The Great Learning (simplified Chinese: 大学; traditional Chinese: 大學; pinyin: Dà Xué)^[1] was one of the "Four Books" in Confucianism. The Great Learning had come from a chapter in the Classic of Rites which formed one of the Five Classics. It consists of a short main text attributed to the teachings of Confucius and then ten commentary chapters accredited to one of Confucius' disciples, Zengzi. The ideals of the book were supposedly Confucius's; however the text was written after his death.

The "Four Books" were selected by the neo-Confucian Zhu Xi during the Song Dynasty as a foundational introduction to Confucianism and examinations for the state civil service in China.

Writing and Influence[link]

Confucius, who incorporated ideas from earlier philosophers, compiled or edited the Classic of Rites, the Five Classics and the Spring and Autumn Annals. Confucius' student, master Zengzi wrote the introduction and exposition of the Great Learning. Zeng Zi lived from 505-436 BC. Confucius taught 3000 pupils; of which 72 mastered the six arts. It is still unclear how much his students wrote and edited.

The Great Learning developed from many authors adapting to the needs and beliefs of the community at the time. The Cheng brothers, Yi (1033–1107) and Hao (1032–1085) both utilized the Great Learning's philosophies. Their ideas met with strong official opposition, but were reconstituted by Zhu Xi. Cheng's idea of yi was that it was identical with nature, which he believed was essentially good. Cheng's yi emphasized the necessity of acquiring knowledge.^[2]

During the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi rearranged the Great Learning and included it in the Four Books, along with the "Doctrine of the Mean", the Analects of Confucius and the Mencius. Zhu Xi separated the Great Learning, which was originally a chapter in the Classic of Rites.^[3] Zhu Xi organized the book as Jing followed by ten expositions. Zhu Xi was a student of Li Tong. Zhu Xi developed the Chengs' Confucian ideas and drew from Chan Buddhism and Daoism. He adapted some ideas from these competing religions into his form of Confucianism.

Li Ao, a scholar, poet, and official, used and brought attention to the Great Learning. After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, The Great Learning became a required textbook in schools and a required reading for imperial examinations. During the Warring States Xunzi and Mengzi were influenced by the Great Learning. The Great Learning was used by Japan, Korea and later in the west.

Such critics such as Lu Xiangshan and Wang Yangming later disliked the great learning because of the stress on scholarship rather than action. Wang Yangming rejected Zhu Xi's changes and returned the text to the original, from the Classic of Rites. During the Han dynasty the Great Learning rose to prominence, and the Classic of Rites had to be re-organized by Dai De and Dai Shang. The Dais divided the book into five sections. This included the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Evolution of Rites, the Yili, and the "Etiquette and Rites" .

There is a popular commentary by philosopher Zhang^[who?] written by his disciples. Han Yu and Li Ao both used The Great Learning. Li Ao incorporated a lot of Buddhist and Taoist ideas into his work. Zi Si – Confucius's grandson – is said to have taught Mencius and written the Doctrine of the Mean. He may also have written the beginning of the Great Learning. Ma Yung edited the Great Learning in the Han dynasty, giving his views of the general meaning.^[4]

Principal Teachings[link]

• Achieving a state of balance and refining one's moral self such that it is a reflection of the Way (Tao).
• Ample rest and reflection such that one achieves peace of mind. When one is calm and reflected, the Way will be revealed to them.
• Setting priorities and knowing what is important is essential in one's quest for moral refinement, for it allows one to focus on that which is of the greatest importance and that which is in line with the Way as outlined in Confucian teachings.
• One must bring his affairs and relationships into order and harmony. If one hopes to attain order in the state, he must first bring his own family and personal life into order through self-cultivation and the expansion of one's knowledge and the "investigation of things."
• Each and every man is capable of learning and self-cultivation regardless of social, economic or political status. This, in turn, means that success in learning is the result of the effort of the individual as opposed to an inability to learn.
• One must treat education as an intricate and interrelated system where one must strive for balance. No one aspect of learning is isolated from the other and failure to cultivate a single aspect of one's learning will lead to the failure of learning as a whole.

Meaning of "Investigation of Things"[link]

The text sets up a number of controversies that have underlain Chinese philosophy and political thinking. For example, one major controversy has been to define exactly the investigation of things. What things are to be investigated and how has been one of the crucial issues of Chinese philosophy.

One of the first steps to understanding The Great Learning is to understand how to "investigate things". This did not consist of scientific inquiry and experimentation, but introspection, building on what is already "known" of "principle".^[5] True introspection was supposed to allow the mind to become all knowing with regards to morality, relationships, civic duty and nature.^[6]

The Main Text[link]

Reproduction of a rendition of "Great Learning" by Yuan calligrapher Zhao Mengfu at the Confucian temple in Tainan, Taiwan.

The Way of the Great Learning involves manifesting virtue,

loving the people, and abiding by the highest good. (...)

大學之道在明明德，在親民，在止於至善 (...)

 

The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the

world, first ordered well their own States.

古之欲明明德於天下者，先治其國

Wishing to order well their States, they first regulated their families.

欲治其國者，先齊其家

Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons.

欲齊其家者，先修其身

Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts.

欲修其身者，先正其心

Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts.

欲正其心者，先誠其意

Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost of their knowledge.

欲誠其意者，先致其知

Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things.

致知在格物

 

Things being investigated, knowledge became complete.

物格而後知至

Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere.

知至而後意誠

Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified.

意誠而後心正

Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated.

心正而後身修

Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated.

身修而後家齊

Their families being regulated, their States were rightly governed.

家齊而後國治

Their States being rightly governed, the entire world was at peace.

國治而後天下平

 

From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must

consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides. (...)

自天子以至於庶人，壹是皆以修身為本 (...)

The Great Learning is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation of things are linked. It links together individual action in the form of self-cultivation with higher goals such as ultimate world peace as well as linking together the spiritual and the material.

Basing its authority on the presumed practices of ancient kings rather than nature or deities, the Great Learning both links the spiritual with the practical, and creates a vision of the Way that is radically different than that presented by Taoism.

The Great Learning and Education in China[link]

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The Great Learning as we know it today is the result of multiple revisions and commentaries by a number of Confucian and Neo-Confucian scholars. The Great Learning, along with the Doctrine of the Mean had their beginnings as chapters within the Book of Rites. The Da Xue, along with the Doctrine of the Mean were removed from the Book of Rites and designated as separate, and equally significant, works by the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi). In the winter of 1190 C.E. Zhu Xi published the Four Masters (Ssu-tzu), a collection of the Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, the Mencius and the Analects (Gardner, Principle and Pedagogy, 64). These four texts soon became the initial basis of study in the Chinese imperial examination system. Zhu Xi was prompted to refine the Da Xue and incorporate it into the curriculum as he felt that the previously utilized Classics were lengthy and too difficult to comprehend by the common individual to be used as an educational foundation for Confucian thought. (Gardner, Principle and Pedagogy, 64). Utilizing the much shorter and more comprehensible Four Books would allow Zhu to reach a much greater audience (Gardner, Principle and Pedagogy, 63). To aid in comprehension of the Da Xue, he spent much of his life studying the Great Learning and published a series of commentaries explaining the principle teachings of the text. The Da Xue (Ta Hsueh) itself gets its name from "tu-jen chih hsueh," referring to the education of adults. Unlike many scholars before him, Zhu Xi presents the Great Leaning as the Way of self cultivation and governance that is to be studied by all people, not only those in, or seeking, political office ( Gardner, Confucian Commentary,192).

Impact on the Education in China[link]

Although the Imperial Examination System is no longer used as a means of determining one's place in the social hierarchy, education and the teachings of the Great Learning remain an integral part of modern educational and political culture in China. In fact, a number of scholars believe that all education in mainland China is based on Confucianism to some degree although many individuals, students and teachers alike, are unaware of the Confucian influence on their education. The Great Learning was written and latter published as its own book, to serve as an introduction and foundational guide for the further study of Confucian texts. The Great Learning provides a step-by-step illustration of how all aspects of society, ranging from the refinement of the self to the order within one's household or state is ultimately dependent upon the expansion of one's knowledge (Wang 2).

Effects on the Education in Modern China[link]

• A Valued Education-China is characterized by a great appreciation for education as it is still viewed as a means of securing a rewarding career, thus elevating an individual in terms of social status. The modern schooling system relates directly to the teachings of the Great Learning as educational institutions represent the primary sites for the expansion of knowledge and the investigation of "things." It is quite common in China for great sums of money to be spent to secure the best possible education. Due to the high value of a quality education, illiteracy and drop-out rates throughout China are very low (Wang 2-3).
• Memorization- Due to the service examination system which involved the memorization and recitation of Confucian Texts, including the Great Learning, memorization remains a key element in Chinese learning. Throughout much of China, it is still held that one should memorize as much knowledge as they possibly can, as one is incapable of the creation of intelligent thought without first obtaining enough basic knowledge. The focus on exams and the recitation of knowledge is, however, often attributed to "surface learning," but one should note that memorization is not used in isolation, but represents only one aspect of a student's quest for knowledge and self-cultivation. This focus on memorization can be seen in the consistency in which Chinese students excel in mathematics and sciences (Wang 4-8).
• Working Collaboratively- Due to the Confucian values of harmony, relationship and moral cultivation as presented in the Great Learning, students in China were traditionally taught the value of collaborative learning. To this day, group learning remains the most popular learning method throughout the bulk of China (Zhang 554-555).
• Hard Work- The Great Learning states that all people are to expand their knowledge and cultivate themselves. This, in turn, is often interpreted to mean that all people are capable of learning, and that failure is not a result of a lack of ability, but a lack of effort. As a result of this philosophy, Chinese students are known worldwide as being very hardworking, putting a great deal of effort into everything they do ( Zhang 555).
• A Respectful Learning Atmosphere- Due largely to the high value of a quality education and the Confucian teaching of respect for one's elders, educators in Chinese culture are treated with the utmost respect.^{[dubious – discuss]} In fact, teachers are customarily granted the same level of respect given to a parent. As a result of this level of respect for educators and the institution as a whole, students are not quick to interrupt or otherwise challenge the authority of those delivering the knowledge required for a successful future. (Wang 5,8)

Impact on Chinese Politics[link]

The Great Learning played a major role in Chinese politics as is comprised one of the texts incorporated into the Imperial service examination system. Students would be tested on their knowledge of the Five Classics and Four Books as a qualification for an occupation in political office. If a student possessed adequate knowledge of the texts, they would be awarded a prestigious place in government. These exams allow anyone of sufficient knowledge and skill to obtain a place in office, as exams were based solely on one's ability. One's social or financial status did not play a role in the exam system. The text of the Great Learning provides an educational basis for those aspiring obtain a leadership role. In addition to self-cultivation and the expansion of one's knowledge, the Great Learning goes into significant step-by-step detail with respect to the qualities of a proper ruler. The text then goes on to describe the projected quality and stability of the state if its ruler follows the guidelines described therein. One such passage states that a person should "cultivate himself, then regulate the family, then govern the state, and finally lead the world into peace" There are two common interpretations of this passage. One common interpretation of this passage is that before one can hope to successfully lead the people, he/she must first cultivate himself (herself) by bringing order to. One may also interpret this passage to be stating that once one has reach a sufficient level of cultivation, he/she should seek a position in office with which to lead the people of the state in accordance with the values and practices outlined in the Great Learning and other such Confucian and Neo-Confucian texts (Wang 3).

A term used in the text, "qin-min" (親民) which James Legge, following Zhu Xi, amended to "xin-min" (新民) and translated "renovating the people" instead of "loving the people". It became the name of the People First Party (Republic of China), one of the minor parties in Taiwan.

Textual Significance[link]

The Great Learning is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. The Great Learning represented a key aspect of the Chinese curriculum for nearly 1500 years and can be found in virtually all aspects of Chinese culture. The Great Learning within the Chinese curriculum acted as a "springboard" for further learning, "self cultivation and investigation of things." Through self-cultivation one can bring order and harmony to one's mind, personal life, family, state and the world as a whole. By defining the path of learning (Dao) in governmental and social terms, the Great Learning links the spiritual realm with daily life, thus creating a vision of the Way (Dao) that is radically different than that of non-action as presented by Daoism. The Great Learning,on the other hand, requires action on the part of the individual towards the ultimate goal of self-cultivation through the "expansion of knowledge and the investigation of things." The Great Learning presents Confucianism as being this-worldly rather than other-worldly. As opposed to basing its authority on an external deity, the Great Learning bases its authority on the practices of ancient kings.

Works cited[link]

• Berthrong, John H. Transformations of the Confucian Way. Westview Press, 1998.
• Confucius, and Chichung Huang. The Analects of Confucius: Lun Yu. Oxford University Press US, 1997. http://books.google.ca/books?id=wqym0cOd33MC&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=Book+of+Rites+(Li+Ji).+history&source=web&ots=EEulDS4e1J&sig=gRNI0ZpCtLfEundiTkJ5lbO-dOA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result#PPA11,M1 
• "Daxue." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 October 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579524/Daxue >
• De Bary, Theodore, et al. Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600 Columbia University Press, 2000.
• Gardner, Daniel K. "Confucian Commentary and Chinese Intellectual History." The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 57, No. 2 (May, 1998): 397-422
• Gardner, Daniel K. The Four Books. The Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition. Hackett Publishing. 2007.
• Gardner, Daniel K. "Principle and Pedagogy: Chu Hsi and The Four Books." Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jun., 1984): 57-81.
• Legge, James (trans.) Confucius: Confucian Analects, The Great Learning & The Doctrine of the Mean. New York: Dover 1971.
• McGivering, Jill. "China's Thriving Confucian Schools." 2008. Oct. 28, 2008. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7169814.stm >
• P.A.P. Blog "Human Rights Facts (55): China, Confucianism and Authoritarianism" 2008. <http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/08/20/human-rights-facts-55-china-confucianism-and-authoritarianism/ >
• Pound, Ezra. Ta Hio -The Great Learning- Newly Rendered into the American Language. London: The Kynoch Press for Stanley Nott Ltd, 1936.
• Wang, Ting. "Understanding Chinese Culture and Learning." Diss. U of Canberra, Australia. 2006.
• Wertz, Richard. 2008. "Chinese Classic Texts". [1]
• Yao, Xinzhong and Hsin-chung Yao. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• Zhang, Weiyuan. "Conceptions of lifelong learning in Confucian culture: their impact on adult Learners." International Journal of Lifelong Education, VOL. 27, NO. 5 (September-October, 2008): 551-557.
• "Zhu Xi". anhuinews.com. Anhui, China. 2007 [2]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Great Learning

Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article: 大學

• Chinese text with English translation and links to Zhu Xi's commentary - Chinese Text Project
• English Translation, by Charles Muller

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Cornelius Cardew (7 May 1936 – 13 December 1981) was an English experimental music composer, and founder (with Howard Skempton and Michael Parsons) of the Scratch Orchestra, an experimental performing ensemble. He later rejected experimental music^{[citation needed]} in favour of a politically motivated "people's liberation music".

Biography[link]

Cardew was born in Winchcombe, Gloucestershire. He was the second of three sons whose parents were both artists — his father was the potter Michael Cardew. The family moved to Wenford Bridge Pottery Cornwall a few years after his birth where he was later accepted as a pupil by the Canterbury Cathedral School which had evacuated to the area during the war due to bombing. His musical career thus began as a chorister. From 1953-57, Cardew studied piano, cello, and composition at the Royal Academy of Music in London.

Career[link]

In 1957, Cardew performed in the British premiere of Pierre Boulez's Le marteau sans maître (having learnt to play the guitar for the occasion as no professional guitar player was available).^{[citation needed]} Having won a scholarship to study at the recently established Studio for Electronic Music in Cologne, Cardew served as an assistant to Karlheinz Stockhausen from 1958 to 1960. He was given the task of independently working out the composition plans for the German composer's score Carré, and Stockhausen noted:

As a musician he was outstanding because he was not only a good pianist but also a good improviser and I hired him to become my assistant in the late 50s and he worked with me for over three years. I gave him work to do which I have never given to any other musician, which means to work with me on the score I was composing. He was one of the best examples that you can find among musicians because he was well informed about the latest theories of composition as well as being a performer.^[1]

Most of Cardew's compositions from this period make use of the integral and total serialist languages pioneered by Boulez and Stockhausen.^{[citation needed]}

Chance and the American avant-garde[link]

In 1958, Cardew witnessed a series of concerts in Cologne by John Cage and David Tudor which had a considerable influence on him, leading him to abandon post-Schönbergian serial composition and develop the indeterminate and experimental scores for which he is best known. He was particularly prominent in introducing the works of American Avant-Garde composers such as Morton Feldman, La Monte Young, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, and Cage to an English audience during the early to mid sixties and came to have a considerable impact on the development of English music from the late sixties onwards.

Cardew's most important scores from his avant-garde period are Treatise (1963–67), a 193-page graphic score which allows for considerable freedom of interpretation, and The Great Learning, a work in seven parts or "Paragraphs," based on translations of Confucius by Ezra Pound. The Great Learning instigated the formation of the Scratch Orchestra. During those years, he took a course in graphic design^[2] and he made his living as a graphic designer at Aldus Books in London.^[3]

In 1966, Cardew joined the free improvisation group AMM as cellist and pianist. AMM had formed the previous year and included English jazz musicians Lou Gare, Eddie Prévost, Keith Rowe, and one of his first students at the Royal Academy Christopher Hobbs. Performing with the group allowed Cardew to explore music in a completely democratic environment, freely improvising without recourse to scores.

While teaching an experimental music class at London's Morley College in 1968, Cardew, along with Howard Skempton and Michael Parsons formed the Scratch Orchestra, a large experimental ensemble, initially for the purposes of interpreting Cardew's The Great Learning. The Scratch Orchestra gave performances throughout Britain and elsewhere until its demise in 1972. It was during this period that the question of art for whom was hotly debated within the context of the Orchestra, which Cardew came to see as elitist despite its numerous attempts to make socially accessible music.^{[citation needed]}

Political involvements[link]

After the demise of the Orchestra, Cardew became more directly involved in left-wing politics and abandoned avant-garde music altogether, adopting a populist though post-romantic tonal style. He spent 1973 in West Berlin on an artist's grant from the City, where he was active in a campaign for a children's clinic. During the 1970s, he produced many songs, often drawing from traditional English folk music put at the service of lengthy Marxist-Maoist exhortations; representative examples are Smash the Social Contract and There Is Only One Lie, There Is Only One Truth. In 1974, he published a book entitled Stockhausen Serves Imperialism, which denounced, in Maoist self-critical style, his own involvement with Stockhausen and the Western avant-garde tradition.

Cardew was active in various causes in British politics, such as the struggle against the revival of neo-Nazi groups in Britain, and subsequently was involved in the People's Liberation Music group with Laurie Scott Baker, John Marcangelo, Vicky Silva, Hugh Shrapnel, Keith Rowe and others. The group developed and performed music in support of various popular causes including benefits for striking miners and Northern Ireland.

Cardew became a member of the Communist Party of England (Marxist-Leninist) in the 1970s, and in 1979 was a co-founder and member of the Central Committee of the Revolutionary Communist Party of Britain (Marxist-Leninist). His creative output from the demise of the Scratch Orchestra until his death reflected his political commitment. Cardew stated his attitude towards the avant-garde in Stockhausen Serves Imperialism:

Cardew's efforts to politicise culture in Britain were influenced by his relationship with Hardial Bains, the Canadian communist leader and a leading anti-revisionist politician. Bains contributed the lyrics to Cardew's signature song from his later period, We Sing for the Future.

Death[link]

Cardew died on 13 December 1981, the victim of a hit-and-run car accident near his London home in Leyton. The driver was never found.

Musician John Tilbury, in his book Cornelius Cardew—A Life Unfinished suggests that the possibility that Cardew was killed because of his prominent Marxist-Leninist involvement "cannot be ruled out".^[4] Tilbury quotes a friend of Cardew's, John Maharg; "MI5 are quite ruthless; people don't realise it. And they kill pre-emptively".^[5]

A 70th Birthday Anniversary Festival, including live music from all phases of Cardew's career and a symposium on his music, took place on 7 May 2006 at the Cecil Sharpe House in London.

In popular culture[link]

• In 1999 Page 183 of Cardew's Treatise was performed by the experimental rock group Sonic Youth on their album SYR4: Goodbye 20th Century.
• "Cornelius Cardew" is the name of the unemployed pipe-fitter in Alan Moore's Skizz.^[6]
• A character called "Cornelius Cardew" appears (as a caricature of a political radical) in the 1985 film The Shooting Party.
• The German musician and composer Ekkehard Ehlers published a Cardew-inspired work in 2001, titled Ekkehard Ehlers plays Cornelius Cardew, which was released on Staubgold Records.^{[Full citation needed]}
• The US band The Music Lovers name-checked Cardew in the song, "Thank You, Cornelius Cardew". It appears on their 2006 album, The Music Lovers' Guide for Young People.^{[Full citation needed]}
• Controversial Danish/Faroese musician Goodiepal used Treatise to debate abstract notation in his Radical Computer Music lectures.^{[citation needed]}
• The band The Caribbean (band) have written a song entitled "Stockhausen Serves Imperialism".^{[citation needed]}

Selected discography[link]

• The Great Learning Paragraphs 2 and 7 (1971; re-released 2002) (Deutsche Grammophon/Universal Classics 471 572).
• Thälmann Variations (solo piano, rec. 1975 in New York, publ. posthumously, 1986)
• Cornelius Cardew Piano Music musicnow 1991 (the composer; Andrew Ball and John Tilbury, Andrew Bottrill, 79.00)
• We Sing for the Future! Interpretations of two compositions for solo piano (We Sing for the Future!, Thälmann Variations) by Frederic Rzewski (2002) (New Albion)
• Four Principles On Ireland And Other Pieces (Ampersand)
• Treatise (Hat[Now]Art)
• Chamber Music 1955-1964 Apartment House (2001) (Matchless Recordings mrcd45)
• Material (Hat[Now]Art)
• Cornelius Cardew — piano music 1959-70 (1996) John Tilbury (Matchless Recordings mrcd29)
• AMMMUSIC — Cardew as an improviser. With Lou Gare, Eddie Prévost, Lawrence Sheaff and Keith Rowe, London 1966. CD release (ReR Megacorp.)
• AMM The Crypt - 12 June 1968 Cardew as an improviser. With Lou Gare. Christopher Hobbs, Eddie Prévost and Keith Rowe. Double CD. (Matchless Recordings MRCD05)
• AMM LAMINAL Cardew as an improviser. Three CD retrospective AMM box set published in 1996. Cardew performs on one CD, titled The Aarhus Sequences (1969). (Matchless Recordings MRCD31)

References[link]

1. ^ http://www.musicnow.co.uk/composers/cardew.html
2. ^ Cornelius Cardew - composer
3. ^ Liberation Music
4. ^ Tilbury 2008, 1022.
5. ^ Tilbury 2008, ibid.
6. ^ Inane Ramblings of a Demented Predator - Skizz (and Cornelius Cardew)

Further reading[link]

• Aharonián, Coriún. "Cardew as a Basis for a Discussion on Ethical Options". Leonardo Music Journal 11 (2001): 13–15.
• Anderson, Virginia. "Chinese Characters and Experimental Structure in Cornelius Cardew’s The Great Learning" Journal of Experimental Music Studies (uploaded 17 March 2004).
• Anderson, Virginia. "Cornelius Cardew Lives". OpenDemocracy (5 May 2006).
• Bains, Hardial. "The Question Is Really One of Word and Deed" (unpublished speech delivered 21 December 1996, as part of the seminar, "In Commemoration of Cornelius Cardew, 1936-1981", organised by the Progressive Cultural Association)
• Cardew, Cornelius. Cornelius Cardew: A Reader, edited by Edwin Prévost, introduction by Michael Parsons. Harlow, Essex: Copula, 2006. ISBN 0-9525492-2-0. (A collection of Cornelius Cardew's published writings together with commentaries and responses from Richard Barrett, Christopher Fox, Brian Dennis, Anton Lukoszevieze, Michael Nyman, Eddie Prévost, David Ryan, Howard Skempton, Dave Smith, John Tilbury and Christian Wolff.)
• Cardew, Cornelius, ed. Scratch Music ISBN 0-262-53025-2. (Scratch Orchestra draft constitution, notes, scores, catalogue, and 1001 Activities.)
• Clark, Philip. "Cornelius Cardew: Schematic for the People". The Wire (November 2009): 30–33.
• Eno, Brian. "Generating and Organizing Variety in the Arts". In Audio Culture: Readings in Modern Music, edited by Christoph Cox and Daniel Warner,^{[page needed]}. New York and London: Continuum Books, 2005. (A study of "Paragraph 7" of The Great Learning.)
• Fox, Edward. "Death of a Dissident". The Independent Magazine (9 May 1992): 24–30.
• Marko, Vladimir. "Cornelius Cardew—od Ludwiga Wittgensteina do Mao Tse-Tunga" [Cornelius Cardew—From Ludwig Wittgenstein to Mao Tse-Tung]. Scena: časopis za pozorišnu umetnost no. 4, 2006.
• Nyman, Michael. Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
• Parsons, Michael. "The Scratch Orchestra and the Visual Arts". Leonardo Music Journal 11 (2001): 5–11.
• Schonfield, Victor. "Cornelius Cardew, AMM, and the Path to Perfect Hearing". Jazz Monthly 159 (May 1968): 10–11..
• Taylor, Timothy D. "Moving in Decency: The Music and Radical Politics of Cornelius Cardew" Music & Letters 79, no.4 (November 1998): 555–76.
• Tilbury, John. "Cornelius Cardew" Contact no. 26 (Spring 1983): 4-12
• Tilbury, John. "The Experimental Years: A View from the Left" Contact 22 (1981): 16-21. Reprinted online in Journal of Experimental Music Studies (17 March 2004).
• Tilbury, John. Cornelius Cardew: A Life Unfinished Harlow: Copula, an imprint of Matchless Recordings and Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-0-9525492-3-9 (cloth), ISBN 978-0-9525492-4-6 (pbk)
• Varela, Daniel. "‘A Question of Language’: Frederic Rzewski in conversation about Cornelius Cardew" Journal of Experimental Music Studies.

External links[link]

• Cornelius Cardew on British Composers Project
• Information and CD of Peoples Liberation Music
• UbuWEB Historical: Cornelius Cardew (includes PDF of Stockhausen Serves Imperialism and commentary by Kyle Gann.)
• Cornelius Cardew on Matchless Recordings Includes the Cornelius Cardew Reader, and recordings with AMM and of his piano works by John Tilbury
• UbuWEB: Cornelius Cardew Cornelius Cardew Memorial Concert (1985)
• UbuWEB Papers: Toward an Ethic of Improvisation by Cornelius Cardew (1971)
• An online animated analysis of Treatise at the Block Museum Website
• Online recordings of Treatise by the Seattle Improv Meeting
• Online recordings of "Treatise" by Matt Smiley
• Thomas Bey William Bailey. "A Sound Artist's Critique of 'Stockhausen Serves Imperialism'" (January 2007) at Belsona Strategic record label site
• Cornelius Cardew et la liberté de l'écoute: exhibition and concert series presented at CAC Brétigny (France) curated by Jean Jacques Palix and Dean Inkster (2009)
• Piano Music of the 1970s at UbuWeb
• "Cornelius Cardew: Works 1960-70" Recorded by John Tilbury, Michael Francis Duch and Rhodri Davies

Tommy Lee
Tommy Lee, Hollywood, CA, on March 20, 2012
Background information
Birth name	Thomas Lee Bass
Born	(1962-10-03) October 3, 1962 (age 49) Athens, Greece
Genres	Heavy metal, hard rock, glam metal, alternative metal, rap metal, electrohouse, progressive house
Occupations	Musician, songwriter, drummer, DJ
Instruments	Drums, piano, vocals, guitar, keyboards, bass, turntables
Years active	1981–present
Labels	Leathür, Elektra, MCA
Associated acts	Mötley Crüe, Methods of Mayhem, Rock Star Supernova, Fuel, Deadmau5, Sum 41, Jack's Mannequin, Rob Zombie, DJ Aero
Website	tommylee.com
Notable instruments
Pearl Drums Zildjian Cymbals Ahead Sticks Remo Drum Heads MacBook Pro Schecter Guitar Research Randall Amplifiers

Thomas Lee Bass (born October 3, 1962), best known as Tommy Lee, is an American musician and founding member of glam metal band Mötley Crüe. As well as being the band's long-term drummer, Lee founded rap-metal band Methods of Mayhem, and has pursued solo musical projects. He has been married to model Elaine Bergen and actresses Heather Locklear and Pamela Anderson.

Early life[link]

Lee was born on October 3, in Athens, Greece, as Thomas Lee Bass,^[1] the son of David Oliver Bass, a US Army serviceman of Welsh descent,^[2] and Vassiliki Papadimitriou, a 1957 Miss Greece contestant. His family moved to West Covina, California one year after his birth. He received his first drum when he was four and his first drum kit when he was a teenager. Lee has one younger sister, Athena Lee (Athena Michelle Bass, b. 1964), who was married to James Kottak, the drummer for the band Scorpions and she was also the drummer of his solo band KrunK.

As a teen he listened to Queen, Kiss, Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin and Judas Priest. After listening to Kiss, his main drum influence became Peter Criss. After transferring from South Hills High School (West Covina, California); he joined the marching band at Royal Oak High School (now Royal Oak Middle School) in Covina, California.

Music career[link]

His first successful band Suite 19 played the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles during the late 1970s. At this time he met future bandmate, Nikki Sixx. Casually, Sixx was forming a theatrical band that would specialize in anthemic heavy metal, and was impressed by Lee's drumming. At this time, he changed his name to Tommy Lee and earned the nickname "T-bone" due to his 6′ 2½″ height and his skinny physique. Shortly afterward, guitarist Mick Mars joined the band. Mars recommended a singer Tommy had met while in high school, Vince Neil, who soon joined the group, and Mötley Crüe was formed.^{[citation needed]}

Mötley Crüe[link]

Mötley Crüe from left to right: Nikki Sixx, Lee, Mick Mars, and Vince Neil.

Mötley Crüe quickly built a strong fan base and they released their debut album Too Fast for Love in 1981, on their own independent label (Leathür Records). Elektra Records decided to sign the band shortly thereafter, reissuing their debut in 1982. The band then began a string of hit releases throughout the decade—1983's Shout at the Devil, 1985's Theatre of Pain, 1987's Girls, Girls, Girls, and 1989's Dr. Feelgood-establishing the quartet as one of the biggest hard rock/metal bands of the '80s.

Lee used several memorable gimmicks during his drum solos at concerts, such as having his entire kit revolving and spinning, or having the entire kit float above the crowd while he continued to play. He was legendary for mooning the crowd at nearly every show. The band was known for their decadent behavior both on and offstage, often consuming excessive amounts of drugs, such as cocaine, heroin, pills and alcohol.

In 2004, Lee reunited with the original Mötley Crüe line-up to release the double-disc album of hits entitled Red, White & Crüe, which went quad platinum and launched a monumental reunion tour to support it, The Red, White & Crüe Tour 2005: Better Live Than Dead, the band's first in six years. They finished the year number 8 on the top concert money earners list. They played 81 shows and grossed $33 million US (Billboard Boxscore).

Solo career[link]

Lee at Digital Playground Party on September 22, 2004.

Tommy Lee came back once with Motley Crüe to go on the Crüe's Greatest Hits tour in 1999. With the popularity of rap metal, Lee formed a band called Methods of Mayhem. The band released a self-titled album the same year and toured in support of it. Although Lee distanced himself from Mötley Crüe after splitting, he agreed to take part in their 2001 autobiography, The Dirt. In addition to Mötley Crüe and Methods of Mayhem, Lee has made guest appearances on albums by other artists, such as Stuart Hamm, Nine Inch Nails and Rob Zombie. He also contributed a song, "Planet Boom" (originally on Mötley Crüe's Quaternary EP) to the soundtrack of then-wife Pamela Anderson's 1996 movie, Barb Wire, and produced an album for the pre-Goldfinger project from John Feldmann and Simon Williams, the Electric Love Hogs.^[3] Lee parted ways with Methods of Mayhem partner Tilo and began recording with members of Incubus. He then released his first solo album. The album, 2002's Never a Dull Moment, has tones of rap metal and electronica. The song "Blue" features guest vocalist Rodleen Getsic (the credits read: "Rolleen"). In August 2002, Tommy Lee and his solo band joined Ozzfest, mainstage. In 2006, he formed a new band called Rock Star Supernova with Jason Newsted (Voivod, ex-Metallica) and Gilby Clarke (ex-Guns N' Roses).

The 2006 season of Rock Star selected Lukas Rossi as the lead singer for Supernova. Dilana, Magni Ásgeirsson, and Toby Rand with his own band Juke Kartel were the three runners up and accepted an offer to go on tour with Supernova. The self titled debut album Rock Star Supernova was released on November 21, 2006.

Lee released his autobiography, Tommyland and his second solo album, Tommyland: The Ride in 2005. The CD featured as a soundtrack to the book and includes the singles, "Tryin to be Me", "Good Times" which was the theme song to his reality TV series "Tommy Lee Goes to College"^[4] and "Hello, Again" which features Andrew McMahon from Something Corporate and Jack's Mannequin. Tommy Lee was also a guest DJ at WXRK "K-Rock" in New York during the Fourth of July Monster Metal Meltdown in 2005.^{[citation needed]}

Lee also recorded drum tracks for the alternative rock band Jack's Mannequin, which has released the album Everything in Transit.

Lee with Criss Angel at the 2007 Scream Awards.

In November 2007, it was announced by Nikki Sixx that Tommy Lee was no longer a member of Mötley Crüe. Lee reportedly quit after the rest of the band sued his manager, Carl Stubner, for forcing Tommy to take part in reality TV shows, thus forcing the cancellation of a lengthy leg of Crüe tourdates in 2006. Lee already quit once in 2007 in September before returning to the band. Vince Neil refuted the claims that Tommy Lee resigned from the band and that the band would be going into the studio in January to start recording their newest studio album. In the end, Tommy Lee did end up recording the new album, Saints of Los Angeles, and toured with Crüe in 2008 in their tour, Crüefest. Mötley Crüe is now on their Saints of Los Angeles Tour, which started on February 2, which includes Lee. This tour will be followed by Crüfest 2.^{[citation needed]}

Tommy Lee's current artistic endeavors include touring as an electronic dance music DJ with his Methods Of Mayhem DJ/production partner, DJ Aero (birth name: Chester Deitz). As DJs, they are also known as Electro Mayhem and have clocked over 60 club dates as DJs throughout North America (with stops in the Bahamas and Central America) in 2007 alone, with more international dates planned for 2008 (including a stop in Iceland). Lee and Aero debuted as DJs on the mainstage at Ultra Music Festival during Winter Music Conference (WMC) in 2004. Lee and Aero have been DJing together since 2000, and they will again have a major presence at Miami's WMC in 2008. In 2009, Lee appeared in select cities with Sharam, one half of Grammy Award nominated and Grammy Award winning Deep Dish, accompanying Sharam live on the piano during his house DJ sets. Lee and DJ Aero also accompanied deadmau5 in his 2011 Meowington Hax tour.

In an interview held backstage at the 2009 Download Festival, Tommy Lee confirmed that he is currently working on his yet-to-be-named third solo album. It is expected to be released sometime in 2010. On June 27, 2010 Tommy played drums for Ludacris at the BET Awards 2010. On March 25, 2010, he co-presented the International Dance Music Awards (IDMA) along with Roger Sanchez and DJ Rap.

Television career[link]

In 2004, Lee briefly attended, but did not enroll in, the University of Nebraska for a few weeks in the fall of 2004, while filming a reality television show for NBC called Tommy Lee Goes to College. The show featured a "fish-out-of-water" premise as it followed Lee's effort to fit into the collegiate experience, including trying out for the marching band (as a drummer), taking courses in horticulture, chemistry, and literature, and receiving constant support from a sexy and smart tutor.

Lee was also one of the producers of the show. In spring 2008, Lee commenced filming another reality TV show with rapper Ludacris for Planet Green (Discovery Channel's 24-hour eco-friendly network) titled,"Battleground Earth". The show focuses on environmental challenges between Lee and Ludacris to raise awareness for green causes. The Planet Green shows aired through until September 2008.

In June 2010, it was announced that Lee would guest-star in an episode of Californication as a singer.^[5] Also in 2010, Lee appeared on an episode of the Comedy Central show, Tosh.0.

Personal life[link]

Relationships[link]

Lee was married to Elaine Bergen in 1984; they divorced after one month.^[6]

In 1986, Lee married actress Heather Locklear. The couple divorced in 1993.

In 1995, he married actress and Playboy Playmate Pamela Anderson (1995–98). They have two children. Anderson and Lee married only four days after meeting, after Lee pursued her while she was on vacation with a friend. They wed on a beach, Anderson wearing only a white bikini. The couple divorced in 1998. Although divorced, the couple reunited briefly upon his release from prison but eventually split again.

In 2008 it was announced that he and Pamela Anderson were back together and living with each other and their children.^[7]

Sex tape[link]

Lee and Anderson had videotaped their sexual activities while on vacation. The video was stolen in 1995 and released on the Internet, becoming a prime example of viral pornography. According to The Dirt, Tommy Lee says that he was having work done at his house, and a person (who, according to the book, was a former porn star) working at the house found the tape and sold it. Anderson sued the video distribution company, Internet Entertainment Group. Ultimately, the Lees entered into a confidential settlement agreement with IEG. Thereafter, the company began making the tape available to subscribers to its Web sites again, resulting in triple the normal traffic on the site.^[8]

Legal issues[link]

Lee served four months in prison after pleading no contest to kicking Pamela Anderson while she was holding their son Dylan.^[9]

Lee suffered a 1998 lawsuit when he exposed a swastika tattoo on his arm to public scrutiny (the tattoo was in fact a swastika facing backwards). In 1996, Lee had pled no contest to criminal charges of battery against a Jewish photographer after Lee attacked the man outside the famous Viper Room, in L.A. When the photographer sued Lee, the "swastika" tattoo (which has since been removed) was said to be visible and Lee’s lawyer argued it would inflame the jury and create unfair prejudice against Lee.^[10] Shortly after claiming that the introduction of the tattoo into the court record would produce prejudice, Lee denied its existence.^[11] Lee's attorney reported the swastika was a “stupid tattoo obtained several years ago”.^[12]

In October 1999, Tommy Lee was arrested in North Carolina after instigating a riot during the 1997 concert at Greensboro Coliseum. Mötley Crüe bassist Nikki Sixx allegedly made racist comments to a black security guard, suggesting that the crowd attack him. Sixx and Lee were said to have poured beer over the guard's head.^[13]

On June 16, 2001, four-year-old Daniel Karven-Veres drowned in Lee's swimming pool while attending a birthday party for Lee's 5-year-old son, Brandon. His parents, James Veres and Ursula Karven, sued Lee for negligence. Lee was cleared by a jury in April 2003.^[14]

In September 2007, Lee was kicked out of the MTV Video Music Awards ceremony after engaging in a fight with Kid Rock.^[15][16] Kid Rock was cited for assault on Lee and pled guilty.^[17]

Activism[link]

Tommy Lee is a supporter of animal rights and PETA.^[18] He made a donation to support PETA's campaign against Kentucky Fried Chicken.

Equipment[link]

Drums[link]

• Pearl
  • 18x26 bass drum
  • 6.5x14 snare
  • 11x14 rack tom
  • 11x14 floor tom
  • 14x16 floor tom

Tommy uses the Pearl Tru-Trac drum heads, a Electronic vibe/ triggers. On the 2011 and current (2012) Tour Tommy is using his Pearl Drums rollercoaster drum set. They all are mounted in place while doing his (360 Drum Solo) in which he plays drums upside down!.

Cymbals[link]

• Avedis Zildjian
  • 14" Z Custom Splash
  • 15" A Rock HiHats
  • 15" A New Beat HiHats
  • 18" Z Custom Projection Crash
  • 19" Z Custom Medium Crash
  • 20" A Custom Medium Crash
  • 20" Z Custom Ride
  • 9.5" Large Zil Bell
  • 22" Oriental China Trash

Hardware[link]

• Pearl Demon Double Bass Drum Pedals.
• 9500 Hi-Hat Stand
• 9300 Snare Drum Stand (x2)
• 9900 Double Tom Stand
• 9700 Cymbal Stand (x5)
• 9100 Drum Throne

Sticks[link]

• Vic Firth (1980's-1990's)
• AHEAD Tommy Lee signature drum sticks, Silver Sleves. (2000-present)

Album discography[link]

Solo[link]

Mötley Crüe[link]

• Too Fast for Love (1981) Platinum US US #40
• Shout at the Devil (1983) 4x Platinum US US #10
• Theatre of Pain (1985) 4x Platinum US US #6
• Girls, Girls, Girls (1987) 4x Platinum US US #2
• Dr. Feelgood (1989) 6x Platinum US US #1
• Decade of Decadence compilation (1991) 2x Platinum US US #2
• Mötley Crüe (1994) Gold US US #7
• Quaternary EP (1994)
• Generation Swine (1997) Gold US US #4
• Greatest Hits (1998) compilation Gold US US #20
• Supersonic and Demonic Relics compilation (1999)
• Live: Entertainment or Death live album (1999) US #133
• Millennium Collection (2003)
• Music To Crash Your Car To, Volume 1 box set (2003)
• Music To Crash Your Car To, Volume 2 box set (2004)
• Red, White & Crüe compilation (2005) Platinum US US #6
• Carnival of Sins Live, Vol. 1 live album (2006)
• Carnival of Sins Live, Vol. 2 live album (2006)
• Saints of Los Angeles (2008) Gold US US #4
• Mötley Crüe: Greatest Hits (2009)

Methods of Mayhem[link]

• Methods of Mayhem (1999) Gold US US #71
• A Public Disservice Announcement (2010) US #153

Rock Star Supernova[link]

• Rock Star Supernova (2006) US #101

Guest performances[link]

• Rush Street (1991) - Richard Marx
• The Urge (1991) - Stuart Hamm
• The Downward Spiral (1994) - Nine Inch Nails
• Whore (1996) - Dalbello (drums on "Revenge of Sleeping Beauty" track; remark by Sergey Lavrov)
• Hellbilly Deluxe (1998) - Rob Zombie
• The Sinister Urge (2001) - Rob Zombie
• Everything in Transit (2005) - Jack's Mannequin
• Angels & Devils (2007) - Fuel

Singles[link]

References[link]

1. ^ "Miss Greece in 1957". http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/NewFashion/MissGreece.html. Retrieved 2010-05-23. 
2. ^ "Biography for Tommy Lee (VI)". imdb.com. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0005136/bio. Retrieved 2010-05-27. 
3. ^ "Electric Love Hogs In The Studio With Tommy Lee". Youtube. 2008-03-12. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0K88GFEJCGc. Retrieved 2010-02-06. 
4. ^ "Tommy Lee Goes to College soundtrack". http://top40-charts.com/news.php?nid=18859. 2011
5. ^ "Tommy Lee to Appear on Californication". TVGuide.com. http://www.tvguide.com/News/Tommy-Lee-Californication-1019722.aspx. 
6. ^ Michelle Green (1986-05-26). Dynasty's Heather Locklear Takes a Motley Mate, the Hard-Rocking Tommy Lee. People. Accessed 2010-12-15.
7. ^ Wells, Melody S. (2008-06-13). "Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee Back Together Again, but mostly for the chlidren". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20206681,00.html. Retrieved 2008-06-16. 
8. ^ Pelline, Jeff (1997-12-01). "Pamela Lee drops video case". CNET News. CBS Interactive. http://news.cnet.com/Pamela-Lee-drops-video-case/2100-1023_3-205848.html?tag=mncol. Retrieved 2010-08-02. 
9. ^ The Sun-Herald (2002-06-24). "The trials of Tommy Lee". The Sydney Morning Herald. http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/06/23/1023864527266.html. Retrieved 2011-05-29. 
10. ^ "Swastika tattoo controversy". Mtv.com. 1998-04-02. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1432392/19980402/lee_tommy.jhtml. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 
11. ^ "News - Lee denies tattoo of swastika". Mtv.com. 1998-04-06. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1432391/19980406/lee_tommy.jhtml. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 
12. ^ "News Lite : Judge Backs Jury In Spelling Case". Thefreelibrary.com. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/NEWS+LITE+:+JUDGE+BACKS+JURY+IN+SPELLING+CASE-a083817255. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 
13. ^ Sorelle Saidman (September 7, 1999). Tommy Lee Gets Naked, Nikki Sixx Gets Arrested... Again. mtv.com. Accessed 2011-04-04.
14. ^ "Tommy Lee cleared in boy's drowning death". Courttv.com. http://www.courttv.com/trials/tommylee/verdict_ctv.html. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 
15. ^ "E! Online". E! Online. 2007-09-10. http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b56122_Kid_Rock_Tommy_Lee_Rock_n_Brawl_at_VMAs.html. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 
16. ^ Rodriguez, Jayson (2007-09-10). "MTV News". Mtv.com. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1569305/20070910/lee_tommy.jhtml. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 
17. ^ "Kid Rock Cited for Misdemeanor Assault". Moono.com (UGO Networks). 2007-09-11. http://www.moono.com/news/news05595.html. Retrieved 2008-07-22. 
18. ^ "Tommy Lee: "Ink, Not Mink"". http://www.peta.org.uk/feat/inknotmink.asp. Retrieved 2011-10-21. 

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Tommy Lee

• Official website
• Mötley Crüe Videos
• Tommy Lee: The luckiest man alive? Hustler Magazine
• Tommy Lee co-hosts Battleground Earth on Planet Green
• Hollywood A-List News: Tommy Lee
• Rock Star SuperNova official site
• Rock Star SuperNova official site on SonyBMG
• Tommy Lee at the Internet Movie Database
• Ink Not Mink Interview with PETA
• Tommy Lee Interview DJ Interview Clubplanet