came on 1 December, when Ukrainian voters approved independence from the Soviet Union in a referendum. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president on 25 December. By the end of the year, what remained of the Soviet government had ceased to function. The Soviet Union was officially disbanded, breaking up into fifteen constituent parts, thereby ending the world's largest and most influential Communist state, and leaving China to that position.
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania implemented democratic reforms and achieved independence from the Soviet Union.
The Singing Revolution is a commonly used name for events between 1987 and 1991 that led to the restoration of the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.[34][35] The term was coined by an Estonian activist and artist, Heinz Valk, in an article published a week after the 10–11 June 1988 spontaneous mass night-singing demonstrations at the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds.[36]
In Belarus, former Communist leader Alexander Lukashenko has retained power and has been criticized for repressing political opposition ever since.
Moldova – Participated in the War of Transnistria between Moldova and Russian-connected forces. Communists came back to power in a 2001 election under Vladimir Voronin, but faced civil unrest in 2009 over accusation of rigged elections.
Ukraine – Presidencies of former Communists Leonid Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma were followed by the Orange Revolution in 2004, in which Ukrainians elected Viktor Yushchenko (also former member of CPSU).
In Georgia people started protesting against the Soviet rule.
In April 1989 the Soviet Army massacred demonstrators in the Tbilisi Massacre. By November 1989, the Georgian SSR officially condemned the Russian invasion in 1921 and continuing genocidal occupation[citation needed]. Democracy activist Zviad Gamsakhurdia served as president from 1991 to 1992. A coup d'état installed former Communist leader Eduard Shevardnadze until the Rose Revolution in 2003.
In Armenia, the independence struggle included violence. The Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Armenia became increasingly militarized (with the ascendancy of Kocharian, a former president of Nagorno-Karabakh, often viewed as a milestone), while elections have since been increasingly controversial, and government corruption became more rife. After Kocharyan, notably, Serzh Sargsyan ascended to power. Sargsyan is often noted as the "founder of the Armenian and Karabakh militaries" and was, in the past, defense minister and national security minister.
In Azerbaijan the Azerbaijani Popular Front Party won first elections with the self-described pro-Western, populist nationalist Elchibey. However, Elchibey planned to end Moscow's advantage in the harvesting of Azeri oil and build much stronger links with Turkey and Europe, and as a result was overthrown by former Communists in a coup backed by Russia and Iran (which viewed the new country as a compelling threat, with territorial ambitions within Iranian borders and also being a strong economic rival)[citation needed]. Mutallibov rose to power, but he was soon destabilized and eventually ousted due to popular frustration with his perceived incompetence, corruption and improper handling of the war with Armenia. Azerbaijani KGB and Azerbaijani SSR leader Heydar Aliyev captured power and remained president until he transferred the presidency to his son in 2003. The Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan, and has largely defined the fates of both countries. However, unlike Armenia, which remains a strong Russian ally, Azerbaijan has begun, since Russia's 2008 war with Georgia, to foster better relations with Turkey and other Western nations, while cutting ties with Russia, including its CIS membership.
In Kazakhstan, the independence struggle began with the Jeltoqsan uprising in 1986. Former Communist leader Nursultan Nazarbayev has been in power since 1991.
In Kyrgyzstan, former Communist leader Askar Akayev retained power until the Tulip Revolution in 2006.
In Tajikistan, former Communist leader Rahmon Nabiyev retained power, which led to the civil war in Tajikistan. Emomalii Rahmon has succeeded Nabiyev and has retained power since 1992.
In Turkmenistan, former Communist leader Saparmurat Niyazov retained power until his death 2006 and has been criticized as one of the world's most totalitarian and repressive leaders, maintaining his own cult of personality.
In Uzbekistan, former Communist leader Islam Karimov retained power and has been criticized for repressing the political opposition ever since.
Moscow was involved in a number of conflicts, including the Nagorno-Karabakh War, the War of Transnistria, the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War, the First Chechen War, the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), the Ossetian–Ingush conflict, and the Crimea conflict in Ukraine.
Reforms in the Soviet Union also saw dramatic changes to Communist and Socialist states outside of Europe.
- Afghanistan – Soviet occupation ended and the Communist government under Mohammad Najibullah fell to the Mujahideen in 1992.
- Angola – The ruling MPLA government abandoned Marxism-Leninism in 1991.
- Benin – Mathieu Kérékou's regime was pressured to abandon Marxism-Leninism in 1990.
- Burma – The 8888 Uprising in 1988 saw the demise of the Burma Socialist Programme Party, but failed to bring democracy, although Marxism was abandoned. It has since been led by a military government under the State Peace and Development Council.
- Cambodia – The Vietnam-supported government lost power following UN-sponsored elections in 1993.
- China – The Communist Party of China has implemented Chinese economic reforms since 1978. The pro-democracy protests of 1989 were crushed by the government.
- Cuba – The end of Soviet subsidies led to the Special Period. A large but unsuccessful protest was held in 1994 (see August 1994 protest in Cuba).
- Congo Brazzaville– Denis Sassou Nguesso's regime was pressured to abandon Marxism-Leninism in 1991. The nation had elections in 1992.
- Ethiopia – Following the withdrawal of Soviet and Cuban assistance, the Communist military junta Derg lost to rebel Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front and fled in 1991.
- Laos – Remained Communist under the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Laos was forced to ask France and Japan for emergency assistance, and also to ask the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank for aid. Finally, in 1989, Kaisôn visited Beijing to confirm the restoration of friendly relations, and to secure Chinese aid.
- India – Indian economic reforms were launched in 1991.
- Madagascar – Socialist President Didier Ratsiraka was ousted.
- Mali – Moussa Traoré was ousted, Mali adopted a new constitution and held multi-party elections.
- Mongolia – The 1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia saw a gradual moved to allow free multi-party elections and the writing of the new constitution. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party retained its majority in the 1990 elections, but lost the 1996 elections.
- Mozambique – The ruling FRELIMO Abandoned Marxism-Leninism in 1991 and held democratic elections in 1994.
- Nicaragua – Daniel Ortega's Sandinista lost the multi-party elections in 1990, and the National Opposition Union won.
- North Korea – Kim Il-sung died in 1994, passing power to his son Kim Jong-il. Unprecedented floods and the dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the North Korean famine, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2.5 million to 3 million North Koreans. All references to Marxism-Leninism were replaced by Juche in 1992, thus signifying an apparent downplaying of the role of Communism in North Korea.
- Somalia – Rebelling Somalians overthrew Siad Barre's Communist military junta. Somalia has been in a constant state of civil war ever since.
- South Yemen – Abandoned Marxism-Leninism in 1990; it reunified with the more capitalist North Yemen that year.
- Syria – Syria participated in the Madrid Conference of 1991 and met its Cold War enemy Israel in peace negotiations.
- Tanzania – The ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi party cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1995.
- Vietnam – The Communist Party of Vietnam has undertaken Doi Moi reforms since 1986. Vietnam is still a single-party Communist state.
Many Soviet-supported political parties and militant groups around the world suffered from demoralization and loss of financing.
- Austria – The Communist Party of Austria lost its East German financing and 250 million euros in assets.
- Belgium – The Communist Party of Belgium was divided to two parties in 1989.
- Finland – The Finnish People's Democratic League was dissolved in 1990 and the bankrupt Communist Party of Finland collapsed in 1992, and absorbed to the Left Alliance.
- France – The collapse of the Eastern Bloc came as a shock to the French Communist Party. The crisis is called la mutation.
- West Germany – The Red Army Faction lost its long-term supporter, the Stasi, after the Berlin Wall fell.[37]
- Greece – The Organisation of Marxist-Leninist Communists of Greece was dissolved in 1993 and merged into the Movement for a United Communist Party of Greece.
- Ireland – The Communist Party of Ireland declined significantly.
- Italy – The collapse caused the Italian Communist Party to reform itself, creating two new groups, the larger Democratic Party of the Left and the smaller Communist Refoundation Party. The disappearance of the Communist party in part led to profound changes within the Italian political party system in 1992–1994.
- Japan – The Japanese Communist Party issued a statement titled "We welcome the end of a great historical evil of imperialism and hegemonism".
- Malaysia – The Malayan Communist Party laid down its arms in 1989, ending the Communist Insurgency War that had lasted decades.
- Mexico – The Mexican Communist Party and a number of other Communist parties were dissolved in 1989 and absorbed first into the Mexican Socialist Party and then into the Party of the Democratic Revolution.
- Netherlands – The Communist Party of the Netherlands was dissolved in 1991 and absorbed to the GreenLeft.
- Norway – The Communist Party of Norway changed their pro-Soviet line.
- Palestine – The Palestine Liberation Organization lost one of its most important diplomatic patrons, due to the deterioration of the Soviet Union, and Arafat's failing relationship with Moscow.
- Peru – The Shining Path, responsible for killing tens of thousands people, shrunk in the 1990s.
- Sweden – The Communist Association of Norrköping was dissolved in 1990 and Kommunistiska Förbundet Marxist-Leninisterna ceased to function as nationwide party. The pro-Albanian Kommunistiska Partiet i Sverige and the Maoist Communist Workers' Party of Sweden were dissolved in 1993. The main leftist party, Vänsterpartiet kommunisterna, VPK (Left Party – Communists), abandoned the Communist part of its name, and became simply Vänsterpartiet (Left Party).
- Turkey – The Communist Labour Party of Turkey was split.
- United Kingdom – The Communist Party of Great Britain was dissolved.
Concurrently, many anti-Communist authoritarian states, formerly supported by the US, gradually saw a transition to democracy.
- Chile - The military junta under Augusto Pinochet was pressured to implement democratic elections, which saw Chile's democratization in 1990.
- El Salvador - The Salvadoran Civil War ended in 1992 following the Chapultepec Peace Accords. The rebel FMLN movement became a legal political party and participated in subsequent elections.
- Panama - The Manuel Noriega regime was overthrown by the US invasion in 1989 as a result of his suppression of elections, drug-trafficking activities and the killing of a US serviceman.
- South Korea - The June Democracy Movement's protests led to the fall of the Chun Doo-hwan government in 1987, and the country's first democratic elections.
- South Africa - Negotiations were started in 1990 to end the Apartheid system. Nelson Mandela was elected as the President of South Africa in 1994.
- United States - Following the end of the Cold War, the United States became the world's main superpower, growing even more in world influence as a result. The United States ceased to support many of the Right-wing military regimes it had during the Cold War, pressing for more nations to adopt democratic policies. However, some of the groups the United States had previously supported, such as certain factions of the Mujahideen in the Soviet-Afghan War, broke their pro-US stances, which would culminate in the 9-11 attacks and the US invasion of Afghanistan.
Decommunization is a process of overcoming the legacies of the Communist state establishments, culture, and psychology in the post-Communist states.
Decommunization was largely limited or non-existent. Communist parties were not outlawed and their members were not brought to trial. Just a few places even attempted to exclude members of communist secret services from decision-making. In a number of countries the Communist party simply changed its name and continued to function.[38]
In several European countries, however, endorsing or attempting to justify crimes committed by Nazi or Communist regimes will be punishable by up to 3 years of imprisonment.[39]
Enterprises in Socialist countries had little or no interest in producing what customers wanted because of prevailing shortages of goods and services.[40] In the early 1990s, a popular refrain stated that "there is no precedent for moving from Socialism to capitalism."[41] Only the over 60 year old people remembered how a market economy worked. It was not hard to imagine Central, South-East and Eastern Europe staying poor for decades.[42]
There was a temporary fall of output in official economy and increase in unofficial economy.[40] Countries implemented different reform programs such as the Balcerowicz Plan in Poland. Eventually the official economy began to grow.[40]
In 2004 Polish Nobel Peace Prize winner and President Lech Wałęsa described a transition from capitalism to Communism as "heating up an aquarium with fish" to get fish soup. He said that reversing Communism to capitalism was challenging, but "We can already see some little fish swimming in our aquarium."[43]
In a 2007 paper Oleh Havrylyshyn categorized the speed of reforms in the Soviet Bloc:[41]
- Sustained Big-Bang (fastest): Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia
- Advance Start/Steady Progress: Croatia, Hungary, Slovenia
- Aborted Big-Bang: Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Kyrgyzstan, Russia
- Gradual Reforms: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Tajikistan, Romania
- Limited Reforms (slowest): Belarus, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
It was concluded that gradual reformers suffered more social pain, not less. The countries with fastest transition to market economy performed much better on the Human Development Index.[41]
The 2004 enlargement of the European Union included Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The 2007 enlargement of the European Union included Romania and Bulgaria. The same countries have also become NATO members.
Chinese economic liberalization started since 1978 have helped lift millions of people out of poverty, bringing the poverty rate down from 53% of the population in the Mao era to 12% in 1981. Deng's economic reforms are still being followed by the CPC today and by 2001 the poverty rate became only 6% of the population.[44]
Economic liberalization in Vietnam was initiated in 1986, following Chinese example.
Economic liberalization in India was initiated in 1991.
Harvard University Professor Richard B. Freeman has called the effect of reforms "The Great Doubling". He calculated that the size of global workforce doubled from 1.46 billion workers to 2.93 billion workers.[45][46] An immediate effect was a reduced ratio of capital to labor. In the long term China, India, and the former Soviet bloc will save and invest and contribute to the expansion of the world capital stock.[46]
China's rapid growth has led some people to predict a "Chinese Century".[47][48][49]
Compared with the efforts of the other former constituents of the Soviet bloc and the Soviet Union, decommunization in Russia has been restricted to half-measures, if conducted at all.[50] As of 2008, nearly half of Russians view Stalin positively, and many support restoration of his monuments dismantled in the past.[51][52] Neo-Stalinist material such as describing Stalin's mass murder campaigns as "entirely rational" has been pushed into Russian textbooks.[53]
In 1992, President Yeltsin's government invited Vladimir Bukovsky to serve as an expert to testify at the CPSU trial by Constitutional Court of Russia, where the Communists were suing Yeltsin for banning their party. The respondent's case was that the CPSU itself had been an unconstitutional organization. To prepare for his testimony, Bukovsky requested and was granted access to a large number of documents from Soviet archives (then reorganized into TsKhSD). Using a small handheld scanner and a laptop computer, he managed to secretly scan many documents (some with high security clearance), including KGB reports to the Central Committee, and smuggle the files to the West.[54] The event that many expected would be another Nuremberg Trial and the beginnings of reconciliation with the Communist past, ended up in half-measures: while the CPSU was found unconstitutional, the Communists were allowed to form new parties in the future. Bukovsky expressed his deep disappointment with this in his writings and interviews: "Having failed to finish off conclusively the Communist system, we are now in danger of integrating the resulting monster into our world. It may not be called Communism anymore, but it retained many of its dangerous characteristics... Until the Nuremberg-style tribunal passes its judgment on all the crimes committed by Communism, it is not dead and the war is not over."[55]
The events caught many by surprise. Predictions of the Soviet Union's impending demise had been often dismissed.[56]
Bartlomiej Kaminski's book The Collapse Of State Socialism argued that the state Socialist system has a lethal paradox: "policy actions designed to improve performance only accelerate its decay".[57]
By the end of 1989, revolts had spread from one capital to another, ousting the regimes imposed on Central, South-East and Eastern Europe after World War II. Even the isolationist Stalinist regime in Albania was unable to stem the tide. Gorbachev's abrogation of the Brezhnev Doctrine was perhaps the key factor that enabled the popular uprisings to succeed. Once it became evident that the feared Red Army would not intervene to crush dissent, the Central, South-East and Eastern European regimes were exposed as vulnerable in the face of popular uprisings against the one-party system and power of secret police.
Coit D. Blacker wrote in 1990 that the Soviet leadership "appeared to have believed that whatever loss of authority the Soviet Union might suffer in Central and South-East Europe would be more than offset by a net increase in its influence in western Europe."[58] Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of Communism and the Warsaw Pact. Rather, Gorbachev assumed that the Communist parties of Central and South-East Europe could be reformed in a similar way to the reforms he hoped to achieve in the CPSU. Just as perestroika was aimed at making the Soviet Union more efficient economically and politically, Gorbachev believed that the Comecon and Warsaw Pact could be reformed into more effective entities. However, Alexander Yakovlev, a close advisor to Gorbachev, would later state that it would have been "absurd to keep the system" in Central and South-East Europe. Yakovlev had come to the conclusion that the Soviet-dominated Comecon could not work on non-market principles and that the Warsaw Pact had "no relevance to real life."[8]
-
-
- This article incorporates information from the revision as of 1 April 2006 of the equivalent article on the Polish Wikipedia.
- ^ See various uses of this term in the following publications. The term is a play on a more widely used term for 1848 revolutions, the Spring of Nations. Also Polish term Jesień Ludów or Jesień Narodów in in Polish language publications.
- ^ Sorin Antohi and Vladimir Tismăneanu, "Independence Reborn and the Demons of the Velvet Revolution" in Between Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath, Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9116-71-8. p.85.
- ^ Boyes, Roger (4 June 2009). "World Agenda: 20 years later, Poland can lead eastern Europe once again". The Times (UK). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/world_agenda/article6430833.ece. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
- ^ Adam Roberts, Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions, Albert Einstein Institution, 1991. ISBN 1-880813-04-1. Available as pdf from: http://www.aeinstein.org/organizationse3a7.html.
- ^ Piotr Sztompka, preface to Society in Action: the Theory of Social Becoming, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-78815-6. p. x.
- ^ http://www.cecl.gr/RigasNetwork/databank/Constitutions/Yugoslavia.html
- ^ Romania – Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, U.S. Library of Congress
- ^ a b Steele, Jonathan. Eternal Russia: Yeltsin, Gorbachev and the Mirage of Democracy. Boston: Faber, 1994.
- ^ Poland:Major Political Reform Agreed, Facts on File World News Digest, 24 March 1989. Facts on File News Services. 6 September 2007
- ^ Markham, James M. (7 July 1989). "GORBACHEV SPURNS THE USE OF FORCE IN EASTERN EUROPE". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/07/world/gorbachev-spurns-the-use-of-force-in-eastern-europe.html?scp=714&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=8324637C96A56F9E0671EC017DB71D98.
- ^ Page 151. Lech Walesa. "The Struggle and the Triumph: An Autobiography". Arcade (1991). ISBN 1-55970-221-4
- ^ Page 157. Lech Walesa. "The Struggle and the Triumph: An Autobiography". Arcade (1991). ISBN 1-55970-221-4
- ^ Page 174. Lech Walesa. "The Struggle and the Triumph: An Autobiography". Arcade (1991). ISBN 1-55970-221-4
- ^ Tagliabue, John (15 August 1989). "POLAND'S PREMIER OFFERING TO YIELD TO NON-COMMUNIST". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/15/world/poland-s-premier-offering-to-yield-to-non-communist.html?scp=187&sq=Poland&st=nyt&gwh=1619ADC23679717BAA7BEEB89D42F7C7.
- ^ APPLE Jr, R. W. (20 August 1989). "A NEW ORBIT; Poland's Break Leads Europe And Communism To a Threshold". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/20/weekinreview/a-new-orbit-poland-s-break-leads-europe-and-communism-to-a-threshold.html?scp=825&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=6C7A9946FB31BA34FCA893628C2ECB2B.
- ^ Tagliabue, John (25 August 1989). "OPENING NEW ERA, POLES PICK LEADER". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/25/world/opening-new-era-poles-pick-leader.html?scp=117&sq=Poland&st=nyt&gwh=F25D35FF96685DE091584BA304075DFB.
- ^ Tagliabue, John (13 September 1989). "Poles Approve Solidarity-Led Cabinet". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/13/opinion/poles-approve-solidarity-led-cabinet.html?scp=7&sq=Poland&st=nyt&gwh=ADFB73DF2E2E33BE8ECFB353BC221D80.
- ^ Kamm, Henry (23 May 1988). "HUNGARIAN PARTY REPLACES KADAR WITH HIS PREMIER". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/23/world/hungarian-party-replaces-kadar-with-his-premier.html?scp=135&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=E283E53C9144CEB5DC839A7740A35E80.
- ^ "Hungary Eases Dissent Curbs". The New York Times. 12 January 1989. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/12/world/hungary-eases-dissent-curbs.html?scp=432&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=92733275AEC8E1D4866E0147173B702E.
- ^ "Hungary, in Turnabout, Declares '56 Rebellion a Popular Uprising". The New York Times. 29 January 1989. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/29/world/hungary-in-turnabout-declares-56-rebellion-a-popular-uprising.html?scp=461&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=4FAE12DBE2835A0221C2EB3EBE50910D.
- ^ Falk, p.147
- ^ József Bayer, "The Process of Political System Change in Hungary", in Schriftenreihe des Europa Institutes Budapest, 2003, p.180
- ^ Stokes, G: "The Walls Came Tumbling Down", page 131. Oxford University Press, 1993
- ^ "Hungarian Party Assails Nagy's Execution". The New York Times. 1 June 1989. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/01/world/hungarian-party-assails-nagy-s-execution.html?scp=654&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=AB4FDDAFE5F0111C9B81EEA7B377A93F.
- ^ Kamm, Henry (17 June 1989). "Hungarian Who Led '56 Revolt Is Buried as a Hero". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/17/world/hungarian-who-led-56-revolt-is-buried-as-a-hero.html?scp=678&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=1CA5680B13F144C9AD6C2CA30484B16C.
- ^ Heenan, p.13
- ^ De Nevers, p.130
- ^ Elster, p.66
- ^ Kamm, Henry (8 October 1989). "COMMUNIST PARTY IN HUNGARY VOTES FOR RADICAL SHIFT". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/08/world/communist-party-in-hungary-votes-for-radical-shift.html?scp=28&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=8A34A86DC90090167E32320BB95CB02F.
- ^ "Hungary Purges Stalinism From Its Constitution". The New York Times. 19 October 1989. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/19/world/hungary-purges-stalinism-from-its-constitution.html?scp=61&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=142906DE0FC1FFA303D77A84282021BB.
- ^ "HUNGARY LEGALIZES OPPOSITION GROUPS". The New York Times. 20 October 1989. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/20/world/hungary-legalizes-opposition-groups.html?scp=68&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=57F88FEB3671803C0BA623ABE2583F4C.
- ^ Rosalind M. O. Pritchard. Reconstructing education: East German schools and universities after unification. p. 10.
- ^ Mary Fulbrook. History of Germany, 1918-2000: the divided nation. p. 256.
- ^ *Thomson, Clare (1992). The Singing Revolution: A Political Journey through the Baltic States. London: Joseph. ISBN 0-7181-3459-1.
- ^ Ginkel, John (September 2002). "Identity Construction in Latvia's "Singing Revolution": Why inter-ethnic conflict failed to occur". Nationalities Papers 30 (3): 403–433. DOI:10.1080/0090599022000011697.
- ^ Between Utopia and Disillusionment By Henri Vogt; p 26 ISBN 1-57181-895-2
- ^ Schmeidel, John. "My Enemy's Enemy: Twenty Years of Co-operation between West Germany's Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security." Intelligence and National Security 8, no. 4 (October 1993): 59–72.
- ^ After Socialism: where hope for individual liberty lies. Svetozar Pejovich.
- ^ Is Holocaust denial against the law? Anne Frank House
- ^ a b c Anders Aslund (1 December 2000). "The Myth of Output Collapse after Communism". http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=611.
- ^ a b c Oleh Havrylyshyn (9 November 2007). "Fifteen Years of Transformation in the Post-Communist World". http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/DPA4.pdf.
- ^ "The world after 1989: Walls in the mind". The Economist. 5 November 2009. http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14793753.
- ^ Nobel Peace Prize winner predicts optimism for the future under "the banner of Our Lady"
- ^ Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China’s Success (World Bank). Retrieved 10 August 2006.
- ^ The Great Doubling: The Challenge of the New Global Labor Market
- ^ a b Richard Freeman (2008). "The new global labor market". University of Wisconsin–Madison Institute for Research on Poverty. http://www.irp.wisc.edu/publications/focus/pdfs/foc261a.pdf.
- ^ "China set to be largest economy". BBC News. 22 May 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4998020.stm.
- ^ Elliott, Michael (22 January 2007). "The Chinese Century". TIME Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1576831,00.html.
- ^ Fishman, Ted C. (4 July 2004). "The Chinese Century". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/04/magazine/04CHINA.html?ex=1246680000&en=127e32464ca6faf3&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt. Retrieved 12 September 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Karl W. Ryavec. Russian Bureaucracy: Power and Pathology, 2003, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-8476-9503-4, page 13
- ^ “The Glamorous Tyrant: The Cult of Stalin Experiences a Rebirth,” by Mikhail Pozdnyaev, Novye Izvestia
- ^ http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/newstext/news/id/1208902.html.
- ^ Stalin's mass murders were 'entirely rational' says new Russian textbook praising tyrant. The Daily Mail. 23 April 2010
- ^ Many of these scanned documents are available as the "Soviet Archives" (INFO-RUSS)
- ^ The Cold War and the War Against Terror By Jamie Glazov (FrontPageMagazine) 1 July 2002
- ^ Cummins, Ian (23 December 1995). "The Great MeltDown". The Australian.
- ^ The Collapse of State Socialism Foreign Affairs
- ^ Coit D. Blacker. "The Collapse of Soviet Power in Europe." Foreign Affairs. 1990.
- ^ Memorial website
- Garton Ash, Timothy (5 November 2009). "1989!". The New York Review of Books 56 (17). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2009/nov/05/1989/.
- Leffler, Melvyn P.; Westad, Odd Arne, eds. (2010). The Cambridge History of the Cold War: Vol. III, Endings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83721-7.
- Lévesque, Jacques (1997). The Enigma of 1989: The USSR and the Liberation of Eastern Europe. University of California Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-520-20631-1. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft4q2nb3h6/.
- Roberts, Adam (1991). Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions. Cambridge, MA: Albert Einstein Institution. ISBN 1-880813-04-1. http://www.aeinstein.org/organizationse3a7.html.
- Roberts, Adam; Garton Ash, Timothy, eds. (2009). Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford: University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC. Contains chapters on the Soviet Union (Mark Kramer), Czechoslovakia (Kieran Williams), Poland (Alexander Smolar), Baltic States (Mark R. Beissinger), China (Merle Goldman), and East Germany (Charles Maier).
- Sebestyen, Victor (2009). Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire. Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-2709-3.
- Walesa, Lech (1991). The Struggle and the Triumph: An Autobiography. Arcade. ISBN 1-55970-221-4.
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| Related organizations |
|
|
| Revolts and opposition |
|
|
| Conditions |
|
|
| Decline |
|
|
